mars colonization aff

8/6/2019 Mars Colonization AFF

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Cross-x Space Affirmative

Lebowski

Space AffirmativeSpace Affirmative ....................................................................................................................................................................1Inherency .................................................................................................................................................................................2Plan .................................................................................................................................................................................... ......3

Space Race Adv. (1/3) ............................................................................................................................................ ...... ...........4Space Race Adv. (2/3) ............................................................................................................................................ ...... ...........5Space Race Adv. (3/3) ............................................................................................................................................ ...... ...........6Get off the Rock Adv. (1/3) ......................................................................................................................................... ...... ......7Get off the Rock Adv. (2/3) ......................................................................................................................................... ...... ......8Get off the Rock Adv. (3/3) ......................................................................................................................................... ...... ......9Solvency (1/5) ........................................................................................................................................................... ............10Solvency (2/5) .................................................................................................................................................... ...... ...... .......11Solvency (3/5) ........................................................................................................................................................... ............12Solvency (4/5) ........................................................................................................................................................... ............13Solvency (5/5) ........................................................................................................................................................... ............14**2AC Blocks** .............................................................................................................................................................. .....15Case OV 2AC (Inherency) ....................................................................................................................................................16

Case OV 2AC (Space Race) ............................................................................................................................................. .....17Case OV 2AC (Get off the Rock) ..........................................................................................................................................18Case OV 2AC (Solvency) .................................................................................................................................................... .19Case OV 2AC (Case Outweighs) .........................................................................................................................................20**Case Ext.** ........................................................................................................................................................................21S&R Israel/Russia Uniqueness ..............................................................................................................................................22S&R Heg Link Ext................................................................................................................................................................23S&R Econ Link Ext............................................................................................................................................................... 24Climate Change Inevitable Ext.............................................................................................................................................. 25**AT: Disadvantages** .........................................................................................................................................................26AT: Spending/Economy DA (1/3) .........................................................................................................................................27AT: Spending/Economy DA (2/3) .........................................................................................................................................27AT: Spending/Economy DA (3/3) .........................................................................................................................................27AT: Econ Decline = Cut Space Programs ..............................................................................................................................29**AT: Counterplans** ...................................................................................................................................................... .....30AT: Colonize X (Not Mars) CP ................................................................................................................................ ...... ...... .31

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InherencyContention one is Inherency - (Whats happenin now dawg?)

A dwindling fund for NASA projects in the 2011 and 2012 budget makes a mission to Mars impossible.Clive Cookson 3/18/11. NASAs trip to Mars is mission improbable. URL:http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/7ee442aa-4f6f-11e0-8632-00144feab49a.html#axzz1H3WLeGIS. DA: 3/19/11. Clive is a board member at Financial Times, and holds aFirst Class Honours degree at Oxford University.

Planetary scientists have issued theirofficial wish list forunmanned space missions to explore the solar system overthe next decade.Top priority of the report from the US National Academy ofSciences is robotic exploration of Mars. The second mission on the list is a visit toJupiters icy moon Europa and its subsurface ocean seen as one of the most promising environments in the solar system for supporting life. Third prioritywould be a mission to investigate the interior structure, atmosphere and composition of the outer planet Uranus, one of the least understood large bodies inthe solar system. The 400-page report is the result of a thorough review of the options by 17 senior planetary scientists. It will carry great weight with its

sponsor, the US space agency Nasa. But whether it turns out to be a practical guide for Nasa to plan future missions or a fantasylist depends on how much money the agency receives from the US Congress for space science. Latest signals from theWashington budgetary process are not encouraging. The report was prepared on the basis of Nasas 2011 budget, which hasstill not been enacted as a result of the Obama administrations fiscal standoff with Congress. The proposed 2012 budget

gives considerably less money to space science. Our recommendations are science-driven, and they offer a balanced mix ofmissions large, medium and small that have the potential to greatly expand our knowledge of the solar system, says Steven Squyres of Cornell

