contents material/social_science-vi...investigatory projects ... the early people did not know how...

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iii

Key Features of the Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv-vi

HISTORY 1. What, Where, How and When . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 2. The Earliest Societies: On the trail of the Earliest People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3. The First Farmers and Herders (From Gathering to Growing Food) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4. The First (Earliest) Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 5. Different Ways of Life (What Books and Burials tell us) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 6. Kingdoms, Kings and an Early Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 7. Rise of New Questions and Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 8. The First Empire: Ashoka, The Emperor who gave up War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 9. Vital Villages, Thriving Towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 10. Contacts with Distant Lands: Traders, Kings and Pilgrims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 11. Political Development: New Empires and Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 12. Culture and Science: Buildings, Paintings and Books. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

GEOGRAPHY 13. The Solar System and the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 14. Globe, Latitudes and Longitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 15. Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 16. Motions of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 17. Realms of the Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 18. Continents, Oceans and Associated Landforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 19. India: Location, Size and Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 20. India: Climate, Vegetation and Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

CIVICS 21. Meaning of Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 22. Diversity, Prejudice, Stereotypes and Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 23. What is Government? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 24. Key Elements of the Democratic Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 25. Panchayati Raj in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 26. District Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 27. Urban Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 28. Rural Livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 29. Urban Livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

CONTENTS

iv

KEY FEATURES OF THE SERIES

In Other Lands

Into the Iron Age

Iron was the master material of the early

Industrial Revolution. It was used for a

wide variety of purposes, from pots and

pans to pipes and girders, from buildings

to boats. In the new iron age, Britain led

the way.

In Other LandsThis section deals with information on most important personalities or events from other countries and helps students go beyond the realm of their classroom.

Time TravelImagine you are the Portuguese explorer, Vasco-da-Gama who was the fi rst person to successfully sail directly from Europe to India. You have returned to Portugal after the voyage. Describe how your country welcomed you, and how you were honoured with rewards or privileges.

Time TravelSpecially-developed questions help students think beyond textbooks in ways that connect them with the past. These role-play activities deal with various skills.

Our HeritageFilled with unlimited information, this section helps us connect the present to the past. The idea is to simply help students understand and appreciate the rich history of India.

The newspapers, like, Times of India, Hindustan Times, Pioneer and Statesman, started publication in the 19th century during the British rule and are published even today.

Our Heritage

v

Case StudyDesigned to propagate PSA, the section throws challenging tasks at students to help them think critically and more....

In the 18th and 19th centuries, there were festivals in which a devotee underwent a peculiar form of suffering, as part of ritual worship. One such ritual was the ‘hook swinging festival’. This festival was held in certain Bhagvati temples.

CASE STUDY—HOOK SWINGING FESTIVAL

Explore!The section helps students develop awareness towards resources and their conservation and remedial action. All these activities foster higher order thinking skills.

Explore!Find out how land use pattern has

changed in your neighbourhood

in the past ten years. Collect

photographs, if possible, and

make a presentation in class.

Investigatory ProjectsTheme-based projects encourage students to learn through in-depth research. The section helps lessen their burden of choosing the topics and types of projects.

Project Work (a) Find in the details, what happens when

Emergency is proclaimed by the President? (b) What is the work of the Attorney General,

Auditor General of India? (c) Differentiate between Ambassadors and High Commissioners. (d) Find out the procedure for the election of the President. (e) Find the name of the President who was elected unanimously. (f) Find the names of those Prime Ministers who died in offi ce.

vi

DiscussionsGroup discussions and field trips introduce students to ailing issues, such as water and air pollution, global warming and its effect on atmosphere, etc.

Field Trip Visit a national archive and fi nd how the documents are preserved.

Speak Your Mind!The section helps students to recognise political and economic effects in society. It helps them develop critical thinking skills.

Speak Your Mind!

Imagine you come across a 9-year old

boy working in a tea shop near your

locality. What are the thoughts that will

strike your mind in that moment? Do

you think it is okay for a minor to be

working in India? Share your views in

class.

Speak Your Mind!

Projects/ActivitiesTheme-based project and activities enable students understand the trends and concepts through the medium of hands-on experience.

Project Work(a) Find out about ‘Rugmark’. Write how does it protect the children from child labour.(b) The United Nations issued a document called Declaration of Human Rights on 10 December 1948. Find what is contained in this document. Make a book report.

9

Textbook Reference Pages: 11-20

Objectives

• Tofamiliarisethelearnerwiththemajordevelopmentstobestudied • Todevelopanunderstandingofthesignificanceofgeographicaltermsusedduringthetimeframe • Toillustratethesourcesusedtoreconstructthehistory

Overview

• Wheredowecomefrom?Howdidwegrowfromanapetoamanoftoday?Thesequestionsmaysoundveryphilosophicalandpracticallyuseless,buteverythingwedoinvolveshistory.

Yes,historyhasshapedwhoweare,andoureverydaylives. • HistoryhelpsustoknowabouttheancientIndia—itsculture,religions,customs,values,foodhabits,

lifestyle,etc. • Itisthroughhistorythatwecometoknowabouthowtheeventstookplaceinthepast,whenandwherethey

occurred,andthereasonforthemtohappen.

Answers to exercises in the book

A. 1. (a) 2.(d) 3.(a) 4.(b) 5.(c) B. 1. Historyisanessentialpartofhumanlife.Thevariousaspectswhichwestudyinhistoryformthe

overallpersonalityof the societyand thepeople.Thus,history is the studyof the entirepastofhumankindwhichismillionsofyearsold.

2. Thestudyofhistoryisimportantinthesensethatitservesasasystematicrecordofthepastevents.Thisenablesustofigureoutwhat,where,howandwhencertainthingshappenedintheancienttimes.

3. Thetermwesternoriginallyhadaliteralgeographicmeaning.ItcontrastedEuropewiththelinkedcultures and civilisations of theMiddle East andNorthAfrica, SouthAsia, Southeast Asia andthe remoteFarEast,whichearly-modernEuropeans sawas theEast.Western chronology is thearrangementofsignificantsocial,economicandpoliticaleventsintheirorderofoccurrenceintimethathadhappenedintheseregions.

4. Thepeople kept onmoving in ancient times in search of livelihood and to escape fromnaturaldisasters such as floods anddroughts.At times, peoplemarched in armies in order to conquerothersland.Themerchants,inordertosellandbuymerchandise,usedtotravelfromplacetoplacewithcaravansorships.Thereligiousteachersalsousedtomovefromplacetoplacetospreadtheirmessage.Moreover,someadventurouspeopleusedtotravelwithanobjectiveofdiscoveringnewandexcitingplaces.

What, Where,How and When

10

5. ThemainsourcesofreconstructingancientIndianhistoryarearchaeologicalsourcesandliterarysources.

6. IndiawasknownasAryavartaintheVedicPeriodandBharatvarshainthePauranicPeriod. C. 1. (d) 2.(e) 3.(a) 4.(c) 5.(b) D. 1. History 2.Historian 3.Narmada 4.Rice,Vindhyas 5. Aryavarta 6.Harappan 7.Ashoka,Kandahar E. 1. False 2.False 3.True 4.False 5.True

Extra activity

FindoutthenamesofthecitiesthatstartedcomingintoexistenceonthebanksofRiverGanga4700yearsago.Writeashortnoteononeofthesecities,highlightingthesocioeconomiccharacteristicsofthatcity.

11


Objectives

• Toappreciatetheskillsandknowledgeofhunter-gatherers • Toidentifystoneartifactsasarchaeologicalevidenceandmakedeductionsfromthem • ToknowaboutthreeperiodsoftheStoneAge

Overview

• TheStoneAgeisabroadprehistoricperiodduringwhichstonewaswidelyusedtomakeimplementswithasharpedge,apoint,orapercussionsurface.

• Theperiodlastedroughly3.4millionyears,andendedbetween6000BCEand2000BCE. • Akindofstonecalledflintwasusedtocutthings,huntanimals,cultivate,ignitefire,etc. Rocksheltersandcaveswerethehomesoftheearlyhumanbeings.Forthesereasons,thisperiodis

calledtheStoneAge. • Scholars, for theirconvenienceof study,divided theStoneAge into threeperiods—PaleolithicAge,

4Mesolithicage,andNeolithicAge.


A. 1. (a) 2.(b) 3.(d) 4.(b) 5.(a) B. 1. Thehunter-gatherersmovedfromplacetoplacebecausetheywouldconsumeavailableplantand

animal resources if they stayed at oneplace for a long time. The hunter-gatherers had tomovebehindanimalswhichwentinsearchofsmallerprey,grassandleaves.Theearlypeopletoohadtomovefromseasontoseasoninordertosearchfordifferentkindsofplants.Also,thepeoplelivingontheriverbankshadtomoveinsearchofwater.

2. Theearlypeopledidnotknowhowtogrowvegetablesorgrains,sotheygenerallyhuntedwildanimals,caughtfishandbirds,andaterawmeat.Theygatheredfruits,roots,nuts,seeds,leaves,stalksandeggsinordertosatisfytheirappetite.

3. Theearlypeopleusedtoolsmadeofchippingstonesthatwereusedforhuntingandotherpurposes.Theyweremainlyoftwokinds—coretoolswhichwereusuallyovalorv-shaped;andflaketoolssuchascleaversandchoppers.

4. Factory sites are places where stones were found and where people used it for making tools.Habitationsitesareplaceswhereearlypeoplelived.

5. Wecannotsaywithsuretywhetherdivisionoflabourwasprevalentinearliestsocieties.Theearlypeopleperformedanumberofjobssuchashunting,gatheringplantproduce,makingstonetoolsandpaintingcaves.Mostofthese jobsweredonebothbymenandwomentogether.Thereweresomejobs,however,whichweredonebymen,andsomebywomen.Itisalsopossiblethatdifferentpracticesmighthavebeenfollowedindifferentpartsofthesubcontinent.

The Earliest Societies

2

12

C. 1. The people of the Early Stone Age have been described as hunter-gatherersbecausetheydidnotknowhowtogrowvegetablesorgrains.Hence,theyhuntedwildanimalsandgatheredfruits,nuts,roots,seeds,leavestosatisfytheirhunger.

2. The discovery of fire was accidentalbecauseinthebeginning,thehumanbeingsdidnotknowhowtomakefire.Itwasthestrikingtogetheroftwopiecesofstonesknownas‘flint’thatproducedthespark.Itburstintoaflamewhenitcameintouchwithdryleavesandtwigs.

D. 1. paintings 2.caves,rockshelters 3.Flint 4. Stone 5.hunter-gatherers E. 1. True 2.False 3.True 4.False 5.True

Extra activity

Arrange the class into five groups. Ask each group to draw a chartshowing thevarioususesof stones in theStoneAge.Tell themtoalsodrawthepicturesofthestone-madetoolsofdifferentshapesandsizes,specifyingtheirdifferentuses.Putthebestchartondisplayintheclass.

13

The First Farmers and Herders

3Textbook Reference Pages: 30-39

Objectives

• Toappreciatethediversityofearlydomestication • Toidentifythematerialculturegeneratedbythepeopleinrelativelystablesettlements • Tounderstandthestrategiesforanalysingthese

Overview

• TheNewStoneAge,alsocalledastheNeolithicAge,isaperiodduringwhichtheearlymanstartedcultivatingfields,rearinganimals,makingclaypotsusingwheel,andlivinginhuts.

• Itcommencedwiththebeginningoffarming,andendedwhenuseofmetaltoolsbecamewidespread. • TheNeolithicperiodisaprogressionofbehaviouralandculturalcharacteristicsandchanges,including

theuseofwildanddomesticcropsandofdomesticatedanimals. • Thepeopleofthisperiodfelttheneedofsettlingdownatoneplaceonlywhentheylearnttheartof

agricultureinthisperiod.


A. 1. (c) 2.(a) 3.(b) 4.(b) 5.(c) 6.(a) 7.(c) B. 1. Earlyhumanswerehuntersandgatherers.They livednomadic lives.But towardstheendof the

MesolithicAge,theyaccidentallycametoknowhowtogrowplantsandgrains.Seedsindiscardedvegetableremainsmighthavesproutedandsuggestedthemagicallinkbetweenseedsandplants.Thus,humanbeingslearntthattheycouldgrowplantsbyputtingseedsinthesoilandwateringit.

Theimpactofcultivationwasthatthepeoplestartedlivingasettledlifeatoneplace.Thevillagecommunities came into existence. Commercial activities were encouraged because of surplusproduction.Agriculturaltechnologytookoffandexploitationofthenaturalresourcesbegan.

2. Peopleengagedincropcultivationhadtostayinaplaceforalongtimebecausetheyweresupposedtolookaftertheirfields.

3. Someofthesitesofthefirstfarmersandherdershavebeenfoundalloverthesubcontinent.Someoftheimportantonesarelocatedinthenorth-west,inpresentdayKashmirandinEastandSouthIndia.

4. Intermsofdwellings,tracesofhutsorhouseshavebeenfoundfromthesites.Thehutsweremadeofmud,wattleanddaubaswellasbranchesof trees.Poleswereusedto forma frametowhichbranchesandthatchwereattached.Theareasaroundthehutswereprobablysurroundedeitherbyamudwallorbyafenceofsomepricklybush.

5. Theinventionof thewheelmadelifeeasierandcomfortableforman.It improvedthemakingofpottery.Manstartedmakingbeautifulclaywareon thewheel.Thewheelhelpedman inmakingcarts,whichhelpedincarryingheavyloads.Ithelpedhumanstotravelfromoneplacetoanother.Itprovidedaboosttothecommercialactivities.Thewheelactedasabaseforcottonspinning.

14

6. First, theherdersand farmers liveda settled life as compared to thehunter-gathererswhowerenomads.Second,whilehunter-gathererslivedinrocksheltersandcaves,herdersandfarmerslivedinhuts.Third, theherdersand farmersused toolswhichweremorepolishedandwelldesignedunlikethehunter-gathererswhousedcrudetools.

C. 1. Human beings accidentally came to know how to grow plants and grainsbecauseearlyhumanswerehuntersandgatherers.Theylivednomadiclives.ButtowardstheendoftheMesolithicAge,theyaccidentallycametoknowhowtogrowplantsandgrains.Seedsindiscardedvegetableremainsmighthavesproutedandsuggestedthemagicallinkbetweenseedsandplants.Thus,humanbeingslearntthattheycouldgrowplantsbyputtingseedsinthesoilandwateringit.

2. Dead bodies of Neolithic people were buried or crematedbecausetheNeolithicpeoplewereafraidofdeathandperformedanumberofritualsonone’sdeath.Theybelievedthatthedeadmustbeprovidedwithalltheamenitiesoflife.Peoplebelievedinvariouskindsofgoodandbadomens.

D. 1. Neolithic 2.Domestication 3.12,000 4.Mortars 5. Pit-dwellings 6.Archaeologists E. 1. False 2.True 3.False 4.False 5. False 6.False

Extra activity

Askthestudentstoreadthechaptercarefully,andidentifytheimportantchangestheearlyhumanbeingsfacedintheirlifeintheNeolithicAge.Tellstudentstodrawaflowchart,depictingthesechangesinasystematicmanner.

