medicinal plants used by women in mecca: urban, muslim and
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Medicinal plants used by women in Mecca: urban, Muslim and gendered knowledge Article
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Alqethami, A., Hawkins, J. A. and Teixidor Toneu, I. (2017) Medicinal plants used by women in Mecca: urban, Muslim and gendered knowledge. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 13. 62. ISSN 17464269 doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s1300201701934 Available at http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/73928/
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RESEARCH Open Access
Medicinal plants used by women in Mecca:urban, Muslim and gendered knowledgeAfnan Alqethami1,2*, Julie A. Hawkins1 and Irene Teixidor-Toneu1
Abstract
Background: This study explores medicinal plant knowledge and use among Muslim women in the city of Mecca,Saudi Arabia. Ethnobotanical research in the region has focused on rural populations and male herbal healers incities, and based on these few studies, it is suggested that medicinal plant knowledge may be eroding. Here, wedocument lay, female knowledge of medicinal plants in an urban centre, interpreting findings in the light of thegrowing field of urban ethnobotany and gendered knowledge and in an Islamic context.
Methods: Free-listing, structured and semi-structured interviews were used to document the extent of medicinalplant knowledge among 32 Meccan women. Vernacular names, modes of preparation and application, intendedtherapeutic use and emic toxicological remarks were recorded. Women were asked where they learnt aboutmedicinal plants and if and when they preferred using medicinal plants over biomedical resources. Prior informed consentwas always obtained. We compared the list of medicinal plants used by these Meccan women with medicinal plantspreviously documented in published literature.
Results: One hundred eighteen vernacular names were collected, corresponding to approximately 110 plants, includingone algae. Of these, 95 were identified at the species level and 39 (41%) had not been previously cited in Saudi Arabianmedicinal plant literature. Almost one half of the plants cited are food and flavouring plants. Meccan women interviewedlearn about medicinal plants from their social network, mass media and written sources, and combine biomedical andmedicinal plant health care. However, younger women more often prefer biomedical resources and learn from writtensources and mass media.
Conclusions: The fairly small number of interviews conducted in this study was sufficient to reveal the singular body ofmedicinal plant knowledge held by women in Mecca and applied to treat common ailments. Plant availability in localshops and markets and inclusion in religious texts seem to shape the botanical diversity used by the Meccan womeninterviewed, and the use of foods and spices medicinally could be a global feature of urban ethnobotany. Ethnobotanicalknowledge among women in Islamic communities may be changing due to access to mass media and biomedicine. Werecognise the lack of documentation of the diversity of medicinal plant knowledge in the Arabian Peninsula and anopportunity to better understand gendered urban and rural knowledge.
Keywords: Ethnobotany, Saudi Arabia, Islam, Transmission, Food-medicine continuum
BackgroundThe use of medicinal plants in urban environmentsCurrently, more people live in cities than in rural areas,and urban populations continue to grow: by 2050, twothirds of the world’s population will live in cities [1].
Urbanisation brings new health challenges resultingfrom ease of contagion, maintenance of disease due tohigh population densities and stress-related ailments [2].Although biomedicine is often easily available in urbansettings, traditional medicines can still be the most con-venient and affordable health care resource [2, 3]. Simi-lar to people in rural areas, urban dwellers can hold richmedicinal plant knowledge. Recent studies evidence thedynamism and adaptive nature of urban medicinal plant
* Correspondence: [email protected] of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology (EEB), Harborne Building,School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights, ReadingRG6 6AS, UK2Department of Biology, Faculty of Applied Science, Umm Al-Qura University,PO Box 715, Mecca 21955, Saudi Arabia
© The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link tothe Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 DOI 10.1186/s13002-017-0193-4
knowledge (e.g. [3–7]), challenging views that suchknowledge is lost in cities.Since Balick et al. [4] noted a lack of ethnobotanical
studies in urban areas, urban ethnobotany has flour-ished. Ethnobotanical surveys in cities have focused on is-sues such as the change of plant use by internationalimmigrants [4, 6, 8–12] or the ethnobotanical diversityfound in urban and peri-urban markets [13–15] and homegardens [16, 17]. With few exceptions [7, 14, 15], thesestudies are set in Northern and Western countries. Citiesin other parts of the world are equally dynamic plantknowledge hubs, and some have played an important rolein the trade of medicinal plant material and knowledgehistorically. This is the case of cities along the silk andincense trade routes in the Middle East [18–20].
Women’s medicinal plant knowledgeSeveral studies across the world have reported the pivotalrole of women as holders of medicinal plant knowledge[21–28]. Medicinal plant knowledge is often women’s cul-tural domain because of the role women play in providinghousehold care [21–23, 29, 30]. It also stems from gen-dered labour and spaces, which affect plant resource har-vesting and management [21, 22, 26]. Women are oftenmore knowledgeable about medicinal plant identificationand use than are men [21, 23–25], and their knowledgecan be epistemologically different [22].Moreover, the documentation of traditional knowledge
as part of plant biodiversity research has historicallybeen gender-biased towards men, which can result inmisleading and incomplete results [22, 31, 32]. BothHoward [22] and Pfeiffer and Butz [32] claim that focuson male specialists, such as shamans and herbalists, hasignored a wealth of lay, female plant knowledge inethnobotanical research. Historically, ethnobotanistshave been predominantly male, which hampered theiraccess to women’s knowledge in societies where men aregranted greater public access than women [32]. Theseconsiderations are particularly important in conductingethnobotanical research in the Islamic world, where gen-dered spaces and networks are particularly strong.Women in urban Islamic contexts have so far gone un-noticed by ethnobotanical enquiry, although they are themain medicinal plant users in Saudi Arabian cities [33].
Islam and medicinal plantsIn the Arabian Peninsula, where this study took place,the use of local plant diversity for medicines is part ofthe cultural heritage [34, 35] and is currently embeddedin Islamic medicinal practices. Islamic medicine inte-grates ancient Greek medicine, which first arrived to theIslamic world through translations of the works of Hip-pocrates, Dioscorides and Galen [36], with the teachings
of the Prophet Mohamed (Hadith) referring to health,disease and medical treatment that became known as‘The Medicine of the Prophet’ [37, 38]. From ancientGreek medicine, understandings of the functioning ofthe body through the humoral system and the view ofdisease as a loss of balance became part of Islamic medi-cine [37, 39, 40]. Arabian physicians, such as Al Razi,Ibn Sina, Aby Al Kassin Al Zahrawi, Ibn Rushd and IbnNaffs, further developed medicine as a scientificdiscipline in the Middle Ages [36].Islamic religious practices generate specific cultural
behaviours that aim to preserve health, and early Islamicmedical tradition focused on preventive rather thantherapeutic medicine [37–39]. Beliefs in jinni and EvilEye as causes of illness are also common in the Arabworld [29, 36, 40]. These magical features are possibly el-ements of the Bedouin world view that became legitimisedby the Quran and the Hadith [40]. Stemming from reli-gious teachings, Islamic medicine has a holistic view ofhealth, where physical, spiritual, psychological, social andenvironmental factors are intertwined [38, 39]. The main-tenance of health and recovery from illness are both aphysical and spiritual process, underpinned by the beliefin God [38, 39].
Study aimsWhilst medicinal plant uses are under-documented inthe Middle East [41, 42] and a trend of loss ofethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal knowledge is ob-served in this area [36, 43], the extent of medicinal plantknowledge held by urban women remains unknown.The aim of this study was to document urban women’smedicinal plant knowledge in an Islamic context, identi-fying the plant species used. Additionally, modes oftransmission of knowledge were evaluated, evidence forchange noted. The extent to which women’s medicinalplant knowledge has been under-documented was in-ferred by comparing results from free-listing and semi-structured interviews conducted with women in Meccato selected published literature on medicinal plants usedin Saudi Arabia.
MethodsResearch setting: Mecca as a study siteThe city of Mecca (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) is locatedin a narrow valley 80 km south of Jeddah on the Red Seacoast, west of the Arabian Peninsula (Fig. 1). The city isthe capital of the Mecca region, neighbouring the re-gions of Medina in the north, Baha and Asir in the southand Al-Riyad in the east. The region of Mecca is situatedin a subtropical dry environment [44]; its vegetation isdominated by xerophytic species and composed of floristic
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 2 of 24
elements from the Saharo-Arabian, Irano-Turanian andSudano-Zambian biogeographical regions [45].Mecca was the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad
and the site of the first Quranic revelation. It is regardedas the most holy city in Islam and the pilgrimage toMecca, known as Hajj, is obligatory for all able Muslims.Due to the high numbers of pilgrims travelling toMecca, the city is the most culturally diverse in theIslamic world. Saudi Arabians may use both traditionalherbal and biomedical treatments [34, 36, 45], and a widerange of health care resources are available in Mecca:from traditional medicines and healers ([45], Al-Qethami,pers. obs), to modern biomedical care provided by theSaudi government for free to all Muslims.
Conducting interviews with Meccan womenThe ethical guidelines of the Code of Ethics of theInternational Society of Ethnobiology [46], the Declar-ation of Helsinki [47] and University of Reading ethicalprotocols were followed in this research. Approval fromthe Ethics Committee of the School of Biological Sciences,University of Reading, was obtained (Research EthicsProject Submission SBS15-16 11).Meccan women were interviewed by the first author
from May to June 2016; individual free-listing and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 32 femaleadults. Targeted sampling was used for selecting
informants who use medicinal plants [48] from the firstauthor’s social network. Snowball sampling was laterused to identify other local women who use medicinalplants [49]. All the informants were born in the Meccaregion, with ages ranging between 28 and 69 years old(see Table 1 for the informants’ anonymous social data).Although older informants may hold further knowledge,interviews were conducted until a saturation of informa-tion was reached. Prior informed consent was obtainedverbally from each woman before they were interviewed.Interviews were conducted in Arabic and recorded whenthe agreement from the informants was obtained (n = 9).Firstly, women were asked to list the medicinal plantsthey knew, documenting plant names. Then, semi-structured interviews were used to elucidate the partsused, therapeutic uses, preparation and administrationprocesses (including use in mixtures) and perceptions ofpotential toxicity and side effects of plants used. More-over, women were asked about how they had acquiredthis knowledge, if medicinal plants or biomedicine werepreferred and when medicinal plants where preferredover biomedicine. The resulting ethnographic data wereuseful to understand women’s attitudes, beliefs andtherapeutic goals underpinning medicinal plant use.