University, who chaired the academys review panel. However, in these tough economic times, some difficult choices may have to bemade. The report says that if Nasa does not have enough money to support its three big favoured missions, then one ormore of these should be delayed, scaled back or cancelled, so that the agency can continue to fund a steady stream ofsmaller, less expensive missions. Candidates for these include returning a sample from a comet to earth, probing Saturns atmosphere, landing onthe surface of Venus, visiting more asteroids and putting a network of geophysical observatories on to the moon. The most expensive of the three top

priorities is the Jupiter Europa Orbiter, for which an independent estimate put the price at $4.7bn. Its cost needs to come down substantially, by reducing

the spacecrafts capabilities and possibly getting the European Space Agency to contribute more, the review says. But the Planetary Society, aleading lobby group for space science, fears that there will be no mission beyond Mars. This is not just the loss of anAmerican flagship mission, it is a loss to planet Earth, says Louis Friedman, the societys former director.

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Lebowski

PlanThus we offer the following plan: The United States Federal Government should substantially increase its exploration anddevelopment of space by colonizing Mars in the order of robotic exploration and then humyn colonization using NASA.

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Space Race Adv. (1/3)Contention two is the space race

1. China, Russia, and India will overthrow the US in space policy primacy in the status quo.Amy Svitak 3/17/11. Svitak works for SPACE.com Inc, Army Times, Navy Times, Air Force Times, and Marine CorpsTimes. GOP Lawmakers Appeal for Manned Exploration Funds. URL: http://www.spacenews.com/civil/110317gop-lawmakers-appeal-for-manned-exploration-funds.html. DA: 3/19/11.Two Republican lawmakers appealed to House Budget Committee Chairman Rep. Paul Ryan (R-Wis.) to spare NASAs mannedspace exploration programs from the budget axe next yearwhile suggesting the agencys roughly $1.6 billion request for climate-monitoringinitiatives is ripe for cuts. The establishment of, and commitment to, human space exploration is critical to our countrysnational security and economy, and we respectfully ask that ourRepublicanbudget reflect this national priority, Reps. SandyAdams (R-Fla.) and Pete Olson (R-Texas) said in a March 17 letter to Ryan, whose job as budget chief is to establish top-level spending allocations for thecoming fiscal year that begins Oct. 1. Adams and Olson, who represent states with a stake in NASAs manned spaceflight program, said the current fiscalsituation is forcing hard choices as members of the GOP-led House seek to curb discretionary spending at federal agencies. To be clear, we believe that

NASAs budget can be reduced, the lawmakers wrote, urging Ryan to take aim at climate-monitoring programs poised for a funding boost over the nextfive years under the $18.72 billion budget blueprint U.S. President Barack Obama unveiled Feb. 14. Within the NASA budget specifically, we believe

there is an opportunity to cut funding within the Earth Science account where an overabundance of climate change research is being conducted. The

members lauded Americas history of global leadership in space exploration but criticized Obama for what they said wasundermining the nations leadership in space exploration. Obamas plan also supports commercial astronaut transportation services and spacetechnology development over deep space exploration systems favored by Congress.[O]nce again, the Obama Administrations budgetwillingly cedes that leadership to China, Russia and India countries that understand the importance of human spaceexploration, the letter states. We cannot continue to accept this administrations assault on American exceptionalism andworld leadership.

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Lebowski

Space Race Adv. (2/3)

2. With the cancellation of the Discovery, there is an imminent defeat in the space race. And challenging spacemissions are the key pivotal point of world leadership.William R. Hawkins 3/7. Hawkins is a consultant specializing in international economic and national security issues. He is

a former economics professor and Republican Congressional staff member. Forfeiting US Leadership in Space. URL:http://www.familysecuritymatters.org/publications/id.8906/pub_detail.asp. DA: 3/26/11.