15

The First (Earliest) Cities


Objectives

• Toappreciatethedistinctivelifeincities • Toidentifythearchaeologicalevidenceofurbancentres • Tounderstandhowthisisusedtoreconstructprocessessuchascraftproduction

Overview

• TheriseofcitiesalongtherivervalleysintheBronzeAgemarkedthebeginningofacivilisation.Itisthatstageofhumandevelopmentwhichisconsideredthemostadvancedstageofsocialdevelopmentandorganisation.

• The first civilisation developed in Asia is the Indus Valley Civilisation (also called the HarappanCivilisation)inHarappa(inPunjabprovinceofPakistan)anditssurroundingsinthevalleyofRiverIndus,developedaround4700yearsago.

• AtechnologicallyadvancedurbancultureisevidentintheIndusValleyCivilisation,makingitthefirsturbancentreintheregion.Thequalityofmunicipaltownplanningintermsofsewerageanddrainagesuggeststheknowledgeofurbanplanningwhichplacedahighpriorityonhygiene.


A. 1. (a) 2.(d) 3.(c) 4.(a) 5.(c) 6.(d) B. 1. ThemainfeaturesoftheHarappanCivilisationwere—townplanning,theCitadel,theGreatBath,Large

hall,granariesandaltars,houses,drainsandstreets,citylife,newcrafts,makingpots,manufacturingofcloth,metalcasting,makingofornaments,makingofseals,sculpture,weightsandmeasures,andtheartofwriting.

2. ThefoodoftheHarappansincludedwheat,barley,rice,millet,pulses,fruits,vegetables,milk,gheeandmeat.Theyatemeatofdeer,crocodile,sheepandgoat.Theyalsoconsumedfishandeggs.ThediscoveryofrubbingstonequernssuggeststhattheHarappansusedanumberofspicestomaketheirfoodtastyandinteresting.

Also,agriculturewasthemainoccupation.Theygrewcropsandrearedanimals.Thefarmersandherderssuppliedfoodtocraftspersons,scribesandrulers.CottonwasanimportantproductoftheHarappancivilisation.

3. ThefoodoftheHarappansincludedwheat,barley,rice,millet,pulses,fruits,vegetables,milk,gheeandmeat.Theyatemeatofdeer,crocodile,sheepandgoat.Theyalsoconsumedfishandeggs.ThediscoveryofrubbingstonequernssuggeststhattheHarappansusedanumberofspicestomaketheirfoodtastyandinteresting.

4. AlargenumberofspindlewhorlshavebeendiscoveredwhichindicatethattheHarappanpeoplewereskilledintheartofweaving.

16

5. TheHarappancivilisationdeclinedduetothefollowingfactors: i) TheIndusRiverkeptshiftingitscourse.Asaresult,thearealostitsfertilityandwasdeserted. ii) Accordingtosomescholars,thecivilisationdeclinedbecauseofdeforestation.Thismighthave

happenedbecauseof theneed for fuel tomakebricksandforsmeltingcopper.Moreover, thegreencovermayhavebeendestroyedduetoovergrazingbycattle.

iii) Theareawasheavilyfloodedfrequently.Itwasravagedbyearthquakesaswell. iv) Theremighthavebeenconflictsbetweenthepeoplelivingincitiesandthevillagepeople. v) Thecivilisationflourishedbecauseoftrade.Withadeclineintrade,thecitiestoodeclined. vi) Duetosomescholars,thecivilisationcametoanendbecauseitsrulersmusthavelostitscontrol. vii) Andfinally,barbarianinvasionsmusthavecausethedeclineofthecivilisation. C. 1. False 2.True 3.False 4.True 5.True D. 1. (c) 2.(e) 3.(d) 4.(a) 5.(b) E. 1. Neolithic 2.Bronze,civilisation 3.Harappa,Mohenjo-daro 4. Copper,bronze 5.Lothal,Sabarmati

Extra activity

Askstudentstocollectthepicturesofvariousobjectssuchasutensils, ornaments, tools, seals, etc., used by the people ofHarappancivilisation.PastethemonacharttodepictthelifeofpeoplelivingintheHarappancivilisation.

17


Objectives

• To appreciate that different developmentswere taking place in different parts of the subcontinentsimultaneously

• Tointroducesimplestrategiesoftextualanalysis • Toreinforcetheskillsofarchaeologicalanalysisalreadydeveloped

Overview

• TheVedic civilisation is the earliest civilisation in the history of ancient, India associatedwith thecomingofAryans.ItisnamedaftertheVedas,theearlyliteratureoftheHindupeople.

• TheVedasareacollectionofhymns,prayers,charms,rituals,etc.,thatformthebasisoflearningforthehistoriansofIndia.TheRigveda,oneofthefourVedas,throwslightonthepolitical,social,economicandreligiousconditionsoftheearlyVedicperiod.

• InRigveda,onecanlearnaboutcattle,horses,andchariots;armyandmodeofwarfare;politicallifeoftheVedicAryans;thepeople,theirlifestyle,culture,rituals,etc.

• Megalithic culture, which originated in South India after the Stone Age, witnessed the iron-usingculture.


A. 1. (c) 2.(b) 3.(c) 4.(d) 5.(c) 6.(a) 7.(c) B. 1. DuringtheearlypartoftheVedicperiod,theIndo-AryanssettledinnorthernIndia,bringingwith

themtheirspecificreligioustraditions.Theassociatedculturewasinitiallyatribal,pastoralsocietycentred in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. It spread after 1200 BCE totheGangesPlain,asitwasshapedbyincreasingsettledagriculture,ahierarchyoffoursocialclasses,andtheemergenceofmonarchical,state-levelpolities.

2. TheRigvedathrowsimportantlightonthepolitical,social,economicandreligiousconditionsoftheearly-Vedicperiod.Hence,itisanimportantsourceforreconstructingVedichistory.

3. TheSabhaandSamitiweretwopopularandsignificantbodiesoftheAryans.Here,thepeoplemettodiscussmattersofwarandpeace.Theyplayedavitalroleinchoosingtheleaders.Usually,braveandskillfulwarriorswerechosenasleaders,andSabhaandSamitiassistedtheking.

4. Historiansbelievethatvariousobjectsfoundfromburialssuggestsocialdifferencesexistedinthesociety.Manyatimes,moreobjectswerefoundinonegrave.Forexample,askeletonwasburiedwith33goldbeads,2stonebeads,4copperbanglesand1conchshellinBrahmagiri.Someotherskeletonshavebeenfoundwithonlyafewpots.Allthesediscoveriesrevealthatthereweresomevariations,perhaps,oneconomicbasis, in statusamongst thepeople.While somewere rich, theotherswerepoor,somewerechiefsandotherswerefollowers.

5. Fromskeletalstudiesweknowthatpeople,perhaps,belongingtothesamefamily,wereburiedatthesameplace,thoughatdifferenttimes.Itseemsthatportholeswereusedtobringthebodiesof

Different Ways of Life

5

18

thelaterdeadpeopleintothegrave.Stonecirclesorbouldersplacedonthesurfaceperhapsservedassignpoststohelppeopleidentifytheburialsites.

C. 1. (b) 2.(g) 3.(e) 4.(a) 5.(g) 6.(d) 7.(c) D. 1.Wisdom 2.Sukta 3.IndoEuropeanIndianlanguages 4.Property 5.SouthIndia 6.Markburialsites 7.Ghod E. 1. False 2.True 3.False 4.True 5.False

Extra activity

TellstudentstowriteashortnoteonthesignificanceofthefourVedasinthepresentIndianSocietyIndia.Then,discussthemintheclass.

19

Kingdoms, Kings and an Early Republic


Objectives

• Tointroducetheconceptofstateanditstypes • Tounderstandtheuseoftextualsourcesinthiscontext • TointroducethegrowthofJanapadasandMahajanapadas

Overview

• Around3000yearsago,somemencametoberecognisedasRajasbytheirperformingbigsacrificessuchasAshvamedhaYajna.

• During the later Vedic Age, the society was divided into four groups, called Varnas—Brahmins,Kshatriyas,Vaishyas,andShudras.Eachvarnahadadifferentroletoplayinthesociety.

• TheterritorieswherethepeoplesettleddownindifferenttractslikePanchal,Surasena,Kosala,Magadha,etc.,cametobeknownasjanapadas.Theyarenamedaftertherulingclanineacharea.Janapadaswereeitherrepublicormonarchy.

• Around2500years ago, some janapadas, becauseof their ambitionof expansion andoccurrenceofmutualconflicts,grewintoMahajanapadasandhadtheirrespectivecapitals intheformoffortifiedcities.


A. 1. (d) 2.(c) 3.(b) 4.(a) 5.(c) 6.(c) 7.(a) 8.(c)and(d) 9.(a) 10.(d) 11.(d) 12.(a) B. 1. AshvamedhaYajnarefers tohorsesacrifice.Ahorsewas letoff towander independentlyfor the

whole year. Itwas followedby the chosen soldiers of the raja. If the raja of any other kingdomstoppedthehorseanddidnotallowittopassfreelywithinhisterritory,hehadtofightwiththesoldiersoftherajaperformingthesacrifice.Butifthehorsepassedunrestrainedanduncheckedintootherkingdoms,itmeantthattheconcernedrajaswerereadytoconsiderthatrajaasstrongerthanthem.Theserajasweretheninvitedtothesacrifice.Thesacrificewasperformedbyspeciallytrainedpriests.

2. The societywasdivided into fourgroupsorvarnas.These comprised theBrahmins,Kshatriyas,VaishyasandShudras.Eachvarnahadadifferentsetofduties.

3. Therepublicswereadministeredbyelectedtribalcouncils.Therewasnohereditaryking.Powerwasheldbyagroupofselectedpersonsoraselectedchiefoftheheadsoffamiliesorclans.Ontheotherhand,themonarchieswereruledbyhereditarykings.

4. Fortificationshelpedinprovidingshelterandprotectiontothepeopleagainst theattackofotherkings.Moreover,somerulerswantedtodisplaytheirpowerandresourcefulnessbyconstructinghuge, tall and impressive walls around the cities. Fortification perhaps helped in running thegovernmentsmoothly.Thekingcouldeasilycontrolthelandandpeoplelivinginsidethefortified

20

area.Fortificationalsoprovidedameansoflivelihoodtothepeople.Constructionofsuchlargeandhighwallsrequiredhugemanpower.

5. Thekingsofmahajanpadasbuilt forts becauseof their ambitionof expansionandoccurrenceofmutualconflicts.

6. Women,dasasandkammakaraswerenotallowedparticipationintheGanas. 7. ManyfactorscontributedtotheriseandexpansionofMagadha.TheMagadhaEmpireenjoyedan

advantageousgeographicalposition.Itwassecuredfromallsides.Second,rivers liketheGanga,SonandChampahelpedinimprovingtransport,watersupplyandfertilityofland.ThickforestsinMagadhawereamimportantsourceofprovidingwoodtobuildchariots,carsandhouses.Moreover,elephants living in the forests couldbe tamedand trained forwarfare.Rich ironoredeposits inMagadhaenabledtherulerstomakethemselvesequippedwitheffectiveweapons.Theyalsohelpedinthegrowthofagriculture.

C. 1. Thenewrulersstartedtomaintainlargearmiesinordertoprotecttheirsocietyandtomaintainlawandorderintheirreign.

2. Therulersofmahajanpadasstartedcollectingregulartaxesbecauseoftheirambitionofexpansion.Theyrequiredhugemoneyforbuildingforts,formaintainingabigarmyandforappointingofficialsforcollectingrevenue.

3. BimbisaraestablishedmatrimonialallianceswithpowerfulstatesinordertomakeMagadhastrongandpowerful.

4. Alexander’sadvancementwashaltedattheRiverBeaswhenhistroopsrefusedtoproceedfurtherbecausehistroopshadlefttheircountry10yearsagoandcontinuouswarfarehadmadethemtiredandexhausted.

D. 1. True 2.True 3.False 4.True 5.True 6. True 7.True E. 1. priests 2.Mahajanpadas 3.untouchables 4.Brahmin 5. hereditarykings 6.transplanting 7.ironore

Extra activity

• Ask students towrite anote ononeof the ancient fortifiedcitiesofIndia,highlightingthesalientfeaturesofthatcity.

• You can take students to Jaipur,which is consideredas theprominent fortified city of India, to show them the ancientarchitecturalwork.

21

Rise of NewQuestions and Ideas


Objectives

• Tooutlinethebasictenetsofthereligioussystemsofthought,andthecontextinwhichtheydevelopedandflourished

• Tointroduceexcerptsfromsourcesrelatingtothesetraditions

Overview

• Withthepassageoftime,theVedicreligionwitnessedashiftinthethinkingfromthematerialistictothephilosophicalandspiritualwayoflife,suchaslifeafterdeathandtheimportanceofsacrifices.

• ThewordUpanishadcametobeusedforthesecretknowledgeimpartedbytheGurustotheirselectedpupils. TheUpanishadas are the culmination of ancient Indian philosophical ideas in the formofwrittentreatises.

• BothJainismandBuddhismweremotivatedbythephilosophyoftheUpanishads.Theirideasaboutkarma,soul,rebirth,moksha,ahimsa,etc.,originatedfromthe108Upanishadscomposedbyvarioussaintsandsagesbetween800and500BC.

• Boththereligioussectsbelievedthatonecouldnotgaintrueknowledgewithoutdetachingoneselffromtheworldthoroughly.Hence,thesanghasandviharas(alsocalledasmonasteries)werebuilttoaccommodatesuchpeople.


A. 1. (b) 2.(b) 3.(a) 4.(c) 5.(b) 6.(a) B. 1. ThecausesthatledtotheriseofJainismandBuddhismweremanifold.TheVedicphilosophyhad

lostitsoriginality.Itwasreducedtoabundleofbulkyrituals.ThesacrificesprescribedbytheVedashadbecomeverycomplicated.TheVedicreligionhaddegeneratedintosuperstitions,dogmasandrituals.Thepracticeofanimalsacrificeinyajnaswasahurdleforagriculture.Also,thecastesystemhadbecomeveryrigidandbrutal.Alowcastepersoncouldnotperformritualsorstudythereligioustexts.ThesupremacyoftheBrahminsoverothercastescausedunrestanddissatisfaction.Moreover,allthereligioustreatiseswerewritteninSanskrit,alanguageoftheelite.Hence,themassesbegantoaspireforareligionwhichcouldbeexplainedintheirownlanguage.

2. MahaviraSwamipreachedthatmokshaorsalvationcouldbeattainedbyobservingthetriratnasorthreejewelsnamely,rightknowledge,rightfaithandrightconduct.Helaidemphasisonthefivevowsofnon-violence, truth,non-stealing,non-possessionandcelibacy.He taught that salvationcanbeattainedbyausterepenanceandfasting.HedeniedtheexistenceofGodasthecreatoroftheuniverse.Healsodenouncedthecastesystemandfavouredemancipationofwomen.

3. TheteachingsofMahavirabecameverypopularamongthemassesandregisteredawidegrowthinMalwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. It gained popularity particularly in the tradingcommunity.