Analysis of medicinal plant’s salienceData collected during interviews were structured in ‘usereports’. A ‘use report’ is one citation of one plant use by
Fig. 1 Map of Saudi Arabia with regional divisions. The city of Mecca is indicated by a dot
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 3 of 24
Table
1Inform
ant’s
details.Place
ofreside
nceisat
thetim
eof
theinterview;three
wom
enweretempo
rarilylivingin
theUK,whe
rethey
wereinterviewed
.MP/BM
refersto
preferen
ceformed
icinalplantsor
biom
edicine
Cod
eAge
Occup
ation
Literacy
Nof
children
Placeof
reside
nce
Nof
househ
old
mem
bers
Placeof
origin
Num
berof
plantslisted
MP/BM
Source
know
ledg
e
inf1
30Lecturer
PhD(Arabic,English)
1Reading,
UK
3Mecca
15BM
Scientificlectures,g
rand
parents
andmothe
r
inf2
47Lecturer
PhD(Arabic,English)
6Reading,
UK
8Jedd
ah13
MP
Grand
mothe
rsandmothe
r
inf3
35Hou
sewife
Second
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
5Mecca
7Mecca
9BM
Grand
mothe
rsandmothe
r
inf4
31Stud
ent
PhD(Arabic,English)
0Reading,
UK
9Mecca
10BM
Mothe
r,scientificlectures,Internet
inf5
49Hou
sewife
Prim
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
6Mecca
8Mecca
23MP
Mothe
r
inf6
51Hou
sewife
Prim
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
3Mecca
4Mecca
18MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf7
32Hou
sewife
Second
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
5Mecca
7Mecca
21MP
Grand
mothe
rs,m
othe
r,ne
ighb
ours,
books,Internet,television
inf8
49Hou
sewife
Prim
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
5Mecca
6Mecca
13MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf9
50Hou
sewife
Prim
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
4Mecca
5Mecca
24MP
Writtensources,mothe
randaunt
inf10
60Hou
sewife
Prim
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
10Mecca
5Mecca
18MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf11
45Hou
sewife
Prim
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
2Mecca
3Mecca
24MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf12
56Hou
sewife
Prim
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
2Mecca
4Mecca
24MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf13
32Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
4Mecca
6Mecca
9BM
Mothe
r
inf14
65Hou
sewife
Illiterate
(Arabic)
9Mecca
10Mecca
12MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf15
34Hou
sewife
Second
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
2Mecca
4Mecca
12BM
Wider
commun
ity(socialn
etwork
beyond
family
mem
bers)
inf16
29Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
3Mecca
5Mecca
15BM
Mothe
r,Internet
inf17
69Hou
sewife
Illiterate
(Arabic)
7Mecca
9Mecca
17MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf18
60Hou
sewife
Illiterate
(Arabic)
9Mecca
6Mecca
25MP
Mothe
r,Internet,sho
psof
med
icinalplants
inf19
30Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
3Mecca
5Mecca
8BM
Mothe
r,Internet
inf20
59Hou
sewife
Prim
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
3Mecca
4Mecca
18MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf21
50Hou
sewife
Illiterate
(Arabic)
6Mecca
8Mecca
17MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf22
45Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
6Mecca
8Mecca
16MP
Grand
mothe
rs
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 4 of 24
Table
1Inform
ant’s
details.Place
ofreside
nceisat
thetim
eof
theinterview;three
wom
enweretempo
rarilylivingin
theUK,whe
rethey
wereinterviewed
.MP/BM
refersto
preferen
ceformed
icinalplantsor
biom
edicine(Con
tinued)
Cod
eAge
Occup
ation
Literacy
Nof
children
Placeof
reside
nce
Nof
househ
old
mem
bers
Placeof
origin
Num
berof
plantslisted
MP/BM
Source
know
ledg
e
inf23
37Hou
sewife
Second
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
5Mecca
7Taif
12MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf24
39Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
4Mecca
6Mecca
17MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf25
34Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
3Mecca
5Mecca
12BM
Mothe
r
inf26
33Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
3Mecca
5Mecca
12BM
Family
inf27
33Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
4Mecca
6Mecca
24MP
Family,nutritionstud
ies
attheun
iversity
inf28
34Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
6Mecca
8Mecca
17BM
Mothe
r,family,friend
s,Internet
inf29
28Lecturer
Bachelor
(Arabic)
1Mecca
3Mecca
18BM
Mothe
r,sisters,scho
ol
inf30
46Hou
sewife
Bachelor
(Arabic)
4Mecca
6Mecca
17MP
Mothe
r,family,b
ooks
inf31
60Hou
sewife
Prim
aryed
ucation
(Arabic)
9Mecca
5Mecca
12MP
Grand
mothe
rs
inf32
60Hou
sewife
Illiterate
(Arabic)
10Mecca
5Mecca
10MP
Grand
mothe
rs
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 5 of 24
one informant, and it includes vernacular name, partused, local use, preparation and administration. Along-side the emic use citations, therapeutic applications wereclassified by disease categories according to the Inter-national Classification of Primary Care, as recommendedby Staub et al. [50]. The software anthropac [51] wasused to analyse free-lists, obtaining the frequency of cit-ation and Smith’s index for each plant [52]. Smith’s indexis a measure of the cultural importance of each plant de-pending on the frequency of citation and its rank in thefree-lists [52].
Plant collection and identificationMost voucher specimens were obtained directly from in-formants. When this was not possible, they were obtainedfrom local shops and supermarkets (Atar AlKuwait, AtarAlamana and Matager Alsudia; Fig. 2). Voucher speci-mens were not obtained for two plants; specimens fromthe Umm Al-Qura University herbarium were used toidentify these according to vernacular names. Voucherspecimens (including market samples) were deposited inthe Umm Al-Qura University herbarium. Since no plantswere collected from the wild directly, collection permitswere not necessary. Plant identification was carried out bythe first author in the herbarium of Umm Al-QuraUniversity using the Flora of Saudi Arabia [53], and iden-tifications were validated by a plant taxonomist in UmmAl-Qura University. Nomenclature and family adscriptionsfollow The Plant List [54], and the list was contrasted withthe online checklist of the Flora of Saudi Arabia [55].
Literature reviewIn order to assess the documented Saudi Arabian medi-cinal plant knowledge, a systematic literature review wasconducted. Google Scholar, the Saudi Digital Library,
Research Gate and King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Librarywere searched for books and scientific articles using thesearch terms ‘Saudi Arabia’, ‘Mecca’, ‘Medicinal Plant’,‘Herbal’, ‘Traditional Medicine’ or ‘Ethnobotany’ in Englishand Arabic, with no restriction on date of publication. Lit-erature were excluded if they only reported pharmaco-logical activities without mention of local knowledgesources, or if they focused on veterinary plant uses. Elevensources were identified, obtained and reviewed, includingseven journal articles and four books. For these, themethods were reviewed, examining how local names andplant uses were recorded and how plant identification wasachieved. Explicit knowledge documentation methods, col-lection of herbarium specimens, the literature used toidentify them and deposition in herbaria were quality cri-teria used to identify rigorous literature sources [5, 56].One book and three scientific articles were consideredrigorous and selected to compare the medicinal plantslisted with those used by the women in Mecca interviewedduring this study. The names from selected literature werecross-checked with The Plant List [54] to identify acceptedplant names and family assignments. Botanical species, ver-nacular names and uses mentioned by women in Meccaduring the field study were then compared to those in theselected literature to identify the extent of the overlap be-tween lists.
ResultsMedicinal plants used by women in MeccaIn total, 753 use reports were collected during interviewsand 118 medicinal plant vernacular names were docu-mented, belonging to approximately 110 botanical taxa (43families; Table 2), including one algae (Fucus vesiculosus).Ninety-five medicinal plants were identified at the specieslevel, 12 were identified at the genus level, one at the familylevel and two could not be identified. The most commonmedicinal families are Apiaceae (10%; 11 taxa), Fabaceae(9%; 10 taxa) and Lamiaceae (7%; eight taxa). Asteraceae,Brassicaceae and Poaceae were represented by five taxaeach; Myrtaceae, Rosaceae and Zingiberaceae by four taxaeach; and Amaranthaceae, Apocynaceae, Burseraceae andRutaceae by three taxa each. Seven families were repre-sented by two taxa and 24 families were represented onlyby one taxon. The most cited salient medicinal plants dur-ing the interviews are helba (Trigonella foenum-graecum),kamun (Cuminum cyminum), yansun (Pimpinella anisum),qurfa (Cinnamomum verum) and zanajabil (Zingiberofficinale) (Table 2). Interestingly, we observed that onethird (32%) of the plants mentioned in the interviews arecommon vegetable and fruit crops, and almost one fifth(17%) are spices. More than half of the taxa were not nativeto Saudi Arabia (54%; Table 2).The modes of preparation and administration for each
plant can be found in Table 2. The most used plant parts
Fig. 2 Herbalist store in Mecca. Atar AlKuwait, one of the mostfamous establishments selling medicinal plant products in Mecca
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 6 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
Acacianilotica(L.)Delile.
(Fabaceae,EW
M_62)
N–
Qard(
رضق
)Fruit,root
Neurological,dige
stive
Infusion
,decoctio
nWash,bath
N2
0.041
Acaciasenega
l(L.)Willd.
(Fabaceae,EW
M_77)
N–
Samgarabi
(عربي
مغص
)Resin
Urological,
endo
crineandnu
trition
alInfusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
20.042
Aervajavanica
(Burm.f.)Juss.ex
Schu
lt.(Amaranthaceae,
EWM_90)
Y–
Tarf(
رفط
)Allplant
Neurological,dige
stive
Infusion
,groun
dOraling
estio
n(drin
k),p
utdirectlyon
the
teeth
N1
0.009
*Alchem
illasp.