The space shuttle "Discovery" is scheduled to complete its 13 day supply mission to the International Space Station (ISS) on March 9.It is the 135th space shuttle mission since the "Columbia" first lifted off on April 12, 1981. There are only two missions left in the program,one in April for the "Endeavor" and one in June for "Atlantis." The shuttles will have flown for over 30 years, during which time it shouldhave been expected that a replacement system would have been developed. But it has not been. Even the loss of "Challenger" in 1986 and "Columbia" in

2005 did not spark action. When the shuttles are retired this summer, there is nothing to replace them; indeed, there is not evenanything close to being ready. Presidents George W. Bush (2003) and BarackObama (2010) cancelled shuttle replacement programs.The great lead that the United States has enjoyed in space since the first Moon landing on July 20, 1969 has been thrown away dueto a lack of imagination in Washington. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has put out its2011 Strategic Plan. Its first goalis to "extend and sustain human activities across the solar system." As the lead civilization of the current era, it is America's duty toadvance human achievement. Yet, there is very little in the NASA plan or budget to fulfill this noble goal. The NASA plan reliesfirst and foremost on "expanding efforts to utilize the ISS as a National Laboratory for scientific, technological, diplomatic, and educational purposes and

for supporting future objectives in human space exploration." But without the shuttle or a replacement space vehicle, the U.S. will bedependent on the Russians for access to the ISS. Yes, the Russians, who lost both the Space Race and the Cold War in thelast century, are now poised to control the ISS. The Russians, it should be remembered, were invited into the ISS because the U.S., even thoughit was the richest nation on the planet and the world's most advanced scientific state, was looking for other countries to put up money for the ISS tolighten its own "burden." It would be hard to find a better example of the old adage "penny wise, but pound foolish." NASA notes the danger. Its strategic

plan has as a goal "reducing the risk of relying exclusively on foreign crew transport capabilities." But the road to that goal will be along one. The report talks about creating" architectures" that will then lead to a "roadmap for affordable and sustainable human space exploration." Soafter 30 years of relying on shuttles that were designed in the 1970s, NASA is back to square one. NASA knows, "The core elements to a successfulimplementation are a space launch system and a multipurpose crew vehicle to serve as our national capability to conduct advanced missions beyond low

Earth orbit. Developing this combined system will enable us to reach cislunar space, near-Earth asteroids, Mars, and other celestial bodies." Tragically,no one higher up in Washington, either at the White House or in Congress, has cared enough about the nation's future inspace to do anything about funding such a project. As long as there are still satellites that can beam down episodes of "American Idol" to a nation ofcouch potatoes, who cares about achieving anything more?NASA is one of the few government programs than actually deserves to be called an

investment.Its 2012 request of $18 billion is only 0.4 percent of a $3.7 trillion Federal budget. The bailout money given tothe AIG insurance company would have funded NASA for a decade. Yet, the technology the space program has generated forsociety has rewarded taxpayers many times over. And developing new generations of scientific breakthroughs will continue to be a majorstrategic goal of the program.NASA's role extends beyond the agency's own work. It has served as a stimulus for education and industry.It's 2011 report states, "One of NASA's top strategic goals is to Inspire students to be our future scientists, engineers,explorers, and educators through interactions with NASAs people, missions, research, and facilities." At a time when theperformance of American students in math and science has fallen behind that of most of the world, there needs to be a newpush to stimulate the public imagination and to provide rewarding careers for a new generation of innovative thinkers. Butwith NASA doing less in space, from where is the inspiration to come? Designing more video games?The NASA report raisesconcerns about how to keep even its current high-skilled workforce employed, noting. "The retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 isushering in a transition period for the Nations human space flight workforce."New programs, such as "development of aheavy-lift rocket and crew capsule to carry explorers beyond Earths orbit, including a mission to an asteroid next decade"are supposed to provide some jobs, but not enough. Shifting work to "green technology" and the study of "global warming" will not lead

to new adventures in manned space exploration. Meanwhile, China is positioning itself to lead humankind' further into space. The statenews agency XinhuareportedFriday, "The world's largest design, production and testing base for rockets is being built inTianjin" as part of China's expanding space program. Twenty of the 22 plants have been completed, and some of are readyfor operation. The base is designed to meet China's growing demand for space technology for the next thirty years. Byintegrating the industrial chain, the base will be able to produce the whole spectrum of rockets for China's lunar missions, its own space station and otherambitious projects according to Liang Xiaohong, deputy head of the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology. China is still behind the United States,having only sent its first multi-man orbital mission aloft in 2008, but it has big ideas. Beijing plans 20 space missions this year, and wants to land anunmanned vehicle on the Moon in 2013. China sent a spacecraft to orbit the Moon last October. The stirring vision of giant space stations, commercialshuttle flights and extensive moon bases given to the public in the classic 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey has become a sad testimony to three decades oflost American opportunities. I have seen this once great American spirit of adventure reborn in China. I have been amazed (and alarmed) by displays of