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4. TheessenceofBuddhismliesinthefournobletruths—Dukkha,Samudaya,NirodhaandMagga.HeadvisedhisfollowerstofollowtheNobleEight-foldPathtodestroydesire.Hegaveamessageofnon-violence,pity and love for all creatures.Buddhabelieved that the resultsofourkarmas,whethergoodorbad,affectusbothinthislifeandthenext.AccordingtoBuddha,Nirvanaistheultimateobjectiveofthehumanlife.HerefusedtoacknowledgetheimportanceofVedicritualsandthesuperiorityoftheBrahmins.

5. GautamBuddhakepthisteachingsverysimple.HepreachedinPali,thelanguagespokenbythemasses.

6. ThemagneticpersonalityofMahatmaBuddhainfluencedthekingandpauperequally.Thecommonmassesneededa simpleandpractical religionwhich they found inBuddhism.The teachingsofBuddhismwereverysimple.Hence,peoplestartedembracingitinlargenumbers.BuddhismwaspreachedinPali,thespokenlanguageofthemasses.TherewasnoroomforcasticisminBuddhism.Hence,thelowcastepeoplecameunderitsinfluence.Buddhismisahighlyflexiblefaith.Itcouldadaptitselfeasilytotheneedsofallcountries.ThekingslikeAshoka,Kanishka,MilindaandHarshaextendedroyalpatronagetoBuddhism.Thus,thisishowBuddhismspreadlikerapidfireacrosstheworld.

C. 1. True 2.True 3.False 4.False 5.False 6.False D. 1. Panini 2.Jainas 3.Shwetambaras,Digambaras 4.Buddha 5.Sarnath

Extra activity

AskstudentstosearchforsomefamousmonasteriesofIndia.Tellthemtocollectthepicturesofthesemonasteries,andpastethemonachart.Writetwolinesoneachmonasterydepictedinyourchart.

23

The First Empire8Textbook Reference Pages: 84-96

Objectives

• Tointroducetheconceptofempire • Toshowhowinscriptionsareusedassources • TointroducetheMauryanDynastyanditsadministration

Overview

• Aseriesofrulers,allbelongingtothesamefamily,isknownasdynasty.TheemperorChandragupta,hissonBindusaraandhisgrandsonAshokaformedtheMauryanDynasty.

• TheconquestofKalingawasthefirstandlastvictoryofAshoka’slife. TheKalingaWarleftadeepimpactonAshoka’slifeandinspiredhimtoestablishDhammafortheupliftofhispeople.

• AstheMauryanEmpirewasverylarge,itwasdividedintofiveprovinces;eachprovincewasruledfrom the provincial capital.Governor, also known as ‘Kumar’ or ‘Aryaputra’,was the chief of theprovincialadministration.

• Provincesweresubdividedintodistrictsknownas‘Ahar’or‘Vishya’.ThePradeshikawastheheadofdistrictadministration.


A. 1. (b) 2.(b) 3.(d) 4.(a) 5.(b) B. 1. ChandraguptaMaurya founded theMauryanEmpiremore than2300yearsago.Hewasagreat

warriorandbuiltupavastempire.He,withthehelpofChanakya,orkautilya,ruledforabout25yearsandwassucceededbyhissonBindusara.

2. TherewereanumberofproblemsthatAshokawantedtosolvebyestablishingtheDhamma.First,hissubjectsprofessedvariousreligions.Itresultedinconflictsmanytimes.Peopledidnottreattheirslavesandservantskindly.Therewasalackofmutualloveandamityamongthefamilymembersandalsoamongneighbours.

3. Ashokawantedto invadeKalingabecause itwasan independentstateontheborderof thevastMauryan Empire.Hewanted tomake it a part of his empire. Kalinga controlled both the landandsearoutestoSouthernIndia.Kalingawasanimportantcentreofcottontextile.Itcouldbringprosperitytotheempire.Kalingawasapowerfulstate.ItseverincreasingpowercouldendangerthesecurityoftheMauryanEmpire.

4. OveronelakhpeoplewerekilledintheKalingawar,severallakhsperishedandalakhandahalfweremadeprisoners.TheterriblebloodshedthatoccurredshookthevseryinnerselfofAshoka.Hewassohorrifiedthathedecidednottofightanywarinfuture.Hewastheonlykingwhogaveupthepolicyofconquest.Headoptedthepathofnon-violence,charity,truth,loveandbrotherhood.

5. AshokatriedtospreadDhammabysettinganexamplehimself,organisingpilgrimages,appointingtheDhammaMahamattasandbyrockedicts,etc.HeappointedDhammaMahamattas,whowentfromplacetoplaceteachingpeopleaboutdhamma.Ashokagothismessages inscribedonrocks

24

andpillarsandgotthemerectedonimportantroadsandplaces.AshokasentmessengerstoothercountrieslikeSyria,Egypt,GreeceandSriLanka.

6. SpecialattentionwaspaidtotheadministrationofimportantcitieslikePataliputra,Taxila,Ujjain,ToshaliandSuvarnagiri.AnaccountofMegasthenesetellsusthatPataliputrawasadministeredbyacouncilofthirtymembers.Itwasfurtherdividedintosixboards,eachconsistingoffivemembers.Eachboardwasallottedspecificresponsibilitiestowardstheadministrationofthecity.

7. OneoftheordersofAshokastatedthatoneshouldtreatallcreatureswithcompassion.Thisensuredthatslavesandservantswouldhavebeentreatedcompassionately.

8. InordertospreadBuddhism,Ashokasetpersonalexample.Hegaveupallthepleasuresoflifeandabandonedmeateatingandhunting.HedeclaredBuddhismasastatereligion.Thus,peoplewereautomaticallyattractedtoit.HeorganisedseveralpilgrimagestoBuddhistholysites.HehimselffollowedtheBuddhistprincipleofahimsa.Hebannedanimalsacrificeduringreligiousfestivals.AshokaresortedtowidepropagationofBuddhism.HegottheprinciplesofBuddhismengravedonpillars,rocks,stonesetc.,andgotthemerectedonimportantroadsandplacesofhisempire.HesenthismissionariesinforeigncountrieslikeSriLanka,BurmaandNepaltopropagateBuddhism.

C. 1. first 2.Ahar 3.Ashoka 4.taxes 5.Governor 6. roads,rivers 7.elephants,timber 8.Greek D. 1. (d) 2.(e) 3.(f) 4.(a) 5.(b) 6. (g) 7.(c)

Extra activity

Discuss with the students importance of the principles ofDhammainthepresent.Askthemhowtheseprinciplesaffectoursociety.

25

Vital Villages, Thriving Towns


Objectives

• Todemonstratethevarietyofearlyurbancentres—coastaltowns,capitalsandreligiouscentres • Toillustratetheuseofarchaeologicalmaterialincludingcoins,sculpture,aswellastextualsourcesto

reconstructsocialandeconomichistories

Overview

• People in the villages were categorised as—large landowners; ordinary ploughmen; and landlesslabourers.Thevillageheadman,alsoknownasGramabhojaka,wasgenerallythelargestlandownerofthevillage,andisresponsibleforcollectingtaxesfromthevillagefortheking.

• TheJatakatales,writtendownbytheBuddhistmonks,playavitalroleinlearningaboutanumberofcitiesandthelifestyleofpeopleofthatperiod.Thefindingsofthearchaeologists,thesculpturesmadebytheartists;andthemanuscriptswrittenbythescholarshelpinfindingaboutthecitiesoftheancientperiod.

• Coinsalsohelpusgreatlyinfindingoutabouttheancientcities.Theearliestcoinsdiscoveredfromanumberofsitesarecalledaspunch-markedcoins,asthenameortitleofthekingwhoissuedthecoinswaspunchedonthemetalpieceofsilverorcopper.

• Thetownsweresmallerinsizeinthebeginning.Butasthetownbecameacapitalandgainedimportanceasacentreofparticularcraftortrade,itgrewbothinsizeandsignificance.


A. 1. (b) 2.(a) 3.(c) 4.(a) 5.(wine) 6.(b) 7.(c) 8.(c) B. 1. Withthewideruseofironandtheinventionofnewtoolsandimplements,moreandmoreland

wasbroughtundercultivation.Itresultedinagriculturalintensification.Newvarietiesofcornandfruitsbegan tobecultivated.Whilenewtoolsand thesystemof transplantationhelped increaseproduction,irrigationwasalsoused.Canals,wells,tanks,artificiallakes,etc.,werebuiltduringthistimeforirrigationalpurpose.

2. At least three different types of people—large landowners; ordinary ploughmen; and landlesslabourers—livedinmostofthevillagesinthesouthernandnorthernpartsofthesubcontinent.

3. ThevillageheadmanwasknownastheGramabhojaka inthenorthernpartofthecountry.Thepostof theGramabhojakawashereditary.Usually, thegramabhojakawas the largest landownerof thevillage.Hehadanumberofslavesandhiredworkerstocultivatehisland.Hewasverypowerfulinthesensethatthekingoftengavehimtheresponsibilitytocollecttaxesfromthevillage.Hehadtoperformadministrativedutiesaswell.Hefunctionedasajudgeandsometimesasapolicemantoo.

4. Weaversanddyers 5. Travellers,sculptorsandarchaeologistshelpsignificantlyinfindingaboutcities.Scenesdepicting

26

peoples’livesintowns,villagesandforestswerecarvedbythesculptors.Manyofthesesculptureswere used as decorative pieces in railings, pillars and gateways of buildings. Thus, the peoplevisitingthesebuildingscametoknowaboutthecitylife.

Also,thearchaeologistshavediscoveredrowsofpotsorceramicringsarrangedoneontopoftheotherinseveralcities.Theseareknownasringwells.Generally,theseringwellshavebeenfoundinindividualhouses.Scholarsbelievethattheywouldhavebeenusedastoiletsinsomecasesandasdrainsandgarbagedumpsinothers.

C. 1. cultivated 2.planned 3.Sangam 4.Iron 5.Dasakarmakara 6. Jataka 7.Arikamedu,occupation D. 1. True 2.False 3.True 4.True 5.False 6. False 7.False

Extra activity

BrowsetheInternettofindouttheimportantcentresoftextiletradeinIndia.Writeashortnoteonit.

.

27

Contacts with Distant Lands


Objectives

• Tointroducetheideaofdifferentcontextsofcontactbetweendistantlands,andthemotivatingforces(includingconquest)

• Toexaminetheimplicationsofjourneyswithinthesubcontinent • Toillustratetheuseoftextualandvisualmaterialforreconstructingthehistoriesofsuchcontacts

Overview

• Presence of Roman gold coins in southern India suggests that India had trading relations withcontemporary countries right from the middle of about third millennium BC. Traders, kings andpilgrimscontributedgreatlyinestablishingcontactswithdistantlands.

• We come to know from Sangam literature that trade in general and maritime trade in particularcontributedgreatlytothewealthofTamilNadu.

• VarioussearouteswerediscoveredbythetradersacrosstheArabianSeaandtheBayofBengal,asthemonsoonwindswerehelpfultothesailorstoreachswiftly.ThefamoussilkroutebeginsfromChinaandcoversalmostthewholeofAsiauptotheCaspianSea.

• Silk route proved to be a significantmedium for themutual exchange of different cultures of thecontemporaryworld.


A. 1. (a) 2.(d) 3.(c) 4.(a) 5.(b) 6.(a) B. 1. TheCheras ruled over an area comprising thenorth ofTravancore,Cochin and SouthMalabar.

UdiyanjeralwasthefirstimportantCheraruler.HissonandsuccessorNedunjeralAdanexpandedtheboundariesof theCherakingdomtoaconsiderableextent.Accordingto theCheratradition,kingSenguttavanwasthegreatestrulerofthisdynasty.TheCheracapitalwaslocatedatVanji.

TheChola kingdomwas located between Pennar and Velar rivers. Itwas popularly known asCholamandalam.Inthebeginning,UraiyurinTiruchirapalliwasitscapital.LateritwastransferredtoPuhar.

2. Historians came to know from Sangam literature that trade in general and maritime trade inparticularcontributedgreatlytothewealthofTamilham.AtPuhar,theCholacapital,thereweremerchant colonies which spoke different languages. Constant traffic flowed through city gatesofMadurai. Thereweredealers of conchbangles, gold, salt, textile, copperware, perfumes andsandalpaste.Horsesandotherrichescamefromthenorth.High-piledsacksofpepperweretakenbyYavanas(Romans)inexchangeofgold.SpikenardwasimportedfromtheGanga;whereassilk,tortoiseshellandbetelleafcamefromSouth-EastAsia.

3. ThemostcommonformofgovernmentintheSangamAgewashereditarymonarchy.Thecrownedkingsheldanimpressivecourt.Theeldestsonofthereigningkinggenerallysucceededtothethrone.

28

Thekingdidnotcollectregulartaxes,butreceivedgiftsfromthepeople.Theonlysignificantsourceofrevenuewasthelandtax.

4. Kingswantedtocontrolthesilkroutebecauseitwasasignificantmediumforthemutualexchangeofdifferentculturesofthecontemporaryworld.

5. InordertospreadBuddhism,KanishkadeclaredBuddhismasastatereligion.HerepairedtheoldviharasandconstructednewonesatTaxila,KashmirandMathura.HealsogavelotsofmoneyincharitytoBuddhistmonksfortheirlivelihood.KanishkaorganisedthefourthBuddhistcouncilatKundalvaninKashmirtoerasetheevilsthathadcreptintoBuddhism.HeconstructedmanystupasandsentmissionariestoforeignlandssuchasChina,Japan,TibetandCentralAsia.ThestatuesofMahatmaBuddhawereinstalledthroughoutthelengthandbreadthofthecountry.

6. HinayanawastheoriginalandunchangedformofBuddhism,whereasMahayanawasitsnewandamendedform.HinayanaregardedBuddhaasapioussoul;whereas inMahayana,BuddhawasworshippedasaGod.TheHinayanasectdidnotbelieveinidolworship,buttheMahayanasectworshippedimagesofBuddhaandBodhisattvas.

7. TheChinesepilgrimscametoIndiabecausetheywantedtovisitplaceswhichwereassociatedwiththelifeofBuddhaandalsotherenownedmissionaries.

8. Bhakti implies aperson’sdevotion to his or her chosendeity. Thepeople following thepath ofBhaktiopenlydenouncedthedogmasandrituals.Theybelievedthatmokshaorsalvationcouldbeattainedonlythroughtheutmostdevotion.

C. 1. traders 2.rivervalleys 3.Threecrownkings 4. Cholamandalam 5.WesternIndia 6.7000yearsago 7. KushanaDynasty D. 1. In SangamAge,manypoets composedpoems inpraise of the chiefs because they becamevery

powerfulinSouthIndiaaround2300yearsago. 2. ThesystemofBhaktiemphasizestheunityofGodinthesensethatitisbelievedthatifadevotee

worshipsthechosendeitywithpureandsincereheart,thedeitywillappearinthedesiredform.Thus,thedeitycouldbethoughtofinanyform—itmaybehuman,lion,treeoranyotherform.

E. 1. (e) 2.(g) 3.(h) 4.(f) 5.(d) 6.(c) 7. (a) 8.(b) F. 1. True 2.False 3.False 4.True 5.False

Extra activity

AskstudentstomakealistofthegoodsinwhichIndiatradeswith its neighbouring countries like Pakistan, Nepal, China,SriLanka,etc.

