MemoryChapter 8

Memory

Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time.

It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

Information Processing

The Atkinson-Schiffrin three stage model of memory includes; 1)Sensory Memory, 2)Short-Term Memory, 3)Long-Term Memory

Modifications to the 3 Stage Model

Some information skips the first two stages and enters long term memory automatically.

Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.

Working Memory – a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Encoding: Getting Information In

How We Encode

Some information (your route to school) is automatically processed.

However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell phone number) requires attention and effort.

Automatic Processing

We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following.

Space – while reading a book, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.

Time – we unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.

Frequency – you effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

Effortful Processing

Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.

Rehearsal

Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.

Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables TUV OF GEK XOZ

Rehearsal

The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day #1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day #2.

Memory Effects

Spacing Effect – we retain information better when we rehearse over time.

Serial Position Effect – when you recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

What We Encode

Encoding by Meaning Processing the meaning of verbal

information by associating it with what we already know or imagine.

Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

What We Encode

Visual Encoding Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to

effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.

Showing adverse effects of smoking may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

Mnemonics

Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.

Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory.

Remembering the Planets

Organizing Information for Encoding

Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories.

Chunking Organizing items into familiar manageable unit Phone Numbers 412-749-6000 HOMES – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

Hierarchies

Storage: Retaining Information

Sensory Memory – the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information.

Short-Term Memory – activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing.

Working Memory – a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory – the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Sensory Memories

The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.

Iconic0.5 sec. long

Echoic3-4 sec. long

Hepatic< 1 sec. long

Sensory Memory

The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.

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Time (Seconds)

Working Memory

The new name for short-term memory.

Has a limited capacity of 7+/- 2 items.

Duration of about 20 seconds

Let’s Test Your Capacity

I’m going to show you a list of letters for 20 seconds.

Let’s see how many you can remember.

Ready…

MUTGIKTLRSYP

Capacity

Was your total 7 plus or minus 2?

Chunking

Chunking – organizing items into familiar, manageable units, this often occurs automatically.

F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M

FBI – TWA – CIA – IBM

Chunking

Try this one.

Ready…

Chunking

5934794397

Duration

Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating an individual’s rehearsal.

The duration of working memory is about 20 seconds.

Long-Term Memory

Essentially has unlimited storage capacity.

The Clark’s Nutcracker can hide, then later locate 6,000 buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

Feats of Memory

Information Processing

Encoding – the process of information into the memory system.

Storage – the retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval – the process of getting information out of memory storage.

Memory Stores

Storing Memories in the Brain

Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were etched into the brain and found that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks.

Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.

Kandel & Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning.

Synaptic Changes

Long-Term Potentiation – refers to synaptic enhancement after learning. (LTP)

An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses.

Stress Hormones & Memory

Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.

Flashbulb Memories - clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.

Amygdala- 2 emotion processing clusters. Boost activity and proteins in the memory forming areas.

Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories

Explicit Memory – refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

Implicit Memory – involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what he/she knows.

*Amnesia and the tack.

Implicit & Explicit Memory

Hippocampus

Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories.

No New MemoriesMemory Intact Surgery

*What does his memory consist of now?

Implicit Memory

HM is unable to make new memories that are explicit (declarative), but he can form new memories that are implicit (procedural).

HM learned the Tower of Hanoi game after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game.

CBA

Cerebellum

Cerebellum – a neural center in the rear of the brain that processes implicit memories.

Amnesia Patient and the tack.

Damage to the Cerebellum eliminates learned reflexes.

*Activity

Measures of Memory-Recognition

In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices.

A multiple choice test requires recognition.

1. Name the Capital of France.

1. Brussels

2. Rome

3. London

4. Paris

Measures of Memory- Recall

In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort.

A fill-in-the-blank question requires recall.

1. The capital of France is ________.

Famous People Slides

Measures of Memory- Relearning

In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time.

ListJetDaggerTreeKite…SilkFrogRing

It took 10 trialsto learn this list

1 day later

ListJetDaggerTreeKite…SilkFrogRing

It took 5 trialsto learn the list

Retrieval Cues

Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.

Fire Smell Smoke

Heat FIRE TRUCK Truck

Red

Water Hose

Priming- awakening associations

Say these letters out loud

S-H-O-P What do you do at a green light?

Priming

To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it.

Context Effects

Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land.

Context Effects

After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context.

Deja Vu

Deja Vu means “already seen.”

Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

Moods & Memories

We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current moods (state-dependent memory).

Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.

Fruits1

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Vegetables1

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5

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Teachers1

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Now put them in alphabetical order and rank them from most favorite(1) to least favorite(10)Compare your ranking list to your original list.

Pollyanna Principle

Pleasant items and events are usually processed more efficiently and accurately than less pleasant ones.

“When a feeling was there, they felt as if it would never go; when it was gone, they felt as if it had never been; when it returned, they felt as if it had never gone.”

-Gearge MacDonald,

“What’s Mine’s Mine, 1886

Forgetting

An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.

We cannot remember what we do not encode.

Encoding Failure

What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag?

What is the color of the bottom stripe? How many red stripes? How many white stripes?

Most wooden pencils are not round, how many sides do they typically have?

In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch?

What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S. coins?

Red

Red. 7 Red. 6 white

(six)

right

United States of America

Storage Decay

Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay.

The Forgetting Curve

Retrieval Failure

Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.

Tip of the tongue forgetting is a retrieval failure.

Given a cue – What makes blood cells red?

The subject says – The word begins with H (Hemoglobin)

Interference

Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information.

Retroactive Interference

Retroactive Interference – the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Sleep prevents retroactive interference, therefore, sleeping leads to better recall.

Proactive Interference

Proactive Interference – the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

Motivated Forgetting

Motivated Forgetting – people unknowingly revise their memories.

Repression – a defense mechanism that banishes anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Sigmund Freud

Why do we Forget?

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.

We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.

Frederick Bartlett’s ConstructiveMemory Processes-

Leveling- Material in the story gets simplified, because the teller makes judgments about which details are important.

Sharpening- The teller also makes judgments about what information is important, and highlights or overemphasizes details.

Assimilation- The teller also changes details for a better fit with his her own background or knowledge.

Memory Construction

While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.

Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

Let’s Try It…

Depiction of an Accident

Misinformation

Group A – How fast were the cars going when they HIT each other?

Group B – How fast were the cars going when they SMASHED INTO each other?

Memory Construction

A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass?

Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

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Group A (hit) Group B (Smashed into)

Verb

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Source Amnesia

Source Amnesia – attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined. Misatribution

Children’s Eyewitness Recall

Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed.

However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases.

In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse. Are memories of abuse constructed? Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood

sexual abuse results in repressed memories. However, other psychologists question such beliefs and

think that such memories may be constructed.

Constructed Memories

Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.

Improving Memories Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the

material. Make material personally meaningful. Use mnemonic devices. Activate retrieval cues – mental recreation. Recall events while they are fresh. Minimize interference.