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http://www.familysecuritymatters.org/publications/id.8906/pub_detail.asphttp://www.familysecuritymatters.org/publications/id.8906/pub_detail.asphttp://www.nasa.gov/pdf/516579main_NASA2011StrategicPlan.pdfhttp://www.nasa.gov/pdf/516579main_NASA2011StrategicPlan.pdfhttp://www.nasa.gov/pdf/516579main_NASA2011StrategicPlan.pdfhttp://china.globaltimes.cn/chinanews/2011-03/629824.htmlhttp://china.globaltimes.cn/chinanews/2011-03/629824.htmlhttp://china.globaltimes.cn/chinanews/2011-03/629824.htmlhttp://www.familysecuritymatters.org/publications/id.8906/pub_detail.asphttp://www.nasa.gov/pdf/516579main_NASA2011StrategicPlan.pdfhttp://china.globaltimes.cn/chinanews/2011-03/629824.html


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Chinese plans to build bases on the Moon, then move farther into the solar system. I grew up in a confident America animated by futuristic thinking, but

that drive has faded. Beijing is now the home of energy and ambition. What happens in space is not divorced from what happens on Earth.Though clearly helpful to military space projects, NASA is charted as a civilian organization in line with idealist notions about the heavens being a clean

slate free of power politics. There are no such illusions in China. Beijing's manned-space program is placed underthe General Armament Departmentwithin the Ministry of Defense. The Long March rockets used for space launches are similar in design to China's nuclear-tipped intercontinental ballistic

missiles. More important, is the spirit demonstrated in the space effort. History has not been kind to nations that stagnate inthe face of a rising competitor. The desire to succeed is the most important element in any strategy. The NASA strategic planclaims, "Humanitys interest in the heavens has been universal and enduring. Humans are driven to explore the unknown,discover new worlds, push the boundaries of our scientific and technical limits, and then push further. NASA is tasked withdeveloping the capabilities that will support our countrys long-term human space flight and exploration efforts." But where isthe higher national leadership with the vision to back these efforts? The frontier spirit that built America has waned. Both political parties aretoo busy looking at the mud around their feet to look up at the sky. So much for the "giant leap for mankind" so bravely stated over 40years ago. But what can be expected in a country where Buzz Aldrin, who with Neil Armstrong were the first men to walk on the Moon, ends up on"Dancing with the Stars" performing for an audience most of whom had never heard of him. Nothing could better portray the decline ofAmerican civilization.

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Lebowski

Space Race Adv. (3/3)

3. The loss of US primacy is the root cause of major power and nuclear wars.Stephen M. Walt 2. Walt has received a PhD in political science at the University of California; and also did undergradstudies at Stanford University. American primacy: its prospects and pitfalls.(prominence of United States in economic,

international affairs). URL:http://find.galegroup.com/gps/retrieve.do?contentSet=IAC-Documents&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&qrySerId=Locale%28en%2C%2C%29%3AFQE%3D%28ke

%2CNone%2C16%29American+primacy%3AAnd%3ALQE%3D%28AC%2CNone%2C8%29fulltext

%24&sgHitCountType=None&inPS=true&sort=DateDescend&searchType=BasicSearchForm&tabID=T002&prodI

d=IPS&searchId=R2&currentPosition=11&userGroupName=lom_birminghps&docId=A88174226&docType=IAC&

contentSet=IAC-Documents. DA: 3/24/11.A second consequence of U.S. primacy is a decreased danger of great-power rivalry and a higher level of overallinternational tranquility. Ironically, those who argue that primacy is no longer important, because the danger of war is slight,overlook the fact that the extent ofAmerican primacy is one of the main reasons why the risk of great-power war is as lowas it is. For most of the past four centuries, relations among the major powers have been intensely competitive, oftenpunctuated by major wars and occasionally by all-out struggles for hegemony. In the first half of the twentieth century, forexample, great-power wars killed over eighty million people. Today, however, the dominant position of the United Statesplaces significant limits on the possibility of great-power competition, for at least two reasons. One reason is that because the