29

Political Development


Objectives

• Tointroducetheideathatstrategiesofexpansionandtheirlogicdiffer • Toexplainthedevelopmentofdifferentadministrativesystems • Tounderstandhowprashastisandcharitasareusedtoreconstructpoliticalhistory

Overview

• TheGuptaDynasty,whichflourishedinthefourthcenturyAD,reignedformorethan200yearsintheNorthernIndiaandwascalled‘TheGoldenPeriod’oftheancientIndianhistory.

• Samudragupta’sPrashasti,apoemwritteninSanskritinpraiseofGuptaDynasty,providesanelaborateaccountofthecareerandpersonalityofSamudragupta.HefollowedanaggressivepolicyofconquestsfortheexpansionandstabilisationoftheGuptaDynasty.

• SamudraguptawassucceededbyhisablesonChandraguptaII.He,likehisfather,wasagreatconquerorandanableadministrator.HismostsignificantvictorywasagainsttheShakaswhoruledoverMalwa,GujaratandKathiawad.

• ThereweresomeotherdynastiesalsosuchasthePallavasandtheChalukyasthatruledinSouthIndiaandthePushyabhutiDynastythatruledovernorth-eastIndiaduringtheGuptaperiod.


A. 1. (b) 2.(a) 3.(c) 4.(b) 5.(c) 6.(b) 7.(a) B. 1. PrashastisorinscriptionshelpusinreconstructingancientIndianhistorybyprovidingsignificant

information about aparticulardynasty.Take for instanceSamudragupta’sprashasti. It providesvaluable information of the Gupta Dynasty. It provides an elaborate account of the career andpersonalityofSamudragupta.Ittellsuswhatagreatwarriorandconquerorhewas.

2. HarishenawasthecomposeroftheAllahabadprashashti.IttellsusaboutfourdifferentkindsofrulersthatSamudraguptawonover.

3. WhileSamudraguptadefeatedtheninerulersofAryavartaandannexedtheirkingdomsintotheGupta Empire, he defeated the twelve rulers of Dakshinapatha, and instead of annexing theirkingdoms,hereturnedtheirkingdomtothem.

4. Thevillagecontinuesasthebasicunitofadministration.Someimportantpostsweremadehereditary.Manyatime,morethanoneofficewasholdbyoneperson.ImportantpersonslikeNagar-shreshthi,Sarthavaha,Prathama-kulikaandPrathama-kayasthaexercisedinfluenceinmatterspertainingtolocaladministration.

C. 1. ‘Inpraiseof’ 2.thecourt 3.Ganarajya 4. Pushyabhuti 5.Chalukya D. 1. True 2.False 3.True 4.False 5.False 6. False

30

E. 1. (c) 2.(a) 3.(d) 4.(e) 5.(b)

Extra activity

ChandraguptaII’scourthadKalidasasoneoftheninejewelsamonghisNavratnas.WriteashortnoteonthelifeandworksofKalidas.

31

Culture and Science


Objectives

• Todevelopasenseofappreciationoftextualandvisualtraditionsoftheperiod • Tointroduceexcerptsfromtextsandvisualsforanalysisandappreciation • Tounderstandgrowthinthefieldofscienceandcultureinancienttimes

Overview

• MagnificentstupasofSanchi,Bharut,Amaravati,andSarnathareremarkableexamplesof thegreatarchitecturalworkoftheancientIndia.

• The rock-cut caves such as the caves of Ajanta and Ellora, excavated in the Deccan region, werebeautifullydecoratedwithsculpturesandwallpaintings.

• BeautifulHindutempleswithGarbhagriha,ShikharaandMandapaareexcellentexamplesofancientarchitectureofIndia.

• ThegreatepicslikeSilappadikaram,Manimekalai,thePuranas,theRamayana,theMahabharata,theJatakasandthePanchatantrausedtodepicttheancientcultureandreligionsofIndia.


A. 1. (b) 2.stupas 3.(a) 4.(b) 5.(d) B. 1. TheironpillarlocatednearQutabMinarisanexcellentexampleoftheskillofIndiancraftspersons.

Itisasolidshaftofpure,rustlesswroughtiron.Itis7.2mhighandweighsover3tons.AninscriptiononthepillarmentionsarulernamedChandra.

2. Theword‘stupa’meansamound.Stupasareofvariouskinds,suchasroundandtall,bigandsmall.Stupashave ahemisphericaldomeormoundbuilt over some sacred relic. There is a small boxplacedatthecentreofthestupa,containingtheremnantsofthedeadbodysuchasteeth,bone,ash,etc.Theboxisthencoveredwithearth.Thenalayerofmudbrickorbakedbrickwasplacedonthetop.Later,carvedstoneslabswereplacedonthedome-likestructuretocoverit.Generally,apathsurroundedwithrailingswaslaidaroundthestupa.Thereweregatewaystoenterthepath.Therailingsandgatewaysweredecoratedwithbeautifulsculpture.

3. Almostallthetempleshadabighall,calledmandapa,wherethepeopleassembledformassprayersandimportantreligiousrituals.Peoplewouldgatherinlargenumbers,dressedintheirfinestattires,toattendthesacredceremonies.

4. SilappadikaramwasapopularTamilepiccomposedbypoetIlango.Itwaswrittenaround1800yearsago.ItnarratesthestoryofamerchantnamedKovalan.Despitehavingawife,hefellinlovewithacourtesannamedMadhavi.Later,KovalanwithhiswifeKannagileftPuharforMadurai.However,atMadurai,thecourtjewelerofthePandyakingwronglyaccusedhimoftheft.Consequently,hewassentencedtodeathbytheking.However,Kannagistilllovedhim.ItwasbecauseofherdeepsorrowandangerthattheentirecityofMaduraimetitsend.

32

5. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata were the two great epics written in Sanskrit. Usually,theauthorshipofRamayana is assigned toValmikiand thatofMahabharata toVedVyasa.TheRamayanaisaboutRama,aprinceofAyodhyawhowassentonanexilefor14years.HiswifeSitaandbrotherLakshmanaaccompaniedhim.Whileinexile,SitawasabductedbyRavana,thekingofLanka.RavanahadtofightabattletogetbackSita.Ravanawasdefeatedandkilled.RamareturnedtoAyodhyaandbecametheruler.

TheMahabharatatellsusaboutawarragedbetweentheKauravasandthePandavas.Theywerecousins.ThedesireofKauravastooccupythethroneandcapitaltriggeredthewar.

C. 1. Chandra 2.common 3.reliccasket 4. Aryabhatta 5. Puranas 6.Valmiki 7.Silappadikaram,Manimekalai D. 1. True 2.False 3.True 4.False 5.False 6. False 7.False E. 1. (d) 2.(e) 3.(a) 4.(g) 5.(b) 6. (c) 7.(f)

Extra activity

Makeachartusingthepicturesofcaves,stupasandtemplesoftheancientIndia.Alsowriteacaptionforeachpicture.

35

The Solar System and the Earth


Objectives

• Tounderstandwhatthesolarsystemis • TolocatethepositionoftheEarthinthesolarsystem • Toknowotherheavenlybodiesinthesolarsystem

Overview

• ThesolarsystemconsistsoftheSun,theeightplanetsandtheirsatellitesandothercelestialbodiessuchasasteroids,meteoroidsandcomets.

• TheSunisthecentreofthesolarsystem.ItisanultimatesourceofenergyforlifeontheEarth.HydrogenandHeliumarethemaingasespresentintheSun.

• EarthisthethirdplanetnearesttotheSun,andistheonlyplanethavinglife.Duetovastwatersurface,itlooksbluefromspace,therefore,alsoknownastheblueplanet.

• Moon,anaturalsatelliteoftheEarth,isabout1/4ththesizeoftheearth.Satellitesarecelestialbodiesthatrevolvearoundtheplanets.


A. 1. (c) 2.(b) 3.(b) 4.(b) 5.(a) 6.(d) 7.(d) 8.(c) 9.(a) 10.(b) B. 1. SolarsystemisafamilyofeightplanetswiththeSunasitscentre. 2. Celestialbodiescompriseasteroids,meteorsandcomets. 3. Mercury,Venus,Earth,Mars,Jupiter,Saturn,UranusandNeptune 4. PlanetsshinebecausetheyreflectthelightoftheSunthatfallsonthem. 5. StarsarefoundinvastclusterscalledGalaxy.Manygalaxiesofdifferentshapesandsizesarepresent

intheuniverse.Eachgalaxyisavastclusterofstars,dustandgases.Theyareallpartsoftheuniverse.TheSunbelongstoagalaxycalledMilkyWay.

6. Waxingandwaningarethetwophasesofthemoon.ItappearstobegettingbiggerandsmallerduringdifferentnightsbecauseofthechangeinangleoftheMoonandtheSun.

7. Weseethesamesideofthemoonnightafternightbecauseittakes27days,7hoursand43minutestocompleteonerevolutionaroundtheEarthandapproximatelythesametimetocompleteonespin.

8. TheEarthiscalledaBluePlanetbecauseofitsvastwatersurface.Itlooksbluefromspace. 9. Satellitesarecelestialbodiesrevolvingaroundtheplanets. C. 1. 6000°centigrade(approx.) 2.Lightyears 3.1.3seconds 4. Nebula 5.gravity 6.Hailey’sComet 7. Mercury 8.Jupiter 9.aconstellation

36

D. 1. MeteoroidsaremillionsofchunksofrocksorbitingtheSun.SomeofthesemeteoroidscollidewiththeEarth’satmosphereandburnbrightly,whileothers fallwitha flashof light called ‘shootingstars’.

Ontheotherhand,asteroidsarenumeroustinyrockbodiesmovingaroundtheSun.Theyareverysmallplanets.MostasteroidsorbittheSunintheasteroidbeltbetweenMarsandJupiter.

2. Satellitesarecelestialbodiesrevolvingaroundtheplanets.Theyarealsocalledmoons.Satellitesaresmallerthanplanets.Theyalsoshinebyreflectingthelightfromthesunlikeplanets.

Ontheotherhand,planetsrevolvearoundtheSunduetogravity.However,alltheplanetsarenotvisibletousduetotheirdistancefromtheEarth.Theydonottwinklebutshinelikebrightstars.PlanetsmovearoundtheSuninadefinedpathcalledorbit.Alltheplanetsaresphericalinshapebutvaryinsize,temperatureandcomposition.Someplanetshavetheirownsatellites.

3. SomestarsformapatterncalledconstellationwhilestarsfoundinavastclusterarecalledGalaxy.EachGalaxyisavastclusterofstars,dustandgases.

4. MercuryisthesmallestplanetandisnearesttotheSun.Jupiteristhelargestplanet.Itisabout11timeslargerthantheEarth.

E. 1. True 2.True 3.False 4.False 5.False F. 1. (e) 2.(a) 3.(d) 4.(b) 5.(c)

Extra activity

Askthestudentstowriteashortnoteonthetopic—‘TheEarth:OurBluePlanet’inabout150words.

37

Globe, Latitudes and Longitudes


Objectives

• TostudythemodeloftheEarth:Globe • Toknowwhatlatitudesandlongitudesare • Tounderstandthesignificanceoflatitudesandlongitudes

Overview

• Globeisathree-dimensionalmodeloftheEarthwhichshowsthetilt,theactualshapeandtherelativepositionofthecontinentsandoceans.It ismountedonastandwithitsaxistiltedby23½°fromthevertical.

• Latitudesarethelinesdrawnparalleltoequatorontheglobe,runningfromeasttowest.ThesizeoftheselinesdecreasesfromEquatortothenorthandthesouthdirections.Equatorrepresents0°latitude.

• Longitudesarevertical lineson thegloberunning fromnorth tosouthbetween thepoles.TheyaremeasuredfromthecentreoftheEarth.PrimeMeridianisthelongitudenumbered0°.Allthelongitudesareofequallength.

• Crossingoflatitudesandlongitudesacrosstheglobeformsanetworkoflinescalledgrid.ThisisusedtolocatethepositionofanyplaceonEarth.


A. 1. (a) 2.(d) 3.(c) 4.(b) 5.(c) 6.(a) 7.(d) 8.(b) 9.(a) B. 1. TheshapeoftheEarthisspherical.ThismeansthattheEarthisflatinitsnorthernandsouthern

extremesandbulginginthemiddle. 2. Crossingoflines,latitudesandlongitudesontheglobeformanetworkoflinescalledgrid. 3. Theworldisdividedinto24timezones. 4. Standard time is adopted because ifwe follow local time, then itwould be inconvenientwhile

travelling from east to west or west to east directions. The standardmeridian of India is 82½°longitude.

5. Equator,TropicofCancerandTropicofCapricorn 6. Allthemeridiansmeetatthepoles. 7. TorridZoneishottestbecauseitreceivesmaximumheatoftheSunduetoverticalsunraysfallingon

it.FrigidZoneiscoldestbecausetheSundoesnotriseabovethehorizon.TheSunraysareslanting. 8. SincetheEarthisroundandrotatingonitsaxis,someplaceswillseetheSunandotherswillremain

indarkness.Thus,daysandnightsarecaused. 9. UnequalfallingoftheSunraysduetothesphericalshapeoftheEarthhasgivenrisetoheatzones. 10. Latitudesandlongitudesareimportantinthesensethattheyhelpusfindlocationsontheglobe. C. 1. False 2.True 3.True 4.True 5.True

38

D. 1. rotation,day,night 2.TropicofCancer,TropicofCapricorn 3. ArcticCircle,AntarcticCircle 4.23½°North,23½°South 5. TropicofCancer,TropicofCapricorn,moderate 6. Meridian,India 7. 82½°East E. 1. Globe is known as an actual model of the Earth becauseitshowsthetilt,actualshapeandrelative

positionofthecontinentsandoceansnearperfection. 2. To know the local time, standard time has been adopted because it is fixed according to the

locationofthecentralmostlongitudeofthecountry.Moreover,followinglocaltimewouldmakeitinconvenientwhiletravellingfromeasttowestorwesttoeastdirections.

F. 1. The imaginary lines drawn parallel to equator are termed as latitude. They run from east towestdirectionaround theEarth.The sizedecreases fromequator tonorthand southdirections.Longitudes,ontheotherhand,areverticallinesonthegloberunningfromnorthtosouthbetweenthepoles.Theyarearcsorhalfcirclesontheglobe.Allthelongitudesareofequallength.

2. TemperateZoneislocatedbetweentheTropicofCancertoArcticCircleandTropicofCapricorntoAntarcticCircle.TheSunraysneverfallverticallyinthiszone.TheSunisneveroverhead.TheangleoftheSun’srayskeepsondecreasingfrom23½°to66½°bothnorthandsouthofequator.Thiszoneisneitherhotnorcold,butexperiencesmoderatetemperatures.Ontheotherhand,TorridZonereceivesmaximumheatoftheSunduetoverticalsunrays.ItrangesbetweenTropicofCancertoTropicofCapricornandreceivesverticalsunraysatleastonceayear.ItisthehottestzonewhichneverexperienceswintersontheEarth.

3. Localtimeisthetimeofaplacewhiletravellingfromeasttowestorwesttoeastdirections.Ontheotherhand,standardtimeisafixedtimeaccordingtothelocationofthecentralmostlongitudeofacountry.

