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Research in Human

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Mindfulness-Based

Interventions in School

Settings: An Introduction to the

Special IssueJennifer L. Frank

a, Patricia A. Jennings

a& Mark T.

Greenberga

aPennsylvania State University

Published online: 09 Aug 2013.

To cite this article:Jennifer L. Frank , Patricia A. Jennings & Mark T. Greenberg

(2013) Mindfulness-Based Interventions in School Settings: An Introduction

to the Special Issue, Research in Human Development, 10:3, 205-210, DOI:

10.1080/15427609.2013.818480

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Research in Human Development,10(3), 205210, 2013Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1542-7609 print/1542-7617 onlineDOI: 10.1080/15427609.2013.818480

INTRODUCTION

Mindfulness-Based Interventions in School

Settings: An Introduction to the Special Issue

Jennifer L. Frank, Patricia A. Jennings, and Mark T. GreenbergPennsylvania State University

Interest in contemplative science, particularly the use of mindfulness-based

practices, has expanded rapidly in recent years. This special issue of Research

in Human Developmentexplores the potential effectiveness of mindfulness-basedpractices delivered in school settings. Articles included in this issue demonstrate

how mindfulness can be used to help to improve student-teacher relationships,

reduce ADHD symptomology, promote emotion regulation, and reduce stress among

school-age youth. A final reflective commentary by Roeser (this issue) describes how

study findings fit within the larger context of the contemplative sciences movement,

followed by suggestions for future research.

This special issue ofResearch in Human Developmentpresents a series of articles

on school-based interventions that draw from the perspective of contemplative

science. Contemplative science aims to apply knowledge from numerous schol-

arly disciplines (including developmental psychology, cognitive neuroscience,

phenomenology, and psychiatry; see Thompson, 2007) to better understand the

mindbody system by exploring knowledge and practices gleaned from the

worlds contemplative traditions. Contemplative science also aims to understand

whether and how secularized versions of practices such as mindfulness, medita-

tion, and yoga can relieve suffering and foster positive developmental processes

(Kabat-Zinn, 2003).

Address correspondence to Jennifer L. Frank, Pennsylvania State University, Prevention Research

Center, Room 316C - Biobehavioral Health, University Park, PA 16808. E-mail: jfrank@psu.edu

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206 FRANK ET AL.

Interest in contemplative science, particularly the use of mindfulness-based

practices, has expanded rapidly in recent years (Mind and Life Educations

Research Network, 2012). Although mindfulness has been defined in differentways, this term has been used to describe a particular kind of attention that is

characterized by an intentional focus on the present moment, and nonevaluative

observation of experience (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). Emerging consensus suggests

that mindfulness may be a trait and self-regulatory skill that can be cultivated

intentionally to promote greater levels of health and well-being (Baer, 2003;

Brown & Ryan, 2003).

A growing number of studies have demonstrated that development of these

skills is associated with a wide array of positive outcomes in adult populations

such as improved health, reduced anxiety (Miller, Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995),depression (Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002), substance use (Ostafin & Marlatt,

2008), and psychological distress in clinical and nonclinical populations (Shapiro,

Brown, & Biegel, 2007). General improvements in attention (Jha, Kropinger, &

Baime, 2007; Jha, Stanley, Kiyonaga, Wong, & Gelfand, 2010) and immune sys-

tem functioning (Davidson et al., 2003) have been reported as well. Recent meta-

analytic reviews concluded that on average, mindfulness based interventions have

medium effect size (d= .5) in adult populations across a number of mental health

outcomes, including depression, anxiety, sleep quality, and general psychological

functioning (Baer, 2003; Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004).

EMERGING RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF MINDFULNESS

WITH SCHOOL-AGE YOUTH

Promising findings within adult populations has promoted investigators to con-

sider the extent to which developmentally adapted practices might be applied

with children and youth in school settings. Numerous studies on the effects of

mindfulness-based practices with school-age children have been published (for

reviews, see Greenberg & Harris, 2011; Meiklejohn et al., 2012). Empirical

investigations of the effects of mindfulness-based practices among youth and

adolescents have documented improvements in attention skills (Napoli, Krech,

& Holley, 2005; Zylowska et al., 2008), social skills (Beuchemin, Hutchins, &

Patterson, 2008), sleep quality (Bootzin & Stevens, 2005; Britton, Haynes, Fridel,

& Bootzin, 2010), well-being in adolescent boys (Huppert & Johnson, 2010),

and reductions in anxiety, depression, somatic, and externalizing symptoms in

clinic-referred adolescents (Biegel, Brown, Shapiro, & Schubert, 2009; Bogels,

Hoogstad, vanDun, deSchutter, & Restifo, 2008; Semple, Lee, Rosa, & Miller,

2010). Recent reviews of this literature conclude that these results should only be

considered promising at this time due to the relatively weak designs, measures,

and the absence of follow-up data (Greenberg & Harris, 2011; Harnett & Dawes,

2012).