United States is currently so far ahead, other major powers are not inclined to challenge its dominant position.Not only is there no possibility of a"hegemonic war" (because there is no potential hegemon to mount a challenge),but the risk of war via miscalculation is reduced by theoverwhelming gap between the United States and the other major powers.Miscalculation is more likely to lead to war whenthe balance of power is fairly even, because in this situation both sides can convince themselves that they might be able towin. When the balance of power is heavily skewed, however, the leading state does not need to go to war and weaker states dare not try. (8) The secondreason is that the continued deployment of roughly two hundred thousand troops in Europe and in Asia provides a further barrier to conflict in each region.So long as U.S. troops are committed abroad, regional powers know that launching a war is likely to lead to a confrontation with the United States. Thus,states within these regions do not worry as much about each other, because the U.S. presence effectively prevents regional conflicts from breaking out.What Joseph Joffe has termed the "American pacifier" is not the only barrier to conflict in Europe and Asia, but it is an important one. This tranquilizingeffect is not lost on America's allies in Europe and Asia. They resent U.S. dominance and dislike playing host to American troops, but they also do not want

"Uncle Sam" to leave. (9) Thus, U.S. primacy is of benefit to the United States, and to other countries as well, because itdampens the overall level of international insecurity.

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Get off the Rock Adv. (1/3)Contention three is to Get off the Rock

First, the effects of global warming and climate change are inevitableUCAR 05. UCAR stands for University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Climate Change Inevitable in 21stCentury Sea Level Rise to Outpace Temperature Increase. URL:

http://www.ucar.edu/news/releases/2005/change.shtml. DA: 3/20/11.

Even if all greenhouse gases had been stabilized in the year 2000, we would still be committed to a warmer Earth andgreater sea level rise in the present century, according to a new study by a team of climate modelers at the National Center for AtmosphericResearch (NCAR). The findings are published in this week's issue of the journal Science. The modeling study quantifies the relative rates ofsea level rise and global temperature increase that we are already committed to in the 21st century. Even if no moregreenhouse gases were added to the atmosphere, globally averaged surface airtemperatures would rise about a half degree Celsius(one degree Fahrenheit) and global sea levels would rise another 11 centimeters (4 inches) from thermal expansion alone by 2100. Manypeople dont realize we are committed right now to a significant amount of global warming and sea level rise because of thegreenhouse gases we have already put into the atmosphere, says lead author Gerald Meehl. Even if we stabilize greenhouse gas

concentrations, the climate will continue to warm, and there will be proportionately even more sea level rise. The longer wewait, the more climate change we are committed to in the future.

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Lebowski

Get off the Rock Adv. (2/3)

Second, global climate is the key internal link for multiple scenarios of extinction

National Voter 08.National voter is a quarterly magazine that discusses governmental politics. DA: 3/20/11. URL:http://find.galegroup.com/gps/retrieve.do?contentSet=IAC-Documents&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&qrySerId=Locale

%28en%2C%2C%29%3AFQE%3D%28ke%2CNone%2C14%29global+warming%3AAnd%3AFQE%3D%28TX%2CNone%2C15%29extinction+risk%3AAnd%3AFQE%3D%28TX%2CNone%2C16%29%22Climate+Change%22%3AAnd%3ALQE%3D%28AC%2CNone%2C8%29fulltext%24&sgHitCountType=None&inPS=true&sort=DateDescend&searchType=BasicSearchForm&tabID=T003&prodId=IPS&searchId=R3&currentPosition=7&userGroupName=lom_birminghps&docId=A187505769&docType=IAC&contentSet=IAC-Documents. Climate Change.