Extra activity

Tell the students to draw the picture of a globe on a chart,depicting various continents and oceans in the northernhemisphere and the southern hemisphere. Colour thesecontinentsusingdifferentcrayonsandcolouralltheoceansinblueandwritetheirnamesonit.

39

Maps15Textbook Reference Pages: 152-160

Objectives

• Todevelopfamiliaritywiththeessentialcomponentsofamap • Todevelopbasicskillsofmapreading • Toshowacomparativestudybetweenmapsandglobes

Overview

• Mapisatwo-dimensionalgraphicalrepresentationoftheEarth’ssurfaceorapartofitonaflatsurface.Itisadiagrammaticrepresentationofanareaoflandorseashowingphysicalfeatures,cities,roads,etc.

• Avarietyofinformationcanberepresentedonmaps,suchasvegetation,wildlife,minerals,agriculture,industries,climate,etc.

• Themostcommonlyusedmapsare—politicalmaps,physicalmaps,thematicmaps,andtopographicmaps.

• Thethreemajorcomponentsofamapare—distance,direction,andsymbolsandcolours.


A. 1. (c) 2.(c) 3.(c) 4.(d) 5.(d) 6.(c) 7.(b) 8.(c) B. 1. AmapisagraphicalrepresentationoftheEarth’ssurfaceorapartofitonaflatsurface.Whilemap

istwodimensional,theglobeisthreedimensional.GlobesaresmallandcanbeusedtopresentonlybasicinformationabouttheEarth.ButdetailedinformationabouttheEarthcanbeseeninthelargemaps.Mapscanrepresentcountries,continentsandsmallareasaswell,whichtheglobecannot.Mapscanbeeasilytransportedandservesmanypurposes.Buttheglobeisnotalwaysportableandgiveslimitedinformation.

2. Large distance ofworld is represented by a small distance on paper. This ratio between actualdistanceoftheEarthandthedistanceonmapiscalledscale.

3. Thefourcardinalpointsarenorth,south,eastandwest. 4. 11cm 5. Asketchisaroughdrawingbasedonobservationormemory.Theyareneverdrawntoscale.A

sketchcanbedrawnmoreeasilyascomparedtomapsorplans. 6. Therearefourtypesofmaps: i)Politicalmap—mapofIndia ii)Physicalmap--mapshowingseas iii)Thematicmap—mapindicatingdistributionofminerals iv)Topographicmap—mapshowinghuts,temples,mosques,railwaystation,etc. 7. Thematicandtopographicmaps 8. Politicalandphysicalmaps 9. Bluerepresentswaterbodies,greenrepresentsplainsandbrownrepresentshighlands.

40

10. Standardised symbols are referred to as conventional signs. It is the code language used bygeographers.POstandsforpostoffice.PSstandsforpolicestation.

C. 1. sketch 2.Mauve 3.Atlas 4.Large-scale,standardised 5. survey 6.Distance,direction,symbolsandcolours 7.Map D. 1. True 2.False 3.True 4.False 5.False 6. False 7.True E. 1. Sketch:Asketch isa roughdrawingbasedonobservationormemory.Theyareneverdrawnto

scale.Asketchcanbedrawnmoreeasilyincomparisontomapsandplans. Plan:Aplanisadrawingofasmallareaonalargescale.Itgivesdetailedinformationofsmallareas. 2. Politicalmapsshowinternationalandnationalboundaries,continentsandstates.Thematicmaps

focusonspecificinformation.Suchmapscanbeseeninanatlas.

Extra activity

TellstudentstolocateanytencapitalcitiesofIndiaonamap.Findoutthedirectioninwhichyourcapitalcityislocatedonthemap.

41

Motions ofthe Earth


Objectives

• ToknowthattheEarthisconstantlyinmotion • TolearnabouttheEarth’stwomotions:revolutionandrotation • Tounderstandtheeffectsofthetwomotions

Overview

• ItisduetotheEarth’smovementthattheSun,theMoonandtheStarsappeartochangetheirpositioninthesky.TheEarthrotatesonitsaxisfromwesttoeast,andcompletesonerotationin24hours.RotationoftheEarthcausesdayandnight.

• TheEarthrevolvesaroundtheSunalong theellipticalpath,completingoneround in365daysand6hours.These6hoursofeachyearareaddedtoformonedayin4consecutiveyears,whichisthe29thFebruaryoftheleapyear.

• VariousseasonsarecausedduetotherevolutionoftheEartharoundtheSun.Revolutionshowsthattropicalareasreceivemaximumsunshineandheatwhilethepolarregionreceivestheleastsunshineandhencefaceseverecold.


A. 1. (b) 2.(a) 3.(b) 4.(c) 5.(a) 6.(d) 7.(d) B. 1. Rotation,revolution 2. DayandnightiscausedbytherotationoftheEarthandrevolutionoftheEarth. 3. WhenanextradayisaddedtothemonthofFebruarywhichgenerallyhas28days,itiscalledleap

year.Hence,everyfourthyear,Februaryhas29days.Suchayearhas366days. 4. 66½° 5. SeasonsarecausedduetotherevolutionoftheEartharoundtheSun.Allseasonsfolloweachother

anditiscalledcycleofseasons. 6. Circleofilluminationisthecirclewhichdividesthedayfromnight. 7. PeopleinAustraliacelebrateChristmasinsummerseasonbecauseduetotherevolutionoftheEarth

roundtheSun,theAntarcticCircletotheSouthPoleremainsinconstantlightforsixmonths. 8. Ifsomeone’sbirthdayfallson29thfeb,onehastowaitfornextfouryearstocelebrateonesnext

birthday,asitisaleapyear. C. 1. days,nights 2.seasons 3.inclined 4. west,east 5.Circleofillumination D. 1. Dawn:Itistheearlyperiodbetweendarknessandsunrise. Twilight:Itistheperiodbetweensunsetandcompletedarkness. 2. Equinox:Whentheworldexperiencesequaldaysandequalnights,itiscalledequinox.

42

Solstice:When theArcticCircle to theNorthPoleexperiences continuousdaytime forabout sixmonths;andwhentheAntarcticCircletotheSouthPoleexperiencescontinuouslightforsixmonths,thisprocessiscalledSolstice.

3. Rotation:ItisthespinningoftheEarthonitsaxis. Revolution:ItistheannualmovementoftheEarthalongitsorbitcausingseasons. 4. Sunrise:ApartoftheEarth’ssurfacethatemergesfromdarknessexperiencessunrise. Sunset: WhenapartoftheEarthisobscuredfromtheraysoftheSun,itiscalledsunset. 5. 21st March:Itisthespringinthenorthernhemisphereandautumninthesouthernhemisphere. 23rd September:Itisautumninthenorthernhemisphereandspringinthesouthernhemisphere. E. 1. True 2.False 3.False 4.True 5.True

Extra activity

Askstudentstomakealistofthecountriesthatfaceextremelyhotsummersorextremelycoldwinters.

43

Realms ofthe Earth


Objectives

• TounderstandwhatprovidestheidealconditiontosupportlifeontheplanetEarth • ToknowaboutthefourrealmsoftheEarthandtheirimportance • TounderstandtheinterrelationshipoffourrealmsoftheEarth

Overview

• Land,airandwaterpresentonEarthprovidesustenanceandenvironmentnecessaryforplants,animalsandhumanbeingstolive.Together,theyformnaturalenvironment.

• The major realms (components) of the earth’s environment are—Lithosphere (land), Hydrosphere(water),andAtmosphere(air).Biosphere–theentireregionofEarth’ssurface,water,andair,inhabitedbylivingbeings,isrecognizedasthefourthdomain.

• Lithosphereisformedofsolidcrustorrocksandsoil.Presenceofvariouslandformssuchasmountains,hills,plateaus,etc.,givesitvaryingshapes,surfacesandheights.

• Hydrospherecovers71%oflandsurface.Seaandoceanarethebigwaterbodiesinwhich97.3%ofthetotalwaterisfound.Oceans,riversanddeeplakesprovidenavigationalfacilitiesfortrade.

• Atmosphereismainlycomposedof78%nitrogen,21%oxygen,15othergaseslikehelium,argon,carbondioxide,etc.


A. 1. (c) 2.(c) 3.(b) 4.(a) 5.(a, c) 6.(b) 7.(b) 8.(a) 9.(c) 10.(c) B. 1. Lithosphere,hydrosphereandatmosphere 2. Biosphere,referredtoasthefourthdomain,isthepartoftheEarthinhabitedbylivingorganisms–

plantsandanimals. 3. AtmospherebeingthegaseouslayerisheldtotheEarthduetotheforceofgravityandweight. 4. Nitrogen,oxygen 5. Ozonelayer 6. Physicalenvironmentcomprisesnon-livingthingssuchasair,landandwater.Biologicalenvironment

compriseslivingthingssuchasplantsandanimals. 7. Chlorofluorocarbon.Thisgasisusedinairconditioners,refrigerators,andinaerosolspraycansof

deodorantsandperfumes. 8. 2.7% 9. TheEarthiscalledaBluePlanetbecauseitistheonlyplanetonthesolarsystemthathaswater. C. 1. i) Dischargeofuntreatedindustrialandchemicalwaste; ii) dischargeofsewerage,urbananddomesticwaste. 2. i) Pollutionbythermalpowerstations,industrialgasesandgasesreleasedbyvehiculartraffic;

44

ii) Increasingcarbondioxideleadingtoglobalwarming. 3. i) Waterisrequiredfordrinking,cooking,washing,andbathing; ii) Waterisneededforindustrialprocessingandcoolingofmachine; iii) Agricultureishighlydependentonwaterforirrigation; iv) Forceofrunningandfallingwaterisconvertedintohydropower. 4. Duetodecreaseintheoxygencontentinthehigherlayerofatmosphere 5. Differenceinpressurecausesatmosphericgasestomovefromoneplacetoanother. 6. Airisnotfitforbreathingnowadaysbecauseofthepollutantsemittedbythermalpowerstations,

industrialgasesandgasesreleasedbyvehiculartraffic. 7. Icecapsaremeltingduetoincreasingcarbondioxideintheatmosphereleadingtoglobalwarming. D. 1. Physical,biological 2. 71% 3. Liquid,solid,gaseous 4. high,low 5. environment,Earth E. 1. Atmosphere: It is the gaseous envelope around the Earth’s surface. It protects the Earth from

becomingtoohotduringthedayandtoocoldduringthenight.Atmospheregivesuslife-sustaininggases—oxygenforhumansandanimalsandcarbondioxideforplants.Italsoprovidesconditionsforflyingjets.Alltheweatherphenomena—cloudformation,wind,rainfalloccurinatmosphere.Intheatmosphere,ozonelayerprotectstheEarth’slifeformsfromharmfulultravioletraysoftheSun.

Hydrosphere:Therealmofwatercomprisingwaterbodiessuchasrivers,lakes,seas,oceans,ponds,gulfs,bays,snowandicesheetsandundergroundwateriscalledhydrosphere.Thisrealmcovers71% of land surface.Oceans affect the climate on Earth.Oceans, rivers and deep lakes providenavigationalfacilitiesfortrade.Waterbodiesprovidehabitatstodifferentmarine/aquaticanimals.Oceansareastorehouseofdissolvedsalts.

2. Lithosphere:ItisthesolidpartoftheEarthvisibletousandformedofsolidcrustorrocksandsoil.Itprovidesabaseforhumanactivities.Plantsgrowonland,thussupportsforests.Peoplecanpractisefarminghere.Movementiseasyonsolidland.Constructionofhigh-risebuildingsispossible.ThesurfaceofLithosphereishighlyuneven.

The combination of three realms has created suitable environment to sustain life.All the livingbeingsexistinanarrowzoneofcontactbetweenthesethreerealms—lithosphere,hydrosphereandatmosphere.Thisnarrowzoneisknownasbiosphere.

F. 1. False 2.False 3.False 4.True 5.False 6.True

Extra activity

Tellstudentstomakeachartdepictingthefourdomainsofearthandmarkthemproperly.Tellthemtomakeitveryinformativeandinteresting.

45

Continents, Oceans and Associated

Landforms

18


Objectives

• ToknowaboutthedifferentcontinentsandoceansonEarth

• ToknowandappreciatethemajorlandformsoftheEarth

• Tolearnhowtheselandformscomplementeachother

Overview

• Thecontinentsarelargeblocksoflandmassessurroundedbyoceanicwaters.Theyaccountforabout

29%ofthelandsurface.Theyarecomposedofsolidrocksofdifferentchemicalcomposition.Thereare

sevencontinents—Asia,Africa,NorthAmerica,SouthAmerica,Antarctica,EuropeandAustralia.Asia

isthebiggestcontinentcoveringapproximately30%oftheEarth’ssurfaceandAustraliaisthesmallest

one.

• Oceansarethelargestwaterbodiesaccountingforalmost70%oftheEarth’sareaand97%oftheEarth’s

water.Therearefivemajoroceansintheworld—PacificOcean,AtlanticOcean,IndianOcean,Arctic

OceanandSouthernOcean(alsocalledasAntarcticOcean).Oceanicbedsarerichinvolcanicconesand

peaks,especiallythePacificOcean.

• Numerouslandformswithvaryingheightssuchasmountains,plateausandplainscanbeseenover

thecontinents.TheselandformsaretheresultofprocessestakingplaceinsideandoutsidetheEarth’s

surface,suchasearthquake,volcaniceruption,etc.


A. 1. (c) 2.(c) 3.(b) 4.(b) 5.(a) 6.(d) 7.(b) 8.(b) 9.(c) 10.(d)

11.(d) 12.(a)

B. 1. Smallestocean:ArcticOcean;

Largestocean:PacificOcean;

Deepestocean:MarianaTrenchinPacificOcean.

2. Asiaisthelargestcontinentintheworld;Australiaisthesmallestcontinentintheworld.

3. Isthmusisanarrowstripoflandjoiningtwolandmasses.

46

4. The process bywhich the Earth’s surface is rebuilt by laying down rockmaterials is known asdeposition.

5. ThehighestmountainintheworldislocatedinAsia.TheHimalayas.

6. EuropeandNorthAmericaarethetwohighlydevelopedcontinents.TheUSAandCanadainNorthAmericaandFranceandGermanyinEurope.

C. 1. Plainsaremostlyformedduetodepositionoffinerockmaterialsbytheriverswhichtheytransportontheirlongjourneyfrommountains.Plainsareextensiveflatsurfaces.Theirmaximumheightis200-300mabovesealevel.

2. MountainslikeAlps,theRockiesandtheHimalayasaretermedasyoungmountainssincetheyarepronetofrequentshakings.

3. Rivervalleyshavebeenthecentreofcivilisationsduetotheirfertilesoilforfarmingandwaterforirrigation.ExamplesareIndusValleyinIndiaandPakistan,EgyptionCivilisationinNEAfrica.

4. Maximum population of the world lives in plains because plains favour agriculture and othercommercialactivitiesonalargescale.

5. Landforms change with the passage of time because mountains, plateaus and plains supportdifferentactivities,astheshapeoflandformsdiffer.