(Rosaceae,
EWM_68)
Y–
Rajelalasad
(سد
رجلالآ)
Root
Digestive
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en1
0.01
*Alchemilla
xantho
chlora
Rothm.(Ro
saceae,
EWM_01)
N–
Abatalseda
(عبأة
سيدةلا
)Leaf
Gynaecological
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.021
Allium
cepa
L.(Amaryllidaceae,
EWM_14)
NF
Bsal(
لص
ب)
Bulb,tun
icGen
eralandun
specified
,gynaecolog
ical
Juicewith
lemon
,adde
dto
food
Oraling
estio
n(drin
kor
eat),
fumigation,
placingon
ions
onthebo
ttom
ofthefeet
and
wearsocks
N4
0.034
Allium
sativum
L.(Amaryllidaceae,
NA)
NF
Thoo
m(
ومث
)Bu
lbGen
eralandun
specified
,cardiovascular,d
igestive,
ear
Putwith
food
,in
water,m
ash,
noprep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink),
putdirectlyon
theteeth
N7
0.069
Aloe
sp.
(Xanthorrhoe
aceae,
EWM_74)
Y–
Sabr
(بر
ص)
Leaf
flesh
Digestive,gynaecolog
ical,
skin
Putin
water
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k),top
icon
wou
nds
Causesdiarrhoe
a1
0.007
Aloe
vera
(L.)Bu
rm.f.
(Xanthorrhoe
aceae,
EWM_73)
N–
Sabb
ar(
بارص
)Leaf
flesh
Skin
Noprep
aration
Topicon
wou
ndsor
hair
Overdosemay
causecoloncancer
20.041
*Alpiniaofficinarum
Hance
(Zingibe
raceae,EWM_43)
NS
Kholanjan(
ولنجانخ
)Rh
izom
eDigestive,cardiovascular,
skin
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.013
*Ammivisn
aga(L.)Lam.
(Apiaceae,EW
M_44)
YS
Khull(
خلة)
Seed
,leaf,
fruit
Cardiovascular,urolog
ical
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Overdosemay
causedryness
andhypo
tension,no
ttobe
used
bypregnant
wom
en
40.053
Anastaticahierochu
nticaL.
(Brassicaceae,EW
M_34)
Y–
Kaffmaryam
(ف
كمريم
)Fruit
Family
planning
,gynaecological
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k),top
icCan
causestom
ach
disorders
andnausea
40.04
Anethu
mgraveolens
L.(Apiaceae,EW
M_81)
YS
Shabath(
بثش
)Leaf
Digestive
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bythosewho
suffer
from
kidn
eydisease
10.004
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 7 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’(Con
tinued)
Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
*Apium
graveolens
L.(Apiaceae,EW
M_46)
YF
Korfo
s(
رفسك
)Leaf
Gynaecological,
dige
stive,ne
urolog
ical
Infusion
,juice,no
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en2
0.02
*Artem
isiajuda
icaL.
(Asteraceae,EW
M_87)
Y–
Shayh(
يحش
)Allplant
Digestive
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en
10.007
*Avena
sativaL.
(Poaceae,EWM_88)
YF
Shuran
(وفان
ش)
Seed
Endo
crineand
nutrition
alGroun
dOraling
estio
n(eat)
N1
0.002
Azad
irachta
indica
A.Juss.
(Meliaceae,EWM_60)
N–
Nim
(نيم)
Leaf
Digestive,ge
neral
andun
specified
Decoctio
nOraling
estio
n(drin
k),b
ath
N2
0.035
*BetavulgarisL.
(Amaranthaceae,EW
M_09)
YF
Banjr(
نجرب
)Fruit
Bloo
dandim
mun
emechanism
sDecoctio
n,juice,no
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(drin
koreat)
N7
0.054
Bosw
ellia
sacraFlueck.
(Burseraceae,EWM_50)
N–
Labanaldakar,labanshahari
(لبان
حريلاذكر،لبانش
)Resin
Gen
eralandun
specified
,respiratory,neurological
Infusion
,chew
ing,
fumigation
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
80.113
*Brassicaoleracea
L.(Brassicaceae,NA)
NF
Kron
b(
رنبك
)Leaf
Digestive
Juice(with
apples
and
milk),in
food
,de
coction
Oraling
estio
n(drin
kor
eat)
N7
0.018
Brassicarapa
L.(Brassicaceae,EW
M_40)
NF
Khardal(
ردلخ
)Seed
Musculoskeletal,
cardiovascular
Groun
d,infusion
Inho
twater
(topu
tfeet
in)
N2
0.028
Calotrop
isprocera(Ait.)
Ait.fil.,(Apo
cynaceae,N
A)
Y–
Eshr
(عشار)
Flow
erRespiratory
Inwater,
grou
ndOraling
estio
n(drin
kor
eat)
Can
cause
diarrhoe
a1
0.005
*Cam
ellia
sinensis
(L.)
Kuntze
(The
aceae,
EWM_85)
NF
Shay,shayakhd
ar(
اي,ش
رايأخض
ش)
Leaf
Digestive,
metabolicand
nutrition
al,
gynaecolog
ical,
gene
raland
unspecified
,family
planning
Decoctio
n,infusion
Topic,oral
inge
stion
(drin
k),
fumigation
Whe
ninge
sted
,overdo
semay
causediarrhoe
a
70.09
Cartha
mus
tinctoriusL.
(Asteraceae,EW
M_61)
Y–
Osforr(
فرعص
)Flow
erEndo
crineand
nutrition
al,
cardiovascular
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Overdosemay
causediarrhoe
a1
0.03
*Carum
carviL.
(Apiaceae,EW
M_37)
NS
Karawia(
راويةك
)Seed
Digestive,
gynaecolog
ical,
gene
raland
unspecified
,respiratory,fam
ilyplanning
Decoctio
nOraling
estio
n(drin
k)Overdosemay
affect
thekidn
eys
60.111
Ceratoniasiliqua
L.(Fabaceae,EW
M_41)
NF
Kharnu
b(
رنوبخ
)Fruit
Digestive
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.025
*Cinna
mom
umverum
J.S.Presl
(Lauraceae,EWM_67)
NS
Qurfa
(رفه
ق)
Bark
Gynaecological,
dige
stive,
Decoctio
n,grou
ndOraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Overdosemay
causefaintin
g,20
0.349
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 8 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’(Con
tinued)
Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
bloo
dand
immun
esystem
,en
docrineand
nutrition
al,
respiratory,
family
planning
hypo
tension,dizziness
andsw
eatin
g,bleeding
ifused
for
morethan
3days,
notto
beused
with
ging
er,not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en(m
aycause
abortio
n)
Citrulluscolocynthis(L.)
Schrad.(Cucurbitaceae,EWM_28)
Y–
Hanzal(
لحنظ)
Leaf,fruit
Digestive,skin
Infusion
,no prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k),top
icN
20.041
*Citrus
sinensis
(L.)
Osbeck(Rutaceae,EW
M_51)
NF
Portokal(
رتقلاب
)Fruit
Digestive,ge
neral
andun
specified
Juice,no
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
N2
0.04
Citrus
sp.(Ru
taceae,
EWM_51)
NF
Limon
(ليمون)
Fruit
Gen
eraland
unspecified
,digestive,
endo
crineand
nutrition
al,respiratory
Juice,dry
until
black
and
grou
ndin
water,
decoction
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k),top
icN
100.201
Coffeaarab
icaL.
(Rub
iaceae,EWM_64)
NF
Qashr
albu
m(
شرلبنق
لا)
Pericarp
Bloo
dand
immun
esystem
,gynaecological,
endo
crine
andnu
trition
al
Decoctio
n,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en
60.117
Commipho
ragilead
ensis
(L.)C.
Christ.(Burseraceae,EWM_12
Y–
Basham
(شام
ب)
Root
Gynaecological,
gene
raland
unspecified
,respiratory,
neurolog
ical
Decoctio
n,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k),top
icN
30.051
Commipho
ramyrrha(Nees)
Engl.(Bu
rseraceae,EW
M_53)
Y–
Marr(
مر)
Resin
Skin,d
igestive,
respiratory,
gynaecolog
ical,
gene
ral
andun
specified
Inwater,
infusion
Poultice,
mou
thwash,
oralinge
stion
(drin
k)
Overdose
may
upset
thestom
ach
andcause
gene
ral
discom
fort
170.323
Coriand
rum
sativum
L.(Apiaceae,EW
M_47)
YF
Kozbra
(زبرة
ك)
Leaf
Digestive,
cardiovascular,
neurolog
ical
Groun
d,infusion
,with
food
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Overdosemay
causeinfertility
50.079
*Costussp.
(Costaceae,EWM_63)
N–
Qasdhind
i(
هنديد
صق
)Ro
otEndo
crineand
nutrition
al,
gene
raland
unspecified
,gynaecolog
ical,
bloo
dand
immun
esystem
,
Groun
d,de
coction
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
N4
0.05
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 9 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’(Con
tinued)
Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
urolog
ical,
family
planning
*Crocussativus
L.(Iridaceae,EW
M_99)
NS
Zafran(
زعفران)
Stigma
Gen
eraland
unspecified
,dige
stive,
respiratory
With
food
,in
water
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en3
0.025
Cucumissativus
L.(Cucurbitaceae,N
A)
NF
Khiar(
خيار)
Fruit
Urological,
dige
stive,
neurolog
ical
No
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat)
N2
0.033
Cuminum
cyminum
L.(Apiaceae,EW
M_36)
YS
Kamun
(مون
ك)
Seed
Digestive,
gynaecolog
ical,
endo
crineand
nutrition
al,
gene
raland
unspecified
,respiratory
Infusion
,de
coction,
grou
nd
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Overdosemay
upsetthestom
ach
andprod
uce
constip
ation)
220.486
Curcum
along
aL.