Global climate change poses a major threat to public health, the environment, and U.S. andworld economies.We already faceincreasingly severe heat waves and droughts, intensifying hurricanes and floods, disappearing glaciers, and more wildfires.If left unchecked,the effects could be catastrophic: millions of people displaced as rising sea levels flood coastal areas; manyregions devastated by reduced crop yields and shortages of drinking water; human health threatened by malaria and otherdiseases; and numerous plant and animal species at risk of extinction. Climate change is happening now. According to theWorld Meteorological Organization, the decade from 1998 to 2007 was the warmest on record. In addition, 2007 ranked among thewarmest seven years since record-keeping began in the mid-1800s. The other six warmest years all fell within the 1998-2007 period. Warmertemperatures already are having alarming effects. Summer sea ice is disappearing in the Arctic; mountain glaciers areretreating around the world; many species of plants and animals are responding to earlier spring warming;and climate change is takingsomespecies to the brink of extinction. Recent increases in the strength of tropical hurricanes have been linked to a rise inocean temperatures caused by global warming. Climate change is caused by human activity. There is no longer any doubt about it: Humanactivities are the primary causes of global climate change. Burning fossil fuels--chiefly coal and oil--in our power plants, cars and trucks, and elsewhere

produces carbon dioxide (C[O.sub.2]), which works like a blanket to trap the sun's heat in the Earth's atmosphere, creating an enhanced greenhouse effect.Other human sources of "greenhouse gases" (GHGs) include deforestation, agriculture and industrial processes. In its latest Greenhouse Gas Bulletin, theWorld Meteorological Organization states that average global concentrations of the three main GHGs--carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide--reachednew highs in 2006. Compared to pre-industrial levels, C[O.sub.2] levels in the atmosphere have surged by 36 percent. Scientists say current levels of

atmospheric C[O.sub.2] are unprecedented in human history. Climate change will get worse. In the absence of substantial reductions in worldwideemissions of C[O.sub.2] and other GHGs, climate change will accelerate in the decades to come. The Nobel Prize-winning IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change projects that global temperatures will increase between 2.0[degrees] and 11.5[degrees] F by 2100. Sea levels will rise by 1-1.5

feet or more. In addition, there's a 90 percent or greater chance that the world will see more extreme weather, heat waves and

heavy precipitation events, more droughts and more intense hurricanes. (1) Developing countries, which lack the resourcesneeded to protect their residents and their economies, will be among the hardest hit by the effects of catastrophic climatechange. What's in It for Us: Everyone on Earth is affected by climate change in multiple ways: Climate change affects our health andsafety. Heat waves and extreme temperatures pose obvious health risks to all people, especially the elderly and those living in poverty. Scientists alsosay climate change will accelerate the spread of infectious disease and pose serious threats to food and water supplies, whileincreasing the threat to humans from wildfires, hurricanes and other severe-weather events. Climate change affects

our security. A June 2008 report by the National Intelligence Council documented how increased temperatures,

changes in rainfall, rising sea levels and other changes could threaten U.S. security in the next 20 years.Among the

potential problems: political instability, mass movements of refugees, and conflicts over water and other resources.

Addressing climate change in a serious way also will reduce the United States' reliance on oil from unstable regions of the world. Climate change

affects our wallets. Numerous studies have shown that the costs ofnot addressingclimate change (from increased

emergency room admissions to food and crop losses, lost infrastructure, and increased storm and flood cleanup) will

be considerably higher than the costs of reducing emissions.

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Get off the Rock Adv. (3/3)Third will be the impacts

A. Resource wars lead to nuclear war, ending in extinction.Frosty Wooldridge 09. Wooldridge is an American journalist, writer, environmentalist, traveler, figure in the anti-illegal immigration movement in the United States, and works for the examiner. America galloping toward its

greatest crisis in the 21st century. URL: http://www.examiner.com/immigration-reform-in-denver/america-galloping-toward-its-greatest-crisis-the-21st-century. DA: 3/20/11.