D. 1. TibetanPlateau 2.Blockmountains 3.Europe

4. Seven 5.Oceantrench

E. 1. Mountainsarethehighestelevationswithsharppeaks,steepslopes,broadbasesandunevenrockysurfaces.Mountainsmayextendforlongdistances.

Plateau,ontheotherhand,isatableland,i.e.,aflatextensiveelevatedsurfacewithsteepsides.Theheightofaplateauvariesfromafewhundredmetrestoseveralthousandmetres.Plateauscanbeyoungandold.

2. WeatheringawayofEarth’ssurfaceiscallederosion.Itlowersdownthehighersurfacesbyrivers,windsandmovingice.

Deposition,ontheotherhand,istheprocessbywhichtheEarth’ssurfaceisrebuiltbylayingdowntherockmaterials.

3. Internalprocessesleadtorisingandsinkingoflandsurfaces.Theprocessesincludeearthquakes,volcaniceruptionsandearthmovements.

External processes, on the other hand, involve the continuous process of wearing down andrebuildingofEarth’ssurface.

4. Young fold mountains are prone to frequent shakings. When such mountains are lowered byforcesofnature—climate,wind,riversandice,theyattainroundedpeaksandarecalledoldfoldmountains.

5. Africaisthesecondlargestcontinent.ThelandscapeincludesthelargestdesertintheNorthernpart-Sahara,thelongestriver—theNile.Africaissurroundedbyriversonallsides.ItistheonlycontinentthroughwhichtheTropicofCancer,theEquatorandtheTropicofCapricornpass.ItislocatedbothintheNorthernHemisphereandtheSouthernHemisphere.

Antarctica,ontheotherhand,isthefifthlargestcontinent.ItislocatedtotallyinSouthernHemispherearoundtheSouthPoleandissurroundedbytheAntarcticCircle.Itisthefrozencontinentwithout

47

anyhumanpopulationandvery fewanimals. It is themostbleakandbarrenpart of theworld

surroundedbythestormiestseas.Manycountrieshaveestablishedtheirresearchstationshere.

F. 1. True 2.False 3.False 4.False 5.False

Extra activity

Tellstudentstomakealistoftheoceans,deserts,mountains,rivers, and lakes of India. You can also organise a groupdiscussiononthedifferentfeaturesoftheselandforms.

48

India: Location, Size and Relief


Objectives

• TostudythelocationandsizeofIndia • Tocomprehenditspoliticaldivisionsandbroadphysiographicdivisions • Tolearnabouttheislandterritoriessurroundingthecountry

Overview

• Indiacoversanareaof3.28millionsqkm,accountingforabout2.4%ofthetotalworldarea.Intermsof size, India is the seventh largest country. Its landboundary is approximately15,200kmand thecoastlineis7500kmlong.IndiahasthelongestcoastlineinIndianOcean,theonlyoceantobenamedafteracountry.

• ThephysicalfeaturesofIndiacanbegroupedintofivemaindivisions—theNorthernMountains,theNorthernPlains,thePeninsularPlateau,theGreatIndianDesert,andtheCoastalPlains.

• OursurroundingwaterbodiessupportagroupofislandsbelongingtoIndia—AndamanandNicobarIslandsintheBayofBengalandLakshadweepIslandintheArabianSea.


A. 1. (b) 2.(a) 3.(b) 4.(c) 5.(b) 6.(c) 7.(c) 8.(b) 9.(a) 10.(c) 11.(d) 12.(c) B. 1. LatitudinalextentofIndia:8°4‘Nto37.6°.Longitudinalextent:68°7‘Eto97°25‘E. 2. Thelongitudeof82½°passesmidwaythroughIndia,nearAllahabad.Ithelpsinfixinguniformtime

forthecountry. 3. ThemeridianwhichhelpsinfixingthestandardtimeinIndiaistheStandardMeridianofIndia. 4. IndiaislocatedintheNorthernHemisphere. 5. SouthernmostpointofIndianmainlandisIndiraPoint. 6. i)TheNorthernMountainsradiatefromPamirKnot. ii)Theyarearc-shapedmountainscomposedofsedimentaryrocks. 7. i)TheGreatHimalayasaretheloftiestandmostruggedrange. ii)ThelesserHimalayasconsistoffamoushillstationsandvalleys. iii)TheouterHimalayasarecomposedofunconsolidatedrockmaterials. iv)TheGreatHimalayasarepermanentlycoveredsnowpeaks. 8. Shivaliks are made of unconsolidated materials; therefore they are prone to soil erosion and

landslides. 9. Theeasternextensionsofhills in Indiawhichare lower inheightare thePurvanchals.Theyare

locatedinthenorth-easternstates,theyareagroupofhillsreceivinghighrainfallandinhabitingthetribalcommunities.SomeexamplesarePatkaiBumHills,NagaHills,MizoandLushaiHills.

49

10. Theplainsarethehomesofmillionsofpeopleandsupportagriculture.Theseareextensivelow-lying flat areas,with low slope formedby constant deposition of finer rockmaterials by Indus,GangaandBrahmaputrariversystem.

11. Thelongitude82½°hasbeenchosenastheStandardMeridianofIndiabecauseithelpsinfixinguniformtimeforthecountry.

C. 1. Tendegreechannel. 2. Naturalharbours 3. Kavaratti 4. TheSunderbansDelta 5. Duns 6. AnaiMudi 7. PalkStrait D. 1. Himadri: Theyaretheloftiestandmostruggedrange.Theiraverageheightis6,000mabovesea

levelandconsistsofsomeofthehighestpeaks,above8,000m,intheworld. Shivaliks: They are the lowest rangewith an averageheight of 900-1200m. Shivaliks aremade

ofunconsolidatedmaterials, thereforeprone to soil erosionand landslides.Theyare famous forelongatedvalleyscalled“duns”.Himalayasarehighlyunevenandsteepslopedandcanbecrossedthroughthenaturalpassagesacrosstherangecallednaturalpasses.NathuLa,RohtangPass,ShipkiLaaresomeofitsexamples.

2. Western Ghats: They form a western boundary of Deccan Plateau continuously fromGujarat to Kanyakumari. They are higher in altitude. They are the source of rivers longerin length, such as Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. Western Ghats are known as Sahyadrisin the northern part; Nilgiris, Anna Malai and Cardamom hills in the southern part. Eastern Ghats:TheyformadiscontinuouseasternboundaryfromOdishatoTamilNadu.Theyarelower inheight.Mahendragiri is thehighestpeak.Theyaresourceofveryfewandsmallrivers.SomeofthehillrangesinEasternGhatsarePalnihills,Palcondas,andNallamalai.

3. Western Coastal Plain: Theyare located in thewest along theArabianSea.TheyareknownasKonkaninthenorthdirectionandCoromandelinthesouthdirection.Theyarenarrow,andhaveestuariesinsteadofdeltas.TheyhavelagoonsorlakesonthecoastinKerala.

Eastern Coastal Plain: Theyare located in theeastalongtheBayofBengal.TheyareknownasCircasandCoromandelinthesouthandnorthdirections.TheEasternCoastiswiderandknownforthepresenceofdelta.Theyhavemanysaltlakesoncoaste.g.,ChilikalakeinOdisha.

4. Andaman and Nicobar:TheyarelocatedintheBayofBengal.TheyarefarawayfromtheIndianmainland.Theyarenumerous,scatteredandmuchbigger.TheyarepeaksofmountainsinBayofBengal.ItscapitalisportBlair.

Lakshadweep Islands:TheyarelocatedintheArabianSea.TheyareclosertothewesterncoastlinenearKerala.Theyaresmallgroupsofcoralislands.ItscapitalisKavaratti.

E. 1. (c) 2.(d) 3.(b) 4.(e) 5.(a) F. 1. False 2.False 3.False 4.True 5.False 6.True

50

India: Climate, Vegetation and

Wildlife

20


Objectives

• TorecogniseIndia’sdiversityintermsofclimate,vegetationandwildlife

• Todescribetheinfluenceofland,climate,vegetationandwildlifeonhumanbeings

• Toappreciatetheneedforconservingnaturalvegetationandwildlife

Overview

• TheclimateofIndiaistropicalmonsoontypeduetoitslocationinthetropicalandsubtropicalregionandpresenceofseasonalwinds.However,climateisdifferentindifferentareasandvariesfrommonthto month due to—distance from sea, distance from Equator, altitude and prevailing winds. Indiaexperiencesfourseasons—summer,winter,monsoonandautumn.

• Duetosoil,climateandreliefdifferences,thereisagreatvarietyofplantspeciesandanimalspeciesinIndia.Atpresent,thereareabout47,000plantspeciesinIndia.

• Vegetationismainlyaffectedbyrainfallandtemperatureconditions.Indiahasfivetypesofvegetation—tropicalrainforests,tropicaldeciduousforests,thornyforests,mountainvegetation,andtidalforests.

• DiversityinanimalkingdomofIndiaissignificantasitisahometovarietyofanimals,birds,reptiles,insects and mammals. Indian government has taken various steps such as establishing wildlifesanctuariesandnationalparksinordertoconserveandprotectthewildlife.


A. 1. (b) 2 (b) 3.(c) 4.(a) 5.(d) 6.(b) 7.(a) 8.(d) 9.(c) 10.(b)

11.(d) 12.(b)

B. 1. Weather bulletins provide us report on the day-to-day changes in atmospheric conditions—maximumandminimumtemperatures,moisture,speedofwind,pressure,rainfallandcloudiness.

2. TheclimateofIndiaistropicalmonsoontype.

3. ThefourfactorsaffectingtheclimateofIndiaare:

i) distancefromthesea;

ii) distancefromtheequator;

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iii) altitude;and

iv) prevailingwinds.

4. Loosareprevailingwinds.TheyarehotanddrywindsfromRajasthaninthesummerseason.

5. TherearefourmainseasonsinIndia—coldweatherseason,hotweatherseason,rainyseason,andautumnseason.

i) Cold weather season: It extends from December to February. It is accompanied with coldtemperatureinNorthIndia.Windsblowfromnorthtosouth.Suchaseasonexperienceswesterndisturbances.ThiscauseslightrainfallinPunjab,Rajasthan,Haryana,Delhi,andWesternUP.

ii) Hotweatherseason:ItextendsfromMarchtoMay.Itisaccompaniedwithhotdaysandwarmnights.Thelocalhotanddrywindscalled‘Loo’blowduringtheday.Suchaseasonexperiencesduststorms.Localrainfalliscaused.

iii) Rainyweather season: It extends from June to September. It is accompaniedwithmoderatetemperature. Ithasa cloudyand rainyweather.Moistwindsblow fromsea to landcausingrainfallalloverIndia.RainfalliscausedbyMonsoonwinds.

iv) Autumn:ItextendsfromOctobertoNovember.Itisaccompaniedbywarm,sunnydaysandcoolnights.RainfalliscausedbyretreatingmonsoononCoromandelCoastofIndia.

6. Duetosoil,climateandreliefdifferences,thereisagreatvarietyofplantspeciesandanimalspeciesinIndia.Accordingtoanestimate,IndiaisthefourthinAsiainplantdiversity.Atpresent,thereareabout47,000plantspeciesinIndia.Themonsoonforestsformthedominantvegetationzoneinthisregion.

7. Forestsprovidewood,timberandotherusefulproductssuchasmedicinalherbs,honey,oil,gums,leaves,nuts,barks.Theypurifyenvironmentbygivingoxygenandtakingincarbondioxide;preventsoilerosion;providehometobirdsandanimals;reducefloodsandwindforce,andincreaserainfall.

8. ThereisdiverseplantandwildlifeinIndiaduetosoil,climateandreliefdifferences.

9. Diversewildlifeisindangerofextinctionduetoman’sgreedandhisselfishinhumanactivities.

10. Wildlifecanbesavedby:

i) establishingnationalparks,sanctuariesandbiospherereserves.

ii) byimposingbanonhuntingofanimals.

C. 1. rainy,September

2. localrainfall,summer

3. December,February,March,May

4. Monsoonforests

5. Sundari

6. rhinoceroses

7. October,WildlifeWeek

D. 1. Tropical deciduous forests:aremostwidespreadinIndia.Areasreceiving100-200cmofaveragerainfallsupportthistypeofvegetation.Treesintheseforestsshedtheirleavesfor6-8weeksindrysummer.

Tropical rainforests:arefoundinareasofhightemperatureandhighrainfallmorethan200cminayear.Thetimeofsheddingleavesisnotfixed.Theoldleaveskeepfallingandthenewleaveskeepgrowing.

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2. Tropical thorn vegetation: are the forests thatarepresent in thepartsofRajasthan, JammuandKashmir,Punjab,Haryana,Gujarat,WesternUttarPradesh,anddrierpartsofDeccanplateau.Theplantsarexerophytic,adaptedtoshortageofwater.

Tropical deciduous forests:aremostwidespreadinIndia.Areasreceiving100-200cmofaveragerainfallsupportthistypeofvegetation.Treesintheseforestsshedtheirleavesfor6-8weeksindrysummer.

Extra activity

Askthestudentstomarkthenationalparks,wildlifesanctuariesand biosphere reserves located in Rajasthan, Assam, Kerala,UttarPradeshandWestBengalonanIndianmap.

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Meaning of Diversity

21


Objectives

• Tounderstandandappreciatevariousformsofdiversityintheeverydayenvironment • Todevelopasensitiveapproachtowardspluralismandinterdependence • Tounderstandthereasonsandnecessityofdiversity

Overview

• Diversityisthestateofbeingdifferentfromothers.Indiaisknownforitsdiversityintermsofvegetation,wildlife,people,climate,relief,culture,language,food,etc.ThisdiversityhasledtopluralismintheIndiansociety.

• TheIndiansocietyisdividedintofourcastesbasedontheworktheyperform—Brahmins,Kshatriyas,VaishyasandShudras.Butthissystemgaverisetodiscriminationandexploitationofthelowercastebytheuppercaste.

• Therearesociological,political,biological,migratoryandgeographicalreasonsthatledtothediversityin the society.Diversity becomes strengthwhen the different communities inhabiting the area feelunitedandsecured.Butsometimes,self-interest,fearandinsecurityofoneclassorcommunityduetotheexploitationbytheotherclasshamperthegrowthofthecountry.


A. 1. (a) 2 (b) 3.(c) 4.(c) 5.(b) 6.(c) 7.(c) B. 1. Diversity refers to thedifferencesdue to language, culture, region, religion, skill, interestorany

othercause.InIndia,therearefourtypesofdiversities—diversityinsociety(castesystem),diversityineconomicfield,diversityinlanguage,anddiversityincultureandreligion.

2. FestivalscelebratedbyHindusare:Holi,Dussehra,Deepawali,etc. FestivalscelebratedbyMuslimsare:Id,Ramzan,etc. FestivalscelebratedbySikhsare:Guruparv,Baisakhi,etc. FestivalscelebratedbyChristiansare:Christmas,Easter,etc. 3. Diversityinculturemakesthelifeinteresting.Welearnsomanythingsfromdifferentcultures,such

asdress,food,festival,danceform,language,rituals,etc.Diversityintheeconomicfieldleadstointerdependence.Sowecansaythatdiversityisaboontous.