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INTRODUCTION TO A SPECIAL ISSUE 207

PURPOSE OF THE SPECIAL ISSUE

Although initial research findings have suggested that mindfulness can be aneffective tool in fostering positive development in youth, the research field of

mindfulness is still in the very early stages of development. Several critical

questions remain regarding if, and how, mindfulness might help to promote pos-

itive youth development and the circumstances under which mindfulness-based

practices might be indicated. In preparing this special issue, we solicited contribu-

tions representing a diverse range of approaches to conceptualizing mindfulness

and assessing outcomes. We included articles that represent a mixture of empir-

ical methods including group experimental studies, single-case investigations,

and mixed qualitative-quantitative studies. Populations include a wide range ofages (preschool, elementary, high school, and adults, e.g., teachers), intervention

targets (e.g., young children, adult, student behavior/cognition, teacher stress,

and classroom climate), and include examination of effects with clinical (e.g.,

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]) and nonclinical student pop-

ulations. This set of studies emphasizes socially valid outcome measures for

researchers in human development, such as the quality of student social inter-

actions, off-task and disruptive behavior, stress, and student self-regulation. They

also represent distinctive delivery system variations with some programs being

implemented universally, whereas others are delivered at the targeted or intensivelevels.

A noteworthy aspect of these articles is a focus on diversity of experimental

designs and the utilization of manualized intervention protocols that are either

currently (or in the process of becoming) available commercially. The inclusion of

such a wide variety of intervention protocols should provide for a rich opportunity

to compare and contrast intervention features and evidence for this relatively new

and emerging class of interventions.

We begin the issue with a contribution from Singh et al. (this issue) who

examined the effectiveness of an 8-week mindfulness-based training courseon preschool-age childrens behavior. This study is reflective of a top-down

approach to mindfulness in which providing mindfulness training to teachers is

targeted to change child behavior and studentteacher interactions. This study

contributes to the existing literature by providing preliminary evidence that train-

ing teachers in mindfulness results in changes in student behavior in preschool

settings. This study also provides direct empirical support consistent with the

prosocial classroom model that posits a relationship between teacher well-being,

mindfulness, teacher efficacy, and student outcomes (Jennings, Frank, Snowberg,

Coccia, & Greenberg, in press; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Jennings, Snowberg,Coccia, & Greenberg, 2011; Roeser et al., 2013). Moreover, the utilization of

single-case methodologies provides useful insight into the intensity and timing of

intervention responsiveness rarely examined in group design studies. The mixed

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208 FRANK ET AL.

findings reported by authors also provides valuable insight regarding for whom,

and under what conditions, mindfulness-based interventions delivered in school

settings may be effective.Carboni, Roach, and Fredrick (this issue) complement this work by examin-

ing the effectiveness of mindfulness-based training on the attention regulation

skills of young children with ADHD. The authors intervention protocol con-

sisted of implementation of components derived from a Mindfulness-Based Stress

Reduction (MBSR) program adapted for youth (Saltzman & Goldin, 2008).

A unique strength of this study is reliance on multimethod and multisource assess-

ment protocol including concurrent collection of parent and teacher behavioral

ratings combined with independent observational data. This study also provides

preliminary evidence for the feasibility and potential effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in the treatment of common behavioral concerns in school

settings.

The last empirical article by Metz et al. (this issue) examines the effective-

ness of a manualized mindfulness-based training program,Learning to BREATHE

(Broderick, 2013), on multiple dimensions of adolescent emotion regulation,

stress, and somatic symptoms. This study provides a strong example of a group-

based experimental design specifically targeted to meet the social-emotional needs

of adolescent. This study also provides some unique insight into the opportunities

and challenges associated with implementing mindfulness-based interventions atthe universal level in high school settings.

Finally, Robert W. Roeser provides a commentary that describes how each

of these articles fit within the larger goals of the contemplative science move-

ment. In his commentary, he describes the Contemplative Science Project, its

aims, philosophical framework, methods, and phenomena of interest. He also

highlights the key features and findings of each article and addresses the role

mindfulness-based interventions may play in optimizing human development

across the lifespan.

In summary, we are just beginning to learn how mindfulness-based approachesmay promote positive developmental outcomes among children in youth in school

settings. The articles in this special issue offer evidence that the approaches

reported here are feasible and effective. More research is required to under-

stand the mechanisms that underlie the effects of these approaches. These articles

provide important contributions to the process of building such an evidence base.

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