It is clear that most politicians and most citizens do not recognize that returning to more of the same is a recipe for promoting the first collapse of a

global civilization. The required changes in energy technology, which would benefit not only the environment but also nationalsecurity, public health, and the economy, would demand a World War II type mobilization -- and even that might not preventa global climate disaster. Without transitioning away from use of fossil fuels, humanity will move further into an era of resource wars(remember, Africom has been added to the Pentagons structure -- and China has noticed), clearly with intent to protect US interests in petroleum

reserves. The consequences of more resource wars, many likely triggered over water supplies stressed by climate disruption,are likely to include increased unrest in poor nations, a proliferation of weapons ofmass destruction, widening inequity within andbetween nations, and in the worst (and not unlikely) case, a nuclear war ending civilization.

B. Disease leads to extinction

South China Morning Post 96. Avi Mensa. Leading the way to a cure for AIDS.

Despite the importance of the discovery of the "facilitating" cell, it is not what Dr Ben-Abraham wants to talk about. There is a much more pressingmedical crisis at hand - one he believes the world must be alerted to: the possibility of a virus deadlier than HIV. If this makes Dr Ben-Abraham sound likea prophet of doom, then he makes no apology for it. AIDS, the Ebola outbreak which killed more than 100 people in Africa last year, the flu epidemic that

has now affected 200,000 in the former Soviet Union - they are all, according to Dr Ben-Abraham, the "tip of the iceberg". Two decades of intensivestudy and research in the field of virology have convinced him of one thing: in place of natural and man-made disasters ornuclear warfare, humanity could face extinction because of a single virus, deadlier than HIV. "An airborne virus is a lively,complex and dangerous organism," he said. "It can come from a rare animal or from anywhere and can mutate constantly. Ifthere is no cure, it affects one person and then there is a chain reaction and it is unstoppable. It is a tragedy waiting to happen."Thatmay sound like a far-fetched plot for a Hollywood film, but Dr Ben -Abraham said history has already proven his theory. Fifteen years ago, few couldhave predicted the impact of AIDS on the world. Ebola has had sporadic outbreaks over the past 20 years and the only way the deadly virus -which turns internal organs into liquid - could be contained was because it was killed before it had a chance to spread. Imagine, he says, if it was closer to

home: an outbreak of that scale in London, New York or Hong Kong. It could happen anytime in the next 20 years - theoretically, it could happentomorrow. The shock of the AIDS epidemic has prompted virus experts to admit "that something new is indeed happeningand that the threat of a deadly viral outbreak is imminent", said Joshua Lederberg of the Rockefeller University in New York, at a recentconference. He added that the problem was "very serious and is getting worse". Dr Ben-Abraham said: "Nature isn't benign. The survival of the human

species is not a preordained evolutionary programme. Abundant sources of genetic variation exist for viruses to learn how to mutateand evade the immune system." He cites the 1968 Hong Kong flu outbreak as an example of how viruses have outsmarted human intelligence. Andas new "mega-cities" are being developed in the Third World and rainforests are destroyed, disease-carrying animals andinsects are forced into areas of human habitation. "This raises the very real possibility that lethal, mysterious viruses would,for the first time, infect humanity at a large scale and imperil the survival of the human race," he said.

And, even if climate change doesnt kill us, staying on Earth inevitably leads to extinction

DirkSchulze-Makuch 10. Dirk is an Associate professor of geology and astrobiology at Washington State University.To Boldly Go: A One-Way Human Mission to Mars. URL:http://www.abadss.com/forum/1125-universe-space/157531-journal-cosmology.html. DA: 3/22/11.

There are several reasons that motivate the establishment of a permanent Mars colony. We are a vulnerable species

living in a part of the galaxy where cosmic events such as major asteroid and comet impacts and supernova

explosions pose a significant threat to life on Earth, especially to human life. There are also more immediate threats

to our culture, if not our survival as a species. These include global pandemics, nuclear or biological warfare, runaway

global warming, sudden ecological collapse and supervolcanoes.