(Zingibe
raceae,EWM_38)
NS
Karrakum
(ركم
ك)
Rhizom
eMusculoskeletal,
skin,b
lood
andim
mun
esystem
,ge
neraland
unspecified
,dige
stive,
respiratory,
endo
crineand
nutrition
al
Groun
d,infusion
,with
hone
y
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink),
poultice
Overdosemay
upsetthestom
ach
80.09
*Cydon
iaob
long
aMill.
(Rosaceae,NA)
NF
Safarjil(
فرجلس
)Fruit
Digestive
No
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat)
N1
0.02
*Cym
bopo
gonscho
enan
thus
(L.)
Spreng
.(Po
aceae,EW
M_02)
Y–
Adh
khur
(اذخر)
Leaf
Neurological,
dige
stive,
urolog
ical,
gene
raland
unspecified
Decoctio
nOraling
estio
n(drin
k),
decoction
(steam
inhalatio
n)
N3
0.069
*Dialium
sp.
(Fabaceae,EW
M_26)
N–
Ham
ayd(
حميض)
Fruit
Digestive,
urolog
ical
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.008
*Dipterygium
glau
cum
Decne
.(Cleom
aceae,EW
M_06)
Y–
Arfaj(
عرفج)
Leaf
Digestive,
respiratory
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k),
decoction
(steam
inhalatio
n)
N1
0.003
*Dracaenacinn
abariBalf.f.
(Asparagaceae,EW
M_16)
N–
Dam
alakhw
an(
خويندمالأ
)Resin
Gen
eraland
unspecified
,dige
stive
Groun
dPo
ultice
N1
0.006
*Elettariacardam
omum
(L.)
Maton
(Zingibe
raceae,
EWM_24)
NS
Hal(
هلا)
Fruit,seed
Respiratory
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.004
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 10 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’(Con
tinued)
Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
Erucasp.(Brassicaceae,
EWM_33)
Y–
Jarjir(
رجيرج
)Leaf
Bloo
dandim
mun
esystem
,respiratory
With
food
,no prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
N9
0.133
Eucalyptus
camaldu
lensis
Deh
nh.(Myrtaceae,EWM_35)
N–
Kafor(
افورك
)Leaf
Neurological,
dige
stive,
gene
raland
unspecified
Infusion
,de
coction
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
30.035
Ferulaassa-fo
etidaL.
(Apiaceae,EW
M_25)
N–
Halatayta
(حلتيتة)
Resin
Digestive,
respiratory
Maceration
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bybreastfeed
ing
wom
en,children
shou
ldno
ttake
morethan
5ml
40.068
Ficuspa
lmataForssk.
(Moraceae,NA)
YF
Ham
at(
حماط)
Fruit
Digestive
No
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat)
N1
0.007
Foeniculum
vulgareMill.
(Apiaceae,EW
M_83)
YS
Sham
r(
مرش
)Seed
Digestive,
urolog
ical,
gynaecolog
ical,
gene
ral
andun
specified
,ne
urolog
ical,
bloo
dand
immun
esystem
Infusion
,de
coction,
grou
nd
Oraling
estio
n(drin
kor
eat)
Overdosemay
cause
inflammationof
the
intestines
140.248
*Fucus
vesiculosus
L.(Fucaceae,EW
M_21)
N–
Foqu
s(
وقسف
)Leaf
Endo
crineand
nutrition
al,
cardiovascular
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.004
*Glebion
iscorona
ria(L.)N.N.
Tzvel.(Asteraceae,EW
M_04)
N–
Aqh
wan
(اقحوان)
Leaf,flower
Digestive
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
recommen
ded
forbabies
10.004
Glycyrrhiza
glab
raL.
(Fabaceae,EW
M_18)
Y–
Eirqsos(
عرقسوس)
Root
Digestive,
musculoskeletal
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.023
*Hibiscus
sabdariffaL.
(Malvaceae,EWM_49)
N–
Kwajarakarakadi
(،وجراتي
كركدية
ك)
Calyx,sep
alCardiovascular,
bloo
dand
immun
esystem
,dige
stive,
urolog
ical,
neurolog
ical
Infusion
,de
coction
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
150.209
*Hordeum
vulgareL.
(Poaceae,EWM_82)
YF
Shaeir(
عيرش
)Seed
sUrological,
dige
stive
Decoctio
nOraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en5
0.041
*Hypha
enesp.
(Arecaceae,EWM_17)
Y–
Dom
(دوم)
Fruit
Cardiovascular
Groun
d,infusion
with
hone
y
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.026
JuniperusproceraHochst.ex
Endl.(Cup
ressaceae,EW
M_05)
Y–
Arar(
عرعر)
Fruit
Urological
Infusion
,de
coction
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en1
0.006
*Lactuca
sativaL.
(Asteraceae,NA)
NF
Khas
(خس)
Leaf
Bloo
dand
immun
esystem
,With
food
Oraling
estio
n(eat)
N2
0.02
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 11 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’(Con
tinued)
Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
urolog
ical,
dige
stive
*Lau
rusno
bilis
L.(Lauraceae,EWM_93)
NS
Waraq
algh
ar(
ورقغار
لا)
Leaf
Urological,
gene
raland
unspecified
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.007
LawsoniainermisL.
(Lythraceae,EW
M_27)
Y–
Hana(
حنا)
Leaf
Neurological,
musculoskeletal,
skin
Groun
d,with
hone
yin
water
Topic,po
ultice
N3
0.03
Lepidium
sativum
L.(Brassicacea,EWM_70)
YS
Rashad,thafa
(،رشاد
فاءث
)Seed
Gynaecological,
musculoskeletal,
skin,
dige
stive,
endo
crineand
nutrition
al,
neurolog
ical,
gene
raland
unspecified
,cardiovascular
Groun
d,infusion
,no prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink),
poultice
Not
tobe
used
for
over
amon
th,
norby
preg
nant
wom
en,
overdo
semay
causediarrhoe
aandup
setstom
ach
130.228
Linu
musitatissim
umL.
(Linaceae,EW
M_13)
Y–
Bidh
arratalkitan
(ذرة
كتانبلا
)Seed
Digestive,
endo
crineand
nutrition
al,
gene
raland
unspecified
,gynaecolog
ical
Groun
d,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Can
causestom
ach
andabdo
minal
pain,
andgases
40.079
*Lupinus
albu
sL.
(Fabaceae,EW
M_91)
NF
Tarm
as(
رمست
)Seed
Neurological,
endo
crine
andnu
trition
al,
bloo
dand
immun
esystem
With
food
,infusion
,de
coction
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Overdosemay
cause
phlegm
andskin
yellowing
40.035
Lycopersicon
esculentum
Mill.
(Solanaceae,NA)
NF
Tamatum
(م
ماطط
)Fruit
Bloo
dand
immun
esystem
No
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat)
Overdosemay
cause
diarrhoe
a1
0.023
Malva
parvifloraL.
(Malvaceae,EWM_39)
Y–
Khabiza(
خبيزة)
Leaf,flower
Family
planning
,ge
neral
andun
specified
,respiratory
Infusion
,no prep
aration
Che
wing,
oral
inge
stion
(drin
k)
N1
0.002
Matricariaau
rea(L.)Sch.Bip.
(Asteraceae,EW
M_07)
Y–
Babu
nj(
ابونجب
)Flow
erGen
eraland
unspecified
,ne
urolog
ical,
cardiovascular,
dige
stive,
respiratory
Infusion
Inhale,oral
inge
stion
(drin
k)
Overdosemay
cause
dizzinessor
headache
90.134
*MelissaofficinalisL.
(Lam
iaceae,EWM_52)
N–
Malisaa
(مليسا)
Leaf
Digestive
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
enor
children
10.019
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 12 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’(Con
tinued)
Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
Menthasp.
(Lam
iaceae,EWM_59)
Y–
Nen
a(
نعناع)
Leaf
Digestive,
cardiovascular,
gene
raland
unspecified
,ne
urolog
ical,
respiratory,
gynaecolog
ical
Decoctio
n,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
160.289
Morus
nigraL.
(Moraceae,EW
M_95)
NF
Waraq
tawt
(وت
تورق
)Leaf
Family
planning
Decoctio
nOraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.013
*Musaacum
inataColla
(Musaceae,NA)
NF
Moz
(موز)
Fruit
Digestive
No
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat)
N1
0.029
Myrtuscommun
isL.
(Myrtaceae,EWM_92)
Y–
Waraq
alas
(س
الاورق
)Leaf
Gen
eraland
unspecified
,respiratory,
bloo
dand
immun
esystem
,cardiovascular
Decoctio
n,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
20.022
NigellasativaL.
(Ranun
culaceae,
EWM_22)
NS
Habasawda
(حبة
وداءس
)Seed
Bloo
dandim
mun
esystem
,ge
neraland
unspecified
,respiratory,
gynaecolog
ical,
musculoskeletal,
neurolog
ical
Groun
d,7
seed
swith
hone
yor
dates,no
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en,
children,or
babies,if
morethan
7seed
saretakenin
aday,
itcancauseabortio
n,overdo
semay
affect
thekidn
eys
130.201
Ocimum
basilicum
L.(Lam
iaceae,EWM_71)
N–
Rihan(
ريحان)
Leaf,
flower
Gen
eraland
unspecified
,respiratory
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.006
Ocimum
sp.
(Lam
iaceae,EWM_23)
Y–
Habaq
(حبق)
Leaf
Gen
eraland
unspecified
,dige
stive
Decoctio
n,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
enor
children
30.04
Oleaeuropaea
L.(Oleaceae,EW
M_101)
YF
Zeetou
n(
زيتون)
Oil,
leaf
Gen
eraland
unspecified
,en
docrineand
nutrition
al,
respiratory
Syrup,
linim
ent,
infusion
,de
coction
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink),
linim
ent
Ifbo
iled(leaves)
may
become
toxic,overdo
semay
cause
diarrhoe
a
50.086
*Origan
ummajoran
aL.