Butitisalsoobservedthatsometimes,self-interest,fearandinsecurityofoneclassorcommunityhamperthegrowthprocessandmayleadtodisharmonyinsociety.Evenclashofopinionsamongdifferentreligiousgroupscanalsocausesriots.

4. Thedifferencesinhumanbeingsacrossdifferentraces,cultures,regions,andreligionsduetogeneticandenvironmentaldifferencesleadtodiversity.

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5. Ladakhisamountainousregionwithcoldclimate,withverylessvegetation,whereasKeralaisacoastalstatewithlotsofvegetation.TheclimateofKeralaishotandhumidwithfertilelandwhichisgoodforgrowingrice.

C. 1. diversity 2. four 3. non-violence 4. adaptability 5. strength,communities D. 1. True 2.False 3.True 4.True 5.False E. 1. (c) 2.(d) 3.(e) 4.(b) 5.(a) F. 1. Sometimes diversity becomes an obstacle to growth becauseit isobservedthatsometimes,self-

interest,fearandinsecurityofoneclassorcommunityhamperthegrowthprocessandmayleadtodisharmonyinsociety.Evenclashofopinionsamongdifferentreligiousgroupscanalsocausesriots.

2. People travel or migrate from one place to anotherinsearchofanewjobortradeopportunity;tosavethemselvesfromnaturalcalamity;andalsoduringwar.

Extra activity

Ask the students to write a short note on any festival theycelebratewithgreatenthusiasm.Tell themtowriteaboutthepreparationstheymakeforthatfestival.

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Diversity, Prejudice, Stereotypes and Discrimination

22


Objectives

• To observediversity in terms of prejudices, discrimination and stereotypes prevalent in the Indiansociety

• Torecognisethattherearemultipleidentitieswithinourselvesthatweuseindifferentcontexts;andthatthesecancomeintoconflictwitheachother

• TounderstandthattheIndianConstitutiondirectsustorespectthediversity

Overview

• It isobservedthatdiversitysometimesleadstoprejudice,discrimination,stereotypeandinequality,whichinturnleadtomutualdistrustanddisharmonyinthesociety.

• Prejudice means bias arising out of the things such as skin colour, region, language and religion.Stereotypesarepreconceived ideasaboutanythingpassingon fromgenerations.Oneexample isofconsideringgirlasaliabilityandaboyasabreadearnerofthefamily.

• Ifprejudiceisathought,discriminationistheactionbasedonthatthought.Discriminationisbasedongender,cast,income,religion,etc.CastesystemofIndiaandapartheidinSouthAfricaaretheexamplesofdiscrimination.

• TheIndianConstitutionhastriedtoeradicatediscriminationandinequalitybyprovidingtheRighttoEqualityandtheDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy.


A. 1. (c) 2 (c) 3.(a) 4.(c) 5.(a) 6.(b) 7.(c) 8.(c) B. 1. Inequalitymeanstreatingtwopersonsdifferently.Ifoneispoor,theotherisrich;oneiseducated,

theotherisilliterate;thismaybeduetoeconomicinequalitywhichmayleadtodiscriminationinthesociety.

2. Prejudiceisanegativethoughtorbiastowardssomething,whereasdiscriminationistheactiononthelineofthatthought.Genderbiasisaprejudiceandinequalityisdiscrimination.

3. Causes of discrimination are—societal causes;majority vsminority in community; and religiousfanaticism.The ill-effectsofdiscriminationare—ethnichostilities, racialarrogance,suspicionanddistrustamongthecommunities,andunhealthypoliticalenvironmentinthecountry.

4. ThereisastereotypeintheIndiansocietythatcontinuityofthefamilydependsuponthemalechildonlyandafemalechildisconsideredaliabilityandpropertyofothers.Soifafamilygivespreferencetoamalechild,thenextgenerationwillautomaticallyinheritthisopinionandthisstereotypemakesthegirlchildunwantedandburdenonfamily.Itleadstodiscriminationbetweenmaleandfemalechildintermsoftheirfood,education,etc.

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5. Wecaneradicatediscriminationandinequality—byeducatingthesociety;bystrictlyadheringtothelaws;byfollowingamoralofconductinpoliticalparties;byencouraginginter-castemarriages;andbytreatingallreligionsequally.

6. Real-lifeexamplesofdiscriminationare—femalefoeticide;educatingonlymalechild;notallowinglowercastepeopletoentertemples,etc.

7. DrBRAmbedkarfoughtforthesocialinequalityinIndiabymakingprovisionforRighttoEqualityintheIndianConstitution.NelsonMandelastartedtheanti-apartheidstrugglethroughhispoliticalpartyAfricanNationalCongress.Inmyview,boththewaystodealwithsuchinequalitiesareaptandmorallyright.

8. Year1976markedthebeginningofanti-apartheidrevolt.NelsonMandelastartedtheanti-apartheidstruggle through his political partyAfricanNational Congress.All top leaderswere arrested in1963andsentencedtolifeimprisonment.InFebruary1990,presidentFWdeKlerkannouncedtheunbanningoftheliberationmovementsandthereleaseofNelsonMandela.

9. The Preamble of the Indian Constitution provides for justice, liberty, equality, fraternity to itscitizens,assuringthedignityoftheindividualandtheintegrityofthenation.

10. TheIndianConstitutionhastriedtoeradicateinequalityanddiscriminationbyprovidingRighttoEqualityinArticle14-18andthroughtheDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy.

C. 1. (c) 2.(e) 3.(b) 4.(a) 5.(d) D. 1. hatred,inferior 2. Stereotypes 3. hostilities,peace 4. recognition,diversity 5. Constitution E. 1. Most of the families give preference to male childrenbecauseitisbelievedthatcontinuityofthe

familydependsuponthemalechildonlyandafemalechildisconsideredaliabilityandpropertyofothers.

2. Gender bias prevails in India because it isbelieved thatcontinuityof the familydependsuponthemalechildonlyandafemalechildisconsideredaliabilityandpropertyofothers.Soifafamilygivespreferencetoamalechild,thenextgenerationwillautomaticallyinheritthisopinionandthisstereotypemakesthegirlchildunwantedandburdenonfamily.

F. 1. True 2.False 3.True 4.False 5.True

Extra activity

Ask the students to share their experiences in the class ifthey have observed any kind of prejudice, discrimination orinequalityintheirlife.

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What is Government?


Objectives

• Todevelopasenseofneedofanygovernment • Tolearnaboutthevarioustypesofgovernmentthatexistatpresent • TorecognisetheneedforUniversalAdultFranchise

Overview

• Agovernmentisabodythathastheauthoritytomake,andthepowertoenforcelawswithinacivil,corporate,religious,academicorotherorganisationoragroup.Thegovernmenthasthreeorgans—Legislature,ExecutiveandJudiciary—withthehelpofwhichitmanifestsitswill,issuescommandsandconductsitsaffairsoverastateoracountry.

• Governmentscanbeclassifiedintodifferentformssuchasdemocratic,republicorhereditary.Inthesimplestform,republicangovernmentistheoneinwhichrealheadofthenationiselecteddirectlyorindirectlybythelargemajorityofpeople.ExamplesareIndia,USA,etc.

• UniversalAdultFranchise,inwhicheveryadultcitizenofacountryhasarighttovote,hasbecomeaprerequisitefordemocracy.TheUKisnotarepublicastheofficeofthekingorqueenishereditary.TheUKisalimitedmonarchy.


A. 1. (a) 2 (c) 3.(b) 4.(c) 5.(b) 6.(a) 7.(b) 8.(b) 9.(c) 10.(c) 11.(a) B. 1. Agovernmentisabodythathastheauthoritytomake,andthepowertoenforcelawswithinacivil,

corporate,religious,academicorotherorganizationorgroup.Governmentistheintegralpartofastate,withoutwhichastatecannotfunction.Itisthroughgovernmentthatastatemanifestsitswill,issuesitscommandsandconductsitsaffairs.

2. Governmentplaysavitalroleinalmostallfieldsofhumanlife—itsavesourlifeandproperty;bringssocialharmony;provideshelpduringnaturalcalamities;takescareofpublichealth,education,food,education,etc.

3. Differentformsofgovernmentare—Monarchy,Aristocracy,Oligarchy,andDemocracy. 4. WeknowIndiandemocracyandBritishmonarchyverywell. 5. WomenSuffrageMovementofUSAandUK:Changingsocialconditionsofwomenduringtheearly

1800’sledtothebirthofWomenSuffrageMovementintheUSAandtheUK.Itgainedmomentumin theUSA after the 15thAmendment of the Constitutionwas passed,which gave the right tovotetotheBlacksbutnottoanywoman.In1869,suffragistsformedtwonationalmovementsanddemandedtheright tovote forwomenandtoget theirrightsheard; theyclaimedthemselves torallyinginpublicplaces.Manywomenwentonhungerstrikes,manywerearrestedandfined.Allthese incidentsattractednationwideattention.Finally, in1920,Americanwomengot theright tovote,whilewomeninUKgotthisrightin1928.

C. 1. (d) 2.(e) 3.(c) 4.(b) 5.(a)

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D. 1. True 2.False 3.True 4.True 5.False

Extra activity

Askthestudentstoidentifyatleasttendemocraticcountriesandtenmonarchicalcountries.Discussthetypesofgovernmentsofsomeofthesecountriesintheclass.

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Key Elements of the Democratic

Government

24


Objectives

• Tounderstandthekeyelementsthatinfluencethefunctioningofdemocracy • Torecognisethewaysthroughwhichonecanparticipateindemocracy • Toappreciatetheneedtomakedecisionswithcollectivesanction

Overview

• Democraticgovernmentsarethemostpopulargovernmentsinmoderntimesthatgivefreedomandequalitytoitscitizens.

• The key elements of democracy are—elections to select the government; freedom to criticise thegovernment; socialmovements to fight against injustice or wrong done; and freedom tomedia ingeneratingpublicopinion.

• ThePreambleofIndianConstitutionlaidstressonequalityandjustice.


A. 1. (b) 2 (b) 3.(a) 4.(a) 5.(b) B. 1. Thekeyelementsofdemocracyare: i) Elections:Itisoneoftheregularfeaturesofdemocracy.Everypersonhastherighttovoteand

contestelections. ii) Criticism of the Government: For any big or small national issue, people can criticise

the government. This right can be given only in a democracy andnot in any other formofgovernment.Mediaalsoplaysanimportantroleingeneratingpublicopinion.

iii) Rallies, strikes, dharnas and signature campaigns:Thesearemethodsadoptedbytheprotestorstofightinjusticeortofulfilltheirtheirdemands.Theyarepeacefulmeanstogettheirdemandsfulfilled.

iv) Social Movements: Chipko Movement against deforestation and social movement againstNarmadaProjectaimtotherightsoftheindigenouspeople.Wheneverpeoplefeelunequalorunjust,theyresorttosuchmovements.

2. Peopleelect their leaders,whorepresent them in the legislatureandmake lawsonbehalfof thepeople.Everypersonhastherighttovoteandcontestelections.

3. i) Religionsandriverwaterdisputesaremainreasonsfor theconflict inthecountry.Theycanbe resolvedbyactive involvementof thegovernmentandbycreatingawarenessamong thepeople.

ii) Sometimes,religiouscelebrationsandprocessionsleadtoconflict.Thoughthereasonmaynotbeimmediate,butdeeprootedhatred,malicioushistoricalbackgroundorreligiousintolerance

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orinsecuritycanalsobethereasonforaconflicttooccur.Hence,theroleofpolicehasincreasedthesedays.

4. Justice can prevail onlywhere equality exists because both are interrelated. If there is no socialequalityduetocastesystem,oreconomicequalityduetoeconomicdisparity,itwillleadtosocialandeconomicinjusticerespectively.So,justicecanprevailonlywhereequalityexists.

C. 1. ThePreamble 2. Karnataka,Mettur,Kaveri 3. conflict,diverse 4. celebrations,processions 5. disparities,inequalities.

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Panchayati Rajin India


Objectives

• TodevelopanunderstandingoftherurallocallevelgovernmentfunctioningintheformofPanchayatiRajsystem

• TounderstandtheworkingofPanchayatiRajandtoappreciateitsimportance • TounderstandhowwomenarerepresentedinPanchayats

Overview

• The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 came into force on 24th April, 1993 to provideconstitutionalstatustothePanchayatiRajinstitutions.

• PanchayatiRajisathree-tiersystemthatcomprisesVillagePanchayat,(GramPanchayat)atthevillagelevel, theBlockSamiti (KhandSamiti) at theblock level, andZilaParishad (DistrictCouncil) at thedistrictlevel.

• Thissystemhasmadetheconceptofdecentraliseddemocracypopular,asithasbroughtthepeopleatthevillagelevelandthegovernmentatdistrict levelclosertoeachother. Ithasbroughtpoliticalawakeningamongtheilliterate,ignorantandpoorvillagers,andmadethemself-reliant.

• The Ministry of Rural Development provides financial assistance to the state to train and createawarenessamongtheelectedmembersofPanchayats.


A. 1. (c) 2 (a) 3.(c) 4.(c) 5.(b) 6.(b) 7.(d) 8.(a) B. 1.(a) Inancient times,democratic localgovernment inthepre-independenceerawas introducedin

1882withtheestablishmentofmunicipalboards.Butvillagepanchayatswerenotencouragedbecausetheywerebasicallycastepanchayats.Britishgovernmentdidnotmakemucheffortfortheupliftofthevillagesandvillagers.

(b) Afterindependence,thegovernmentdecidedtotakenecessarystepstorevivethePanchayatiRajinIndia.The73rdConstitutional AmendmentAct,1992establishedathree-tiersystem,withelectedbodiesattheVillage,BlockandZilalevel.

2. Panchayatmeansacommitteeoffivepeople(eachoneiscalledaspanch),whoarewiseandrespectedelderschosenbythevillagecommunity.ThepanchayatisdividedintosmallerareascalledWards.Each ward has a representative called Panch or Ward member. The panchayat constructs andmaintainsroads,drainagesystem,schools,buildings.Thegrampanchayatslevyandcollectlocaltaxes.Theyimplementgovernmentschemestogiveemploymentinthevillage.Theysupervisetheconstructionandmaintenanceworkofwells,handpumpsandtanks.Theysupervisetheworkingofprimaryschoolsofthelocality,Patwari,theLekhpal,Policeconstable,Chowkidar.Theymanagethevillagemarkets.Theyprovidefertilizersandseedstothefarmers.Theytakecareofsanitationandpublichealth.Theytakecareofhospitalsandveterinaryhospitals.Theyplanttrees.Theyorganisevillagefairs,villagesportsandarrangeplacesforsuchsports.Theymaintainvillagelibraries.TheykeepacheckonthemisuseofthemoneybythePanchayats.

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3. TheGramSabhaconstitutesalltheeligiblevoterswithintheGramPanchayat.Alltheadultsinavillagewhohaveattainedtheageof18yearsarethemembersoftheGramSabha.Hence,theGramSabhaisageneralassemblyofvillagers.ItisaplacewherealldevelopmentplansofGramPanchayatareplacedbeforethepeople.

4. Thethree-tiersystemofdecentralisationimpliestheGramPanchayatattheVillagelevel,PanchayatSamitiattheBlocklevelandZilaParishadattheDistrictlevel.Alldevelopmentprogrammesarechannelisedthroughtheseinstitutions.