(Lam
iaceae,EWM_11)
N–
Bardaqush
(ردقوش
ب)
Leaf
Endo
crineand
nutrition
al,
urolog
ical,d
igestive,
musculoskeletal,
cardiovascular
Infusion
,de
coction
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
50.078
*Pennisetum
glau
cum
(L.)R.Br.
(Poaceae,EWM_15)
YF
Dakhu
n(
دخن)
Seed
Digestive
Groun
dOraling
estio
n(eat)
N1
0.015
Petroselinum
crisp
um(M
ill.)Fuss
(Apiaceae,EW
M_10)
NF
Baqd
unas
(قدونس
ب)
Leaf
Cardiovascular,
urolog
ical,
female,
Infusion
,grou
nd,
decoction,
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink),
wash
Overuse
may
causeskin
irritatio
n10
0.163
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 13 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’(Con
tinued)
Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
gynaecolog
ical,
bloo
dand
immun
esystem
,musculoskeletal,skin
juice,no
prep
aration
Phoenixda
ctylifera
L.(Arecaceae,N
A)
YF
Nakhe
l,tamr
(،نخيل
مرت
)Fruit,
seed
Family
planning
,dige
stive
Groun
d,in
hotmilk
orho
ney
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.012
Pimpinella
anisu
mL.
(Apiaceae,EW
M_96)
NS
Yansun
(انسون
ي)
Seed
Digestive,
gynaecolog
ical,
respiratory,
gene
raland
unspecified
,urolog
ical,
neurolog
ical
Decoctio
n,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Overdosemay
causeabdo
minal
disten
sion
210.559
Pipernigrum
L.(Piperaceae,EW
M_20)
NS
Flflaswad,flflabyad
(،لفلاسود
,فلفلابيض
ف)
Fruit
Respiratory,g
ynaecological,
dige
stive,urolog
ical
Groun
dOraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Overdosemay
cause
heartburn
60.084
Pistacialentiscus
L.(Anacardiaceae,EWM_57)
N–
Mustaka
(مستكا)
Resin
Gen
eralandun
specified
,musculoskeletal
Insm
all
pieces
onagauze
with
lemon
Poultice
N1
0.008
*Prunu
smah
aleb
L.(Rosaceae,EW
M_55)
NF
Mhallab(
محلب)
Seed
Digestive,ge
neraland
unspecified
Groun
d,infusion
Rubb
edon
gums,topic,oralinge
stion
(drin
k),p
oultice
N4
0.069
*Psid
ium
guajavaL.(M
yrtaceae,
EWM_94)
NF
Waraq
jawwafa
(ورق
وافةج
)Leaf
Gen
eralandun
specified
,respiratory,neurological
Decoctio
n,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
70.106
Punica
gran
atum
L.(Lythraceae,
EWM_72)
NF
Roman
(رمان)
Peel
Digestive,skin,
gynaecolog
ical
Groun
d,de
coction
Oraling
estio
n(eat),po
ultice,
topic
N7
0.103
Rhazya
stricta
Decne
.(Apo
cynaceae,EWM_30)
Y–
Harmal(
رملح
)Leaf,roo
tGen
eralandun
specified
,dige
stive
Decoctio
n,grou
nd,
infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Can
causedizzinessand
sleeping
prob
lems,
overdo
secanbe
toxic
40.08
*Rheum
sp.(Po
lygo
naceae,
EWM_69)
Y–
Raou
d(
راوند)
Leaf,roo
tDigestive
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
orbreastfeed
ingwom
en,
orpe
oplewith
kidn
eyprob
lems
10.017
Ricinu
scommun
isL.
(Eup
horbiaceae,EWM_45)
Y–
Khurue
(روع
خ)
Seed
s,oil
Digestive,musculoskeletal,
skin
Linimen
t,in
juice
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
en2
0.033
*Rosmarinus
officinalisL.
(Lam
iaceae,EWM_03)
N–
Aklelaljabal
(جبلاكليل
لا)
Leaf
Respiratory,g
eneraland
unspecified
,digestive,
neurolog
ical,cardiovascular
Groun
d,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink),
decoction
Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
wom
enor
patientswith
bloo
dpressure
prob
lems
60.1
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 14 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’(Con
tinued)
Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
(steam
inhalatio
n)
Ruta
chalepensis
L.(Rutaceae,
EWM_84)
Y–
Shathab(
ذابش
)Leaf
Neurological,ear,
respiratory
Decoctio
nOraling
estio
n(drin
k)Overdosemay
cause
sleepiness,cirrho
sis,abo
rtion
10.024
*Salixmucrona
taThun
b.(Salicaceae,EW
M_76)
Y–
Safsaf
(اف
فصص
)Leaf
Musculoskeletal
Infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)N
10.003
*SalviaofficinalisL.(lamiaceae,
EWM_56)
N–
Miramia(
ميرامية)
Leaf
Gen
eralandun
specified
,dige
stive,gynaecolog
ical,
neurolog
ical
Decoctio
n,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k),
mou
thwash
Not
tobe
used
durin
gmen
struation,
increases
prod
uctio
nof
milk
50.106
Senn
aalexan
drinaMill.
(Fabaceae,EW
M_78)
Y–
Sana
maki(
نامكيس
)Leaf
Digestive,gynaecolog
ical
Decoctio
nOraling
estio
n(drin
k)Dry,not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
andbreastfeed
ing
wom
en
80.195
Sesamum
indicum
L.(Ped
aliaceae,EWM_89)
YF
Smsm
(مسم
س)
Seed
Neurological,en
docrine
andnu
trition
alIn
food
,grou
nd,no
prep
aration
Oraling
estio
n(eat)
N2
0.039
*Solenostemmaargel(Delile)
Hayne
(Apo
cynaceae,EWM_29)
N–
Hargal(
رجلح
)Leaf
Musculoskeletal,d
igestive,
bloo
dandim
mun
esystem
,en
docrineandnu
trition
al
Groun
d,in
water
Topic,oral
inge
stion
(drin
k)
Not
tobe
used
bypreg
nant
orbreastfeed
ingwom
en2
0.042
*Spina
ciaoleracea
L.(Amaranthaceae,EW
M_80)
NF
Sbanekh(
بانخس
)Leaf
Bloo
dandim
mun
esystem
,dige
stive,ge
neraland
unspecified
With
food
Oraling
estio
n(eat)
N4
0.052
Syzygium
arom
aticum
(L.)Merr.
&Perry(M
yrtaceae,EWM_66)
NS
Qrnfol(
رونفلق
)Flow
erbu
dDigestive,ge
neraland
unspecified
,end
ocrin
eand
nutrition
al,neurological,
bloo
dandim
mun
esystem
Groun
d,infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k),p
utdirectlyon
teeth
Overdosemay
upsetthe
stom
ach,
notto
beused
bype
oplewith
liver
prob
lems
140.22
Tamarindusindica
L.(Fabaceae,
NA)
YF
Tamrrhind
i,ho
mar
(مر
تحمر
هندي،)
Fruit
Gen
eralandun
specified
,dige
stive,skin
Inwater,
decoction
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k),p
oultice
N2
0.034
Thym
usvulgarisL.(Lam
iaceae,
EWM_98)
N–
Zaetir(
زعتر)
Leaf
Gen
eralandun
specified
,respiratory,d
igestive,
gynaecolog
ical,
cardiovascular,n
eurological
Inwater
ortea,de
coction,
infusion
,in
food
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Overdosemay
cause
dige
stion
70.114
Trachyspermum
ammi(L.)
Spragu
e(Apiaceae,EW
M_58)
YS
Nankha(
نانخة)
Seed
Digestive,musculoskeletal,
gynaecolog
ical
Groun
dOraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
Overdosemay
cause
constip
ation
70.062
Trigon
ella
foenum
-graecum
L.(Fabaceae,EW
M_31)
YS
Helba
(حلبة)
Seed
Family
planning
,digestive,
gynaecolog
ical,
musculoskeletal,b
lood
and
immun
esystem
,end
ocrin
eandnu
trition
al,urological,
respiratory,g
eneraland
unspecified
Groun
din
milk,
decoction,
infusion
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Use
isno
trecommen
ded
forchildrenun
der2,
overdo
semay
cause
nausea
oroverweigh
t
240.56
*Triticum
aestivum
L.(Poaceae,
EWM_32)
NF
Jane
nalqm
ah(
جنينقمح
لا)
Seed
Neurological,cardiovascular
Groun
dOraling
estio
n(eat)
Overdosemay
cause
overweigh
t1
0.022
NF
Mash(
ماش)
Seed
Can
causeoverweigh
t8
0.1
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 15 of 24
Table
2Com
preh
ensive
inventoryof
theplantslistedby
wom
enin
Mecca
includ
ingthescientificnameandfamily,w
hether
theplantisfoun
din
theFloraof
Saud
iArabiaand
whe
ther
itisused
asafood
orspice,vernacular
name(s),p
art(s)used
,the
rape
uticusecatego
ries,prep
aration,administration,
toxicity
andside
effects,fre
quen
cyof
citatio
nand
Smith
’sS.Forpresen
ceor
absencein
theFloraof
Saud
iArabia,Y=yes,N=no
,and
forfood
and/or
spiceuse,F=food
andS=spice.Plantsno
tdo
cumen
tedin
theselected
literaturearemarkedwith
‘*’(Con
tinued)
Scientificname(family,
vouche
r)Flora
ofSaud
iArabia
Food
(F)
orspice(S)
Vernacular
name(s)
(Arabic)
Part(s)
used
Therapeutic
use
catego
ries
Prep
aration
Adm
inistration
Toxicological
remarks
and
repo
rted
side
effects
Freq
uency
ofcitatio
nSm
ith’sS
*Vigna
radiata(L.)R.Wilczek
(Fabaceae,EW
M_54)
Neurological,ge
neraland
unspecified
,blood
and
immun
esystem
,musculoskeletal,end
ocrin
eandnu
trition
al
With
food
,grou
nd,
decoction
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
*Violasp.(Violaceae,EW
M_08)
Y–
Banafsj(
نفسجب
)Leaf,flower
Respiratory
No
prep
aration
Sublingu
al,
chew
ing
N1
0.031
Vitis
sp.(Vitaceae,EWM_97)
NF
Zabib(
زبيب)
Fruit
Bloo
dandim
mun
esystem
,ne
urolog
ical,end
ocrin
eandnu
trition
al
Infood
,with
juice
Oraling
estio
n(eat
ordrink)
N5
0.086
Zing
iberofficinaleRo
scoe
(Zingibe
raceae,EWM_100)
NS
Zanajabil(
زنجبيل)
Root
Gen
eralandun
specified
,musculoskeletal,d
igestive,
endo
crineandnu
trition
al,
cardiovascular,respiratory,
neurolog
ical,b
lood
and
immun
esystem
Decoctio
n,infusion
,grou
nd
Oraling
estio
n(drin
k)Overdosemay
cause
heartburnor
skin
reactio
ns
180.294
Ziziph
usspina-christi(L.)Desf.
(Rhamnaceae,EWM_75)
Y–
Sade
r(
درس
)Leaf
Skin
Infusion
,grou
ndWash
N2
0.015
Not
iden
tified(Cup
ressaceae,
EWM_65)
––
Qatiran(
رانط
ق)
Oil
Skin
Linimen
tTopic
N1
0.005
Not
iden
tified(EWM_79)
––
Saqalhamam
,khawajawa
(اق
سحمام،
واجوالاخ
)Ro
otSkin
Groun
dPo
ultice
N2
0.049
Not
iden
tified(EWM_48)
––
Krela(
ريلاك
)Fruit
Endo
crineandnu
trition
alGroun
dOraling
estio
n(eat)
N1
0.031
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 16 of 24
are leaves (35%), fruits (21%) and seeds (18%). Under-ground parts (9%), flowers (8%), resin (5%), oil (2%), thewhole plant (2%) and bark (1%) are also used. Infusion isthe most used mode of preparation (26%), followed bydecoction (22%), grinding (22%), mixing with food (7%)and maceration (6%). Plants are sometimes used as theywere sourced without any (further) preparation process(5%), juiced (4%) or mixed with dates (2%), milk (1%),honey (1%) or fruits (1%). The most popular modes ofadministration are oral ingestion as a drink (63%) andeaten (21%). Plants are also administered as poultices(7%) or applied directly on the teeth (2%). They arerarely (1%) used in mouthwash, fumigation and lotions,inhaled, chewed, rubbed or used as washes.A total of 67 mixtures were documented including
combinations of two to four plant ingredients (Table 3).Forty-four medicinal plants (40%) were sometimes usedin the mixtures. The medicinal plants most commonlyused in mixtures are Ziziphus spina-christi (zanajabil)cited in 17 mixtures and Pimpinella anisum (yansun),Mentha sp. (nena) and Citrus sp. (limon) each cited in 10mixtures. The most common mixtures are the combin-ation of Pimpinella anisum, Carum carvi and Foeniculumvulgare used as a digestive, for gynaecological and uro-logical problems; Pimpinella anisum, Cuminum cyminumand Foeniculum vulgare for digestive problems; andTrigonella foenum-graecum, Foeniculum vulgare andPimpinella anisum for digestive, respiratory and neuro-logical problems. Modes of administration for mixturesare limited to decoctions and infusions and dried andground plants added to food.
Ailments treated with medicinal plants by women inMecca and remarks on side effectsMedicinal plant uses were documented for 13 etic thera-peutic use categories (Table 4). Almost half of the usereports referred to digestive, general and unspecified andrespiratory issues, which are common children’s, as wellas adult’s, complaints, but do not reflect the most im-portant diseases afflicting the Saudi Arabian population(cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, neuro-psychiatric con-ditions and injuries [57]). Gynaecological problems,which encompass menstrual cramps and other men-strual disorders, polycystic ovaries, pregnancy and post-partum issues, are fourth in importance both in numberof use reports and number of plant taxa used.Informants indicated potentially toxic or side effects
for almost half of the medicinal plants (n = 52, 47%),often associated with inappropriate use (especially over-dosing; Table 2). Many observations on plants’ side ef-fects or toxicology made by informants referred to thenegative effects of plants on pregnant or breastfeedingwomen (53% of the plants with noted side effects), or
children (11%), and as causing digestive issues (37%)amongst other problems (30%).
Acquiring medicinal plant knowledge and choosinghealth careSocial and family networks, as well as mass media, werethe two sources of medicinal plant knowledge men-tioned by the Meccan women interviewed, who were allresponsible for the household health. The same sourceshave been documented for herbal knowledge among thepopulation of Riyadh [33]. Most elderly women inter-viewed mentioned that they had learned about medicinalplants from their mothers, grandmothers and neigh-bours (Table 1). Mecca’s everyday social interactionsamong women provide plenty of opportunities for theyounger generation to learn from older women’s experi-ence about medicinal plant use. Informant 18 (age 60,housewife) mentioned: ‘We always encourage ourdaughters to help us in the preparation of medicinalplants from early age’. Although some younger womeninterviewed acknowledged learning about medicinalplant knowledge from their elders, written sources, suchas popular books on medicinal plants, were also men-tioned as sources of medicinal plant knowledge (Table 1).Women of all ages also mentioned television programsas a source of knowledge about medicinal plants; massmedia is put forward by biomedical practitioners as atool for educational programs to modernise health con-cepts and make aware of available treatments among thepoorly educated [34].Overall, most of the women interviewed (n = 21, 66%)
preferred to use medicinal plants rather than biomedicine,but others (n = 11, 34%) preferred biomedicine. Medicinalplants were more often preferred by older than youngerwomen (Table 1). However, preference for medicinal plantsalso varied depending on the ailment that needed treating.Plants were often preferred to treat general malaise, digest-ive, respiratory, nutritional, neurological, musculoskeletal,cardiovascular, urological, skin and pregnancy-related ail-ments, some gynaecological problems and anaemia. Thewomen interviewed preferred to use biomedicine in casesof psychological illnesses, eye problems, cancer, unusual gy-naecological bleeding, wounds and infectious diseases.Often, they would prefer biomedicine when they suffer anillness for the first time but use medicinal plants for minor,common or chronic ailments. Informant 22 (45 years old)explained: ‘I usually prefer to use medicinal plants to treatmy family for diseases that happen continuously such asheadache, abdominal pains and menstruation, as well asthose that occur due to climate changes such as flu andcough. I use biomedical resources with infectious and psy-chological diseases, such as depression’. A similar observa-tion was made by Ghazanfar [36] when describingmedicinal plant use in the Arabian Peninsula as a whole.
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 17 of 24
Table 3 Mixtures and combinations used by women in Mecca
Mixture Medicinal plants included (vernacular and scientific names)
Mix1 Qashr albun (Coffea arabica), nakhel, tamr (Phoenix dactylifera), kamun (Cuminum cyminum)
Mix2 Zeetoun (Olea europaea), limon (Citrus sp.)
Mix3 Zeetoun (Olea europaea), dakhun (Pennisetum glaucum)
Mix4 Yansun (Pimpinella anisum), karawia (Carum carvi), shamr (Foeniculum vulgare)
Mix5 Marr (Commiphora myrrha), rashad, thafa (Lepidium sativum), haba sawda (Nigella sativa)
Mix6 Shay, shay akhdar (Camellia sinensis), kamun (Cuminum cyminum)
Mix7 Yansun (Pimpinella anisum), kamun (Cuminum cyminum), shamr (Foeniculum vulgare)
Mix8 Nena (Mentha sp.), shay, shay akhdar (Camellia sinensis), zanajabil (Zingiber officinale)
Mix9 Karawia (Carum carvi), helba (Trigonella foenum-graecum), kamun (Cuminum cyminum)
Mix10 Nena (Mentha sp.), shay, shay akhdar (Camellia sinensis)
Mix11 Qrnfol (Syzygium aromaticum), hal (Elettaria cardamomum), qashr albun (Coffea arabica)
Mix12 Yansun (Pimpinella anisum), shamr (Foeniculum vulgare)
Mix13 Helba (Trigonella foenum-graecum), shamr (Foeniculum vulgare), yansun (Pimpinella anisum)
Mix14 Qashr albun (Coffea arabica), shamr (Foeniculum vulgare), yansun (Pimpinella anisum), haba sawda (Nigella sativa)
Mix15 Nena (Mentha sp.), limon (Citrus sp.), zanajabil (Zingiber officinale)
Mix16 Limon (Citrus sp.), kamun (Cuminum cyminum)
Mix17 Yansun (Pimpinella anisum), bardaqush (Origanum majorana)
Mix18 Marr (Commiphora myrrha), karrakum (Curcuma longa)
Mix19 Marr (Commiphora myrrha), haba sawda (Nigella sativa), shamr (Foeniculum vulgare), nankha (Trachyspermum ammi)
Mix20 Zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), shay, shay akhdar (Camellia sinensis)
Mix21 Zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), qashr albun (Coffea arabica)
Mix22 Nankha (Trachyspermum ammi), kozbra (Coriandrum sativum)
Mix23 Nena (Mentha sp.), bardaqush (Origanum majorana), habaq (Ocimum sp.)
Mix24 Marr (Commiphora myrrha), shay, shay akhdar (Camellia sinensis)
Mix25 Zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), karrakum (Curcuma longa)
Mix26 Kaff maryam (Anastatica hierochuntica), halatayta (Ferula assa-foetida), marr (Commiphora myrrha)
Mix27 Basham (Commiphora gileadensis), roman (Punica grantum), qrnfol (Syzygium aromaticum)
Mix28 Nena (Mentha sp.), zanajabil (Zingiber officinale)
Mix29 Aklel aljabal (Rosmarinus officinalis), zanajabil (Zingiber officinale)
Mix30 Limon (Citrus sp.), zanajabil (Zingiber officinale)
Mix31 Limon (Citrus sp.), nena (Mentha sp.)