5. Importance of Panchayati Raj: Ithasmadetheconceptofdecentraliseddemocracypopularas ithasbroughtthepeopleandthegovernmentclosertoeachother.Localproblemsaresolvedmoreefficientlyatthelocallevel.RuralliteracyhasbeenincreasedbywelfareactivitiesofthePanchayats,especiallyinthefieldofeducation.Ithasbroughtpoliticalawakeningamongtheilliterate,ignorantandthepoorvillagers.Now,villagerslearntheimportanceofself-relianceduetogreateffortsofPanchayatiRajinstitutions.

Drawbacks:Duetonon-awarenessofpoorandilliteratevillagers,andsometimesdishonestyofthePanchayatiRajinstitutionmembers,Panchayatshaveachievedlimitedsuccessonly.CasterivalriesandpettypoliticsamongitsmembershinderthegrowthofthePanchayat.StatesreservetherighttoassignorwithdrawfunctionstoandfromthePanchayatsthroughexecutives.Panchayatslackfinancialresourcesandinadequatepowersoftaxation.Thegovernmentdoesnotgivethemsufficienthelp.

Achievements:InMaharashtra,thePanchayathasfoundedwaysandmeansofconservingwaterandrefillingit.Thisiscalledwatersheddevelopment,forwhichthegovernmentprovidesmoney.Inthisstate,ithasalsoplantedmanytrees,constructeddamsandtanks.

6. Panchayat Samiti: The sarpanch and panchs within the block choose their representatives oftheblocksamiti.TherearetwowomenmembersandfourrepresentativesofSCandSTinblocksamiti.Iftheyarenotelected,theycanbeappointedbythedistrictofficer.Itgivesadviceforruraldevelopmentthroughexpertsintheagricultural,veterinaryandeducationalfieldstoimprovethequalityofseedsandcattleandtheeducationinavillage.Itarrangesmoneyfromthegovernmentforthedevelopmentofthevillage.

Zila Parishad: Thezilaparishadiscomposedof theBlockSamitis inthedistrict,membersof theLokSabhaandtheRajyaSabha,membersoftheVidhanSabhaandtheVidhanParishad,womenrepresentatives,representativesofSCandST.Itgivesadviceonruraldevelopmentthroughexpertsin the agriculture, veterinary and educational fields to improve the quality of seeds, cattle andeducationinvillage.Itarrangesmoneyfromthegovernmentforthedevelopmentofthevillage.

7. InMaharashtra,thePanchayathasfoundedwaysandmeansofconservingwaterandrefillingit.Thisiscalledwatersheddevelopment,forwhichthegovernmentprovidesmoney.

C. 1. Village 2. 1993 3. financial,state 4. theGovernment 5. Chairman,Vice-Chairman. D. 1. False 2.True 3.True 4.True 5.False E. 1. (b) 2.(c) 3.(a) 4.(e) 5.(d)

65

District Administration


Objectives

• Todevelopanunderstandingofthelocallevelgovernmentfunctioningatthedistrictlevel • Tounderstandthekeyfunctionsinthedistrictadministration

Overview

• Indiahas29statesand7unionterritories.EachstateisfurtherdividedintovariousdistrictssuchasUttarPradeshwhichhas70districts.Eachdistrictisfurtherdividedintosubdivisions,whichinturnisdividedintoTehsils(Talukas).

• Thedistrictadministration isheadedby theDeputyCommissioner,alsoknownasCollectorwho isofIAScadre.HeactsasDistrictMagistrate(DM)incaseofLawandOrder;asRevenueCollectorincaseofrevenuematters;asDistrictElectionOfficerincaseofconductingelectionsinthedistrict;andhasseveralofficesunderhimtoadministersocialandeconomicdevelopmentprogrammesacrossthedistrict.

• Localself-governmentcomprisesMunicipalities,TalukaDevelopmentBoardsandVillagePanchayats.ThefunctionsoftheseareperformedthroughTehsildar,NaibTehsildarorvillagepatwari.


A. 1. (c) 2 (d) 3.(a) 4.(d) 5.(b) 6.(c) 7.(c) B. 1. A patwari maintains and updates the records of land. Three or four villages come under his

supervision.Afterthedeathofthelandowner,hetransfersthelandinhiswife’snamealongwithallthechildrenandentersthemintherecordbook.Heprovidesinformationtothegovernmentaboutthecropgrown.Hekeepstherecordofcollectionoflandrevenuefromthefarmers.

2. Atehsildarhearsdisputesinhis/heroffice.Tehsildarensuresthatintimesofneed,thefarmersgetthecopyofrecordsoftheirland.Studentstoocantakecasteanddomicilecertificatesfromtehsildar.

3. Thepolicehelpinmaintaininglawandorderbyprovidingpublicsafety,protectiontoallcitizensandtheirrights.

4. Thepatwariisrelatedtothevillagepanchayatinthesensethathemaintainsandupdatestherecordsofland.Threeorfourvillagescomeunderhim.Afterthedeathofthelandowner,hetransfersthelandandentershiswife’snamealongwithall the children in the recordbook.Heprovides theinformationtogovernmentaboutthecropgrown.Hekeepstherecordofcollectionoflandrevenuefromthefarmers.

5. TheHinduSuccessionActwaspassedin1995.Accordingtothelaw,sons,daughtersandmotherscangetequalshareintheland.

6. TheDeputyCommissioner(DC)supervisestheworkofPatwarisandensuresthatrecordsare inorder and land revenue is collected. TheDC is instrumental in conductingpeaceful elections inPanchayats, Block Samitis and Zila Parishad. He supervises the working of the Panchayati Rajinstitutionsinthedistrict.Ifthelocalbodiesdonotworkefficiently,hehasthepowertodissolveit

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andsendareporttothestategovernment.Tosafeguardthedistrict,anyfunctionmaybeexercisedbytheDC,evenifitisnotwell-defined.

7. Yes. C. 1. CourtoftheDistrictJudge,theSessionJudge 2. DeputyCommissioner 3. Municipalities,panchayats 4. executive 5. DistrictCivilSurgeon 6. Patwari D. 1. (d) 2.(c) 3.(a) 4.(b)

67

Urban Administration


Objectives

• To develop an understanding of the urban local level government functioning in the form ofMunicipalitiesandMunicipalCorporations

• TounderstandthefunctionsoftheMunicipalCorporation • Toattainawarenessastohowdowegetourlocalproblemsaddressed

Overview

• MunicipalitiesandMunicipalCorporationsadministerthewelfareprogrammesforthepeoplelivinginthecities.Municipality,alsocalledasnagarpalika,worksforasmallurbanareaandamunicipalcorporationworksforalargeurbanarea.

• Taxesonpropertysuchashousetax,taxonshopsandland,taxonvehicles,octroidutyongoodssoldorpurchasedfromotherstates,incomefromwaterandelectricitysupplytohousesandfactories,grants-in-aidandloansfromthestategovernmentaresomeofthesourcesofincomeofamunicipalityoramunicipalcorporation.

• WecangototheWardCouncilortomakehimawareofourproblemssuchaspoorroads,sanitation,garbagedisposal,shortageofwaterandelectricity,etc.HewillinformtheproblemstotheCommissionerwhointurnwillsendtheconcernedpersontovisittheplaceandresolvetheproblem.


A. 1. (b) 2 (b) 3.(c) 4.(a) 5.(b) 6.(c) 7.(d) B. 1. Municipalities:Theyareestablishedinsmallcitieshavingapopulationofmorethan20,000.They

havemeagerresourcestofulfilltherequirementsofareaandhavelimitedpowers.Theyhavetodealwiththestategovernmentthroughthedistrictadministration.

MunicipalCorporations:Theyareestablishedinbigcitieshavinglargepopulation.Theyhavelargerresourcesandpower.Theyinteractdirectlywiththestategovernment.

2. Healthisaprimeconcernofthemunicipalities.Theytakecareofhealthandhygieneofthepeople.Municipalities open schools, public libraries andmuseums. They also ensure public security. Itchecksveryoldhouses,buildingsanddeclaringthemunsafeandgivingadvicetosafeguardpeoplefromanymishapsduetotheirfall.Theycheckthequalityofeatablesandfoodadulteration.Theylookintotheconstructionandmaintenanceofroadsandstreets.Theyplanttreesandprovidegoodelectricitysupply.Theyconstructpublicurinals.

3. i) Taxesonpropertysuchashousetax,taxonshopsandlands ii) Taxonvehicles iii) Octroidutyongoodsbroughtintothecityortakenoutofit iv) Incomefromwaterandelectricitysupplytohousesandfactories v) Grants-in-aidandloansfromthestategovernment

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4. Elected representatives are called councilors who elect some othermembers who are respectedcitizensofthemunicipalarea.Theyarecalledaldermen.

5. Wecangotothewardcouncilortomakehimawareofourproblemslikepoorroads,sanitation,garbage,shortageofwaterandelectricity,etc.

C. 1. Municipalities,Municipal 2. One-third 3. Health,sanitary 4. Education,primary 5. Councilor,problems D. 1. True 2.False 3.False 4.False 5.True E. 1. (c) 2.(e) 3.(b) 4.(a) 5.(d)

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Rural Livelihoods


Objectives

• Todevelopfamiliaritywithvarioustypesoflivelihoodsprevalentinavillage • Tounderstandtheconditionsthatunderlineandimpactthelifestrategiesofvariousgroupsofpeople • Toknowaboutthevariousagriculturalandnon-agriculturalactivitieswhichhelpthepeoplelivingin

villagestomakealiving

Overview

• Over50%populationofIndiaisdependentonagriculture.Peoplelivinginvillagesearntheirlivelihoodfromagriculture.

• Different typesofpeopleengaged in farmingare—LandlessFarmerswhodonotownany landbutworkonthelandofbigfarmers;SmallFarmerswhohaveverysmallpieceoflandofsize1or2hectares;andBigFarmerswhoownbigpieceoflandofsizemorethan50hectares.

• Bigfarmersusuallydonotworkontheirfields,butgiveitonleasetotheotherfarmersorhirelandlessfarmerstogettheirlandcultivated.Landlesslabourershavetosearchforanyotherpart-timejobtoliveastheygetonlyseasonalworkonland.

• Peoplelivinginthecoastalregionsearntheirlivelihoodfromfishing.Peoplelivinginhillyareasdoterracefarmingontheslopesofthehillsasthelandavailableforcultivationisnotflatbutslanting.


A. 1. (c) 2 (c) 3.(a) 4.(b) 5.(a) 6.(d) B. 1. Agriculturalactivitiesandnon-agriculturalactivities. 2. Thereare three typesof farmers—non-agricultural labourers,small farmersandbig farmers.The

governmentcanhelpinimprovingthelifeoffarmersthroughitsliberalpoliciesofloans. 3. Thegovernmenthassetupcooperativeandruralbanksinvillagestoprovideloanstothefarmersso

thattheycanusebetterseeds,pesticidesandfertilizertoimprovetheiragriculturalyield. 4. Farmersinruralareasareeasilyexploitediftheyareunabletobuygoodqualityseeds.Theyhaveto

borrowseedsfromthetradersandfeelcommittedtogiveamajorchunkoftheircroptothetradersatacheaperrate.Insufficient incomeisalsoareasonforthehardshipsoffarmers.Unpredictablecropsalsoplayedspoiltsport.Pestsspoilthecropinbulk.Theabovecircumstancesmayleadtotheirinabilitytopaybacktheirloanintime.Induecourse,loangetsaccumulatedandtheyremaininapermanentdebt.

5. Thesmallfarmersownaverysmallpieceoflandbetween1and2hectares.Theydoalltheagriculturalactivitiesthemselvesfrompreparingthelandandsowingtheseedstoharvestingcrop.Divisionofcrops,insufficientincomeandresources,unpredictableweather,attackofpestsandaccumulationofdebtsaresomeofthehardshipsfacedbythepoorfarmers.

C. 1. agriculture 2. Fishing

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3. terracing 4. agricultural 5. hard,risky D. 1. False 2.True 3.True 4.False 5.True E. 1. (c) 2.(e) 3.(a) 4.(b) 5.(d)

Extra activity

Askthestudentstomakeacharton‘TerraceFarminginIndia’bypastingpicturesandwritingsmallcaptionsonit.TellthemtotakehelpoftheInternettogettheinformationonit.

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Urban Livelihoods


Objectives

• Tounderstandthedifferencebetweenprimary,secondaryandtertiaryoccupations • Tofigureoutthedifferencebetweenself-employment,regularemploymentandwageemployment • Tounderstandtheinterdependencebetweenruralandurbanlivelihoods

Overview

• Occupations can broadly be divided into three groups—primary occupation such as agriculture,forestry,mining,dairyfarming,etc.;secondaryoccupationsuchasmanufacturingandprocessingofrawgoods;andtertiaryoccupationsuchasbanking,teaching,railway,healthcare,insurance,etc.

• Somepeopleinurbanareasworkasflorists,fruitandvegetablevendors,rickshawpullers,carpenters,domestichelp,casuallabourers,etc.Theyliveaverytoughlifeandformthepoorclassoftheurbanareas.Peoplealsoworkinmarkets,runningtheirgroceryshops,confectionaryshops,electronicgoodsshops,etc.

• Therearealsopeoplewhoworkinfactoriesaseitherdaily-wageworkersorfactoryworkers,peoplewhoworkincallcentresprovidecustomercareservices,etc.


A. 1. (d) 2 (b) 3.(b) 4.(b) 5.(b) B. 1. Primary occupations: When natural resources provide goods and people utilise them for their

benefit,itiscalledprimaryoccupations,e.g.,agriculture,cattlebreeding,dairyfarming. Secondary occupations:Inthis,peopledealwiththeprocessingofrawmaterialslikeagricultural

produce,fowl,fishandotherseaanimals.Thisisdonemanuallyorthroughmachines. Tertiary occupations: In this, people offer their services such as teaching, banking, post offices,

insurance,etc.Nogoodsareproduced,butthiskindofpeopleplayanimportantroleinthemodernsociety.

2. Area-wiseurbanoccupationimpliesworkaccordingtothearea.Theseincludepeopleonroadsandstreets,aswellaspeopleinthemarket.

Work-wiseurbanoccupationimpliesbusinessactivities,factoryworkshoparea. 3. Callcentre isanewformofemployment.Acallcentre isanofficethatdealswithproblemsthat

customers and consumershave regarding thegoodspurchasedand services likebanking, ticketbooking,etc.Theyarecasualworkerswhohavenopermanentstatusoftheirjob.Nomedicalorpensionfacility.Thereisnopersonalsecurityofmisbehaviourbythepeople.Longworkinghoursandnightshiftsarepartoftheirjobprofile.

4. Permanentworkershaveregularemployment.Theygetregularsalary.Theygetholidays,medicalfacilities,pension,etc.

5. Acasualworkerhasnopermanentstatusofhis/herjob.Nomedicalorpensionfacility.Thereisnopersonalsecurityofmisbehaviourbythepeople.Longworkinghoursandnightshiftsarepartof

contents material/social_science-vi...investigatory projects ... the early people did not know how...

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