Mix32 Qrnfol (Syzygium aromaticum), haba sawda (Nigella sativa), zanajabil (Zingiber officinale)
Mix33 Haba sawda (Nigella sativa), qurfa (Cinnamomum verum)
Mix34 Qrnfol (Syzygium aromaticum), hal (Elettaria cardamomum)
Mix35 Qrnfol (Syzygium aromaticum), hana (Lawsonia inermis)
Mix36 Basham (Commiphora gileadensis), adhkhur (Cymbopogon schoenanthus)
Mix37 Zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), qurfa (Cinnamomum verum)
Mix38 Nena (Mentha sp.), limon (Citrus sp.), zanajabil (Zingiber officinale)
Mix39 Yansun (Pimpinella anisum), shay, shay akhdar (Camellia sinensis), nena (Mentha sp.)
Mix40 Zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), flfl abyad, flfl aswad (Piper nigrum)
Mix41 Zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), limon (Citrus sp.), qashr albun (Coffea arabica)
Mix42 Sana maki (Cassia senna), tamrr hindi, homar (Tamarindus indica)
Mix43 Nankha (Trachyspermum ammi), kamun (Cuminum cyminum), shamr (Foeniculum vulgare)
Mix44 Kamun (Cuminum cyminum), karrakum (Curcuma longa)
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 18 of 24
Medicinal plants used among urban, Muslim women arevastly under-documentedFour books and seven scientific articles published be-tween 1985 and 2014 were retrieved from the literaturesearch (Table 5). Most literature sources on medicinal
plants from Saudi Arabia did not provide informationon the ethnobotanical methods used nor cite robustplant identification procedures (Table 5), including sixstudies that did not mention the geographical area inwhich they were conducted. Of the 11 studies reviewed,
Table 4 Use reports and number of taxa used for each therapeutic use category
Emic therapeutic use category Number of use reports Number of plant taxa
Digestive 215 67
General and unspecified 96 43
Respiratory 70 32
Gynaecological 60 29
Endocrine and nutritional 53 24
Blood and immune system 50 21
Neurological 48 29
Musculoskeletal 38 16
Cardiovascular 36 19
Urological 36 17
Skin 34 16
Family planning 15 9
Ear 2 2
Table 3 Mixtures and combinations used by women in Mecca (Continued)
Mixture Medicinal plants included (vernacular and scientific names)
Mix45 Nankha (Trachyspermum ammi), kamun (Cuminum cyminum), shamr (Foeniculum vulgare), haba sawda (Nigella sativa)
Mix46 Bsal (Allium cepa), limon (Citrus sp.)
Mix47 Helba (Trigonella foenum-graecum), yansun (Pimpinella anisum), shamr (Foeniculum vulgare)
Mix48 Haba sawda (Nigella sativa), yansun (Pimpinella anisum), qrnfol (Syzygium aromaticum)
Mix49 Qashr albun (Coffea arabica), zanajabil (Zingiber officinale)
Mix50 Hargal (Solenostemma argel), raond (Rheum sp.)
Mix51 Zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), qurfa (Cinnamomum verum)
Mix52 Zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), nena (Mentha sp.), kamun (Cuminum cyminum)
Mix53 Nena (Mentha sp.), helba (Trigonella foenum-graecum)
Mix54 Qrnfol (Syzygium aromaticum), qurfa (Cinnamomum verum), zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), hal (Elettaria cardamomum)
Mix55 Helba (Trigonella foenum-graecum), mash (Vigna radiata)
Mix56 Yansun (Pimpinella anisum), habaq (Ocimum sp.)
Mix57 Qashr albun (Coffea arabica), qurfa (Cinnamomum verum)
Mix58 Portokal (Citrus sinensis), limon (Citrus sp.)
Mix59 Mhallab (Prunus mahaleb), hana (Lawsonia inermis), qrnfol (Syzygium aromaticum)
Mix60 Qashr albun (Coffea arabica), qurfa (Cinnamomum verum), qrnfol (Syzygium aromaticum)
Mix61 Nim (Azadirachta indica), harmal (Rhazya stricta), sader (Ziziphus spina-christi)
Mix62 Nankha (Trachyspermum ammi), limon (Citrus sp.)
Mix63 Nankha (Trachyspermum ammi), qashr albun (Coffea arabica)
Mix64 Nankha (Trachyspermum ammi), haba sawda (Nigella sativa), rashad, thafa (Lepidium sativum)
Mix65 Rashad, Thafa (Lepidium sativum), nakhel, tamr (Phoenix dactylifera)
Mix66 Haba sawda (Nigella sativa), nakhel, tamr (Phoenix dactylifera)
Mix67 Hargal (Solenostemma argel), raond (Rheum sp.), hndba (chicory), aomloj (Phyllanthus cf.)
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 19 of 24
plants were identified by experts in nine of them andonly four cited one or more botanical keys used to iden-tify collected taxa; eight studies reported the collectionof voucher specimens. However, only four of these eightstudies reported the voucher numbers in the publica-tions. Four of the studies were identified as rigorous,hence suitable to compare with medicinal plant useswith the list of medicinal plants collected during field-work: Ghazanfar [36], Al-Sodany et al. [41], El-Ghazaliet al. [58] and Abdulafatih [59] (Table 5). Although stud-ies were selected if there was evidence for accurate plantidentification, several plant synonyms were found to beused in these publications (according to The Plant List[54]) and misspelled plant names were not infrequent.Three plant names (8%) used in these literature sourcescould not be found when cross-checking with The PlantList [54], and six plants cited were identified only at thegenus level.The four selected literature sources, all documenting
medicinal plant knowledge in rural areas, cited 486 dif-ferent medicinal plant species, compared to the 95plants we identified at the species level cited by the 32women interviewed (Table 2). Combining literature andfieldwork sources results in 525 different species used inSaudi Arabia in total. Five plants identified at the genuslevel were also new citations of these genera used medi-cinally in Saudi Arabia. Table 6 presents a comparisonbetween Meccan women’s knowledge and each literaturesource (taking into account only the plants that could beidentified at the species level). Medicinal plants knownto the Meccan women interviewed contributed 7.4% ofthe total list: 39 species (41%) cited by women in Meccawere not reported in the selected Saudi Arabian medi-cinal plant literature (Table 6; indicated by ‘*’ in Table 5),whereas 56 species (59%) had been previously docu-mented. Of the 56 species already cited in the literature,we documented new vernacular names for nine plants(10%). Forty plants were documented in the literatureand were cited for different therapeutic applications bythe Meccan women interviewed in this study.
DiscussionEdible, traded and Muslim medicinal plantsUrbanisation is often considered an aspect of modernisa-tion that leads to the erosion of medicinal plant know-ledge [6], but urban contexts may have vibrantmedicinal plant use traditions [3–7]. In the Middle East,urban male herbalists are acclaimed for their specialistmedicinal plant knowledge [43]. In this study, we evi-dence a rich body of female, lay medicinal plant know-ledge, supporting the observation by Elolemy andAlBedah [33] that women commonly use herbal therapiesin Saudi Arabian cities. Although only 32 Meccan womenparticipated in this study, more than 100 medicinal plants
were documented to treat a wide range of health com-plaints. The knowledge held by women in cities is mark-edly different from knowledge previously documented,with 41% of the plants cited by Meccan women not in theliterature we sourced. This points to the under-documentation of knowledge of medicinal plants in SaudiArabia but cannot be attributed to male versus femaleknowledge or urban versus rural knowledge in the absenceof further studies. Existing studies may also exclude foods,spices and culinary herbs from ethnobotanical listings ofmedicinal plants, making less visible knowledge held bywomen and contributing to the difference we find be-tween published studies and our results.A third (32%) of the medicinal plants used by the
Meccan women interviewed are food plants. Salient foodplants cited in this study include onion, celery, cabbage,coriander, lemon, olive oil and dates (Table 2). The use offood plants as medicines by urban populations is wide-spread [6] and may be due to the easy access to theseplants. Medicinal foods are also an important feature ofthe Mediterranean medical tradition, observed specificallyin the Greek Hippocratic texts that influenced Dioscor-ides’ Materia Medica [60], which in turn influencedArabic medicinal texts [36]. Specific health beliefs associ-ated with foods have also been observed in Arabia [36].Along with food plants, many medicinal plants reportedare spices (17%), which have played a double role as fla-vouring and medicinal products since the Middle Ages[61]. The most salient medicinal plants identified here arealso all spices (Trigonella foenum-graecum, Cuminumcyminum, Pimpinella anisum, Cinnamomum verum andZingiber officinale). Spices are both grown in the MiddleEast and imported from Africa and Southeast Asia(including plants from the Zingiberaceae, Piperaceae,Theaceae, Costaceae, Fucaceae and Musaceae families).This use of imported spices may be a legacy from tradeRoman times, when black pepper, ginger, turmeric andcardamom were transported from Southeast Asia into theMediterranean through Arabian incense trade routes [18,20]. Moreover, medicinal plant use in urban environmentsbiased towards exotic plants has been observed in Brazil[5] and could also be attributed to easier access to theseplants in urban areas. The important use of foods andspices medicinally in cities may be a global characteristicof urban ethnobotanical knowledge, since these are ofteneasily available in urban environments.Plant availability is a key factor shaping traditional
plant use. In urban areas, this does not necessarily re-flect the region’s native plant diversity but the plant di-versity traded and available in shops and markets.Differences in plant availability between rural and urbancontexts may also account for the differences in plantlists reported in this study and published literature. El-Ghazali et al. [58] observed that native plants used by
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 20 of 24
rural populations in Al-Rass province are not traded indomestic markets, and traded plants in shops and mar-kets form the bulk of the medicinal plants available toMeccan women.Food plants and spices represented half of the medi-
cinal plants used by the Meccan women interviewed(49%), and many of these are plants cited in the Quranor the Hadith. Among Muslims, knowledge of a plant
being mentioned in the Quran is often sufficient to val-idate its medicinal use [62]. Some medicinal plants citedin interviews are mentioned in the ‘the Medicine of theProphet’: helba (Trigonella foenum-graecum), habasawda (Nigella sativa), safarjil (Cydonia oblonga),rashad (Lepidium sativum), hana (Lawsonia inermis),zanajabil (Zingiber officinale), sana (Senna alexandrina),khull (Ammi visnaga) and sabr (Aloe vera), according to
Table 5 Reviewed Saudi Arabian medicinal plant literature
Reference Study area N plantspeciesidentified
Ethnobotanical datacollection
Botanicalkeys used
Botanicalidentificationby experts
Herbaria Vouchers Vouchernumbersreported
Shalaby et al(1985)—bookin English [68]
Notspecified
160 Fieldwork to collect plantspecimens and records localnames
Yes Yes Umm Al-Qura University No No
Mossa et al(1987)—bookin English [35]
Notspecified
150 Not reported No No King Saud University No No
Abdulafatih(1987)—journalarticle inEnglish [59]
Asir regionandsurroundingareas (SWKSA)
61 Fieldwork documentation:local names, plant partsused and medicinal uses,reported
No Yes King Saud University(College of Education,Abha Branch)
Yes Yes
Al-Yaha et al(1990)—bookin English [63]
Notspecified
150 Not reported No Yes King Saud University Yes No
Ghazanfar(1994)—bookin English [36]
Arabianpeninsula
260 Fieldwork documentationand literature sources(1982–1993)
No Yes Sultan QaboosUniversity (Departmentof Biology; Sultanate ofOman)
Yes No
Rahman et al(2004)—journalarticle inEnglish [69]
Notspecified
254 Literature and herbariumsources (College ofPharmacy, King SaudUniversity, NationalHerbarium of Saudi Arabia)
No No King Saud University(College of Pharmacy,King Saud University,National Herbarium ofSaudi Arabia)
Yes No
El-Ghazali et al(2010)—journalarticle inEnglish [58]
Al-Rassprovince,Qassim area
47 Fieldwork documentation:interviews with local healersand knowledgeableBedouin; local names, plantparts used and medicinaluses, reported
No Yes Qassim University(Museum of Science,College of Science andArts, Al-Rass)
Yes Yes
Al-Sodany et al(2013)—journalarticle inEnglish [41]
Taif 261 (165medicinal)
Fieldwork documentation:interviews with localenvironments. Literature review
Yes Yes Kafr El-Sheikh University(Herbarium of BiologyDepartment, Faculty ofScience, Taif)
Yes No
Youssef(2013)—journalarticle inEnglish [70]
Qassim andcentral SaudiArabia
83 Fieldwork documentation:open-ended interviews.Literature review
Yes Yes Qassim University No No
Shahat et al(2015)—journalarticle inEnglish [71]
Tanhatprotectedarea, Riyadh
7 Not reported No Yes King Sud University(Medicinal and AromaticPlants ResearchDepartment, NationalResearch Centre;Herbarium of theFaculty of Pharmacy)
Yes Yes
Yusuf et al(2014)—journalarticle inEnglish [72]
Notspecified
61 Literature review Yes Yes King Saud University(Herbarium of theCollege of Pharmacy)
Yes Yes
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 21 of 24
the list provided by Al-Yahya [63]. Of these, only safarjil(Cydonia oblonga) had not been documented already inthe Saudi Arabian medicinal plant literature, which indi-cates a widespread influence of the Hadith in traditionalSaudi Arabian medicine both in urban and rural environ-ments. Moreover, the common use of mixtures among theresearch participants matches the recommendation madein ‘the Medicine of the Prophet’ that ‘city dwellers’ requirethe use of compound drugs (according to Deuraseh [39]).Specific modes of administration recorded among womenin Mecca are also recommended by prophetic medicine[37], specifically the use of food, milk, honey and dates asexcipients. This further evidences the influence of Islamicmedicine in lay medicinal plant use.
Dynamic female knowledgeAs in other Islamic countries, Meccan women are re-sponsible for dealing with most health issues within thehousehold and their medicinal plant knowledge isgender-specific. Gynaecological problems were fre-quently mentioned and toxicology and remarks aboutside effects often concerned women’s reproductive orchildren’s health, which are all references to gender-specific knowledge.Meccan women may learn about medicinal plants
from their family and social networks, but increasingly,written sources and mass media are becoming importantsources of knowledge. This, along with a higher prefer-ence for biomedical services amongst the younger gener-ation, could result in the erosion of medicinal plantknowledge. Ethnobotanical knowledge erosion has beenobserved in the Middle East both among herbalists [43]and the general population [36]. The diffusion of non-local knowledge about medicinal plants through massmedia is characteristic to urban settings [64] and has ahomogenizing effect on oral pharmacopoeias [65]. Massmedia often disseminates information on the uses andproperties of commercial plants, increasing their visibil-ity [66] and, alongside availability factors, could also
contribute to explain the high proportion of food andspices used among the Meccan women interviewed.Mass media is also used in Saudi Arabia to communi-
cate biomedical education programs [34]. Althoughthese campaigns may be necessary, they favour biomed-ical knowledge over traditional therapies. Loss of ethno-medicinal and ethnobotanical knowledge may resultfrom different treatment preferences between genera-tions. Higher preference for biomedical treatmentsamong younger Meccan women reflects the same trendamong rural Arabic populations elsewhere in Saudi Ara-bia [36, 43, 58]. Although Press [2] argues that the disre-gard of faith and the role of family in biomedicaldiagnosis and treatment are often sufficient to hamperthe utilisation of biomedicine, Ghazanfar notes that inthe Arabian Peninsula, ‘modern and traditional medicinemay be tried [simultaneously], or if one fails the otherwill be tried – but where modern medicine achieves re-sults, traditional medicine tends to disappear’ [36, p. 1].Biomedicine in Islamic countries integrates faith and hasa religious viewpoint on caring [38], but people may stillprefer home remedies for treating minor ailments [30,36] as observed in this study. Even when biomedicine isgrowing and herbal remedies may be in decline, medi-cinal plant use still plays an important role in urbanhealth care [2, 29, 30].
ConclusionWe join Emery and Hurley [67] in highlighting thevibrant botanical knowledge and practices in urbanareas. Women in Mecca are the primary householdhealth carers and hold a singular, lay body of medicinalplant knowledge to treat mostly common ailments. Plantavailability in shops and markets, as well as religioustexts, seem to play an important role shaping the urbanmedicinal flora of women in Mecca; we highlight the im-portant medicinal role in urban environments of foods,spices and traded plants in general. Much of this know-ledge had not yet been documented, and gender andgeographical biases in research may account for the
Table 6 Comparison of medicinal plants used by Meccan women (MW) identified at the species level (n = 95) with the inventoriesfrom selected literature sources. NA indicates that a source did not provide vernacular names or therapeutic uses
Reference (rural/urban) Total number ofspecies listed
New citations byMW
Species with differentvernacular names
Species with differenttherapeutic uses
Abdulafatih 1987 (rural)[59]
61 81 (85%) 84 (88%) 85 (89%)
Al-Sodany et al. 2013 (rural)[41]
165 82 (86%) NA NA
El-Ghazali et al. 2010 (rural)[58]
47 87 (92%) 88 (93%) 90 (95%)
Ghazanfar 1994 (not specified)[36]
260 43 (45%) 53 (56%) 55 (58%)
Total literature 486 39 (41%) 48 (51%) 79 (83%)
Alqethami et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:62 Page 22 of 24
under-representation of urban women’s knowledge inSaudi Arabian medicinal plant literature.However, medicinal plant knowledge among Meccan
women may be eroded and changed with the spread ofnew knowledge through mass media and preference forbiomedical care. Documentation efforts are urgent for thepreservation of the diversity of medicinal plant knowledgein the Arabian Peninsula. We propose that scientificallyrigorous ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal research‘acknowledging the sociocultural heterogeneity within thecommunity being researched’ [32, p. 242] in Islamic set-tings can be achieved by teams with both female and maleethnobiologists. Al-Sodany et al. [41] have reported thatmedicinal plants in rural Saudi Arabia are vastly under-documented, but so far, ethnobotanical enquiry of women’smedicinal plants has been even more overlooked.
AbbreviationsMW: Meccan women; NA: Not available
AcknowledgementsWe are truly thankful to the 32 adult women who participated in this studyand for sharing their time and knowledge. The authors would like to thankthe members of the Umm Al-Qura University Herbarium and the Universityof Reading Herbarium (RNG) for their collaboration and support, especiallyProfessor Kadry Abdel Khalik in the Umm Al-Qura University for validatingplant identifications. We would also like to express our gratitude to the twoanonymous reviewers whose comments helped improve the originalmanuscript.
FundingThis research has received support of the Saudi Arabian Cultural Bureau(SACB; Reference U590, Beneficiary: Afnan Mohammad HazimAlqethami). During this research, researcher I. Teixidor-Toneu was fundedby the European Union's Framework Programme for research, technologicaldevelopment and demonstration under grant agreement no. 606895.
Availability of data and materialsHerbarium specimens are available in the herbarium of the Umm Al-QuraUniversity (Mecca, Saudi Arabia). All datasets on which the conclusions of thepaper are based are made available as Tables 1, 2, 3 and 5 in thismanuscript.
Authors’ contributionsAA contributed to the conception and design, acquisition of the data, plantidentification, analysis and interpretation of data and writing of themanuscript; JAH contributed to the conception and design, interpretation ofthe data and writing of the manuscript and IT-T contributed to theconception and design, analysis and interpretation of the data and writing ofthe manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Ethics approval and consent to participateEthics approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the School ofBiological Sciences, University of Reading (Research Ethics Project SubmissionSBS15-16 11), and all participants freely consented to participate after beinginformed of the aims and methods of the project, as mentioned in the“Methods” section.
Consent for publicationConsent for the publication of this study was obtained verbally from allresearch participants. The manuscript does not include personal details,images or videos of the research participants; hence, a consent form has notbeen submitted.
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Publisher’s NoteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims inpublished maps and institutional affiliations.
Received: 26 June 2017 Accepted: 27 October 2017
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