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Lebowski

Solvency (1/5)The last contention is Solvency

1. Colonization of other inhabitable planets like Mars solves for an inevitable human extinction. The initiative toleave NOW prevents any econ impact by stimulating the private sector.Casey Kazan 10. Kazan was educated at Harvard University and currently owns Galaxy.com, a reputable website. IsColonizing Mars an Imperative? Obama's New Space Strategy Says "Yes". URL:

http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2010/02/s-colonizing-space-an-imperative-obamas-new-space-strategy-says-yes-lays-groundwork-for-human-space-.html. DA: 3/21/11.

Obama is sensibly ceding space flight development to the private sector, with new ventures such as SpaceX who will be willbe ferrying astronauts to the ISS, and other aerospace companies who are very close to launching humans into orbit. So thegovernment would be partnering with private industry to send astronauts to space. Buzz Aldrin, often an outspoken critic of thespace program, said: "I also believe the steps we will be taking following the President's direction will best position NASA and otherspace agencies to send humans to Mars and other exciting destinations as quickly as possible. To do that, we will need to supportmany types of game-changing technologies NASA and its partners will be developing." Hawking said that any long-term site for a human base should havea significant gravity field, because long missions in microgravity lead to health issues such as bone loss. Hawking favors human space exploration, ratherthan just sending robots to explore space, a position taken by Nobel laureate Steven Weinberg, among others. Eventually, Hawking said, humanity shouldtry to expand to Earth-like planets around other stars. If only 1% of the 1000 or so stars within 30 light years of Earth has an Earth-size planet at the rightdistance from its star for liquid water to exist, that would make for 10 such planets in our solar system's neighbourhood, he said. "We cannot envisionvisiting them with current technology, but we should make interstellar travel a long-term aim," he said. "By long term, I mean over the next 200 to 500

years." Humanity can afford to battle earthly problems like climate change and still have plenty of resources left over for colonizing space, he said. "Evenif we were to increase the international [space exploration] budget 20 times to make a serious effort to go into space, itwould only be a small fraction ofworld GDP," he said. GDP, or Gross Domestic Product, is a measure of a country's economic activity.Hawking believes that traveling into space is the only way humans will be able to survive in the long-term. "Life on Earth,"Hawking has said, "is at the ever-increasing risk of being wiped out by a disaster such as sudden global warming, nuclear war, agenetically engineered virus or other dangers ... I think the human race has no future if it doesn't go into space." The problemswith Hawkings solution is that while it may save a seed of human life- a few lucky specimens- it wont save Earths inhabitants. The majority of

Earthlings would surely be left behind on a planet increasingly unfit for life. Hawking argued that the world can afford 0.25% of itscollective GDP to devote to space colonization. "Isn't our future worth a quarter of a percent?"

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Solvency (2/5)

2. Going to Mars now would solve for our Resource impact scenario.

DirkSchulze-Makuch 10. Dirk is an Associate professor of geology and astrobiology at Washington State University.

To Boldly Go: A One-Way Human Mission to Mars. URL: http://www.abadss.com/forum/1125-universe-space/157531-journal-cosmology.html. DA: 3/22/11.

The first colonists to Mars wouldnt go in "cold." Robotic probes sent on ahead would establish necessities such as anenergy source (such as a small nuclear reactor augmented by solar panels), enough food for two years, the basics forcreatinghome-grownagriculture, one or more rover vehicles and a tool-kit for carrying out essential engineering and maintenance work. In addition, thescientific equipment needed for the colonists to do important research work should be part of the preceding unmannedmission. All this equipment could easily be put into place using current technology before the astronauts set out. The firsthuman contingent would rely heavily on resources that can beproduced from Mars such as water, nutrients, and shelter (such as in form oflava tube caves). They also would be continuously resupplied from Earth with necessities that could not be produced from the resources available on Mars.This semi-autonomous phase might last for decades, perhaps even centuries before the size and sophistication of the Mars colony enabled it to be self-sustaining. The first human contingent would consist of a crew of four, ideally (and if the budget permits) distributed between two two-man space craft toallow for some mission redundancy such as in the Viking mission or for the Mars Exploration Rovers. Also, if any technical malfunction occurs on onespace craft, the other craft could come to the rescue. Further, any critical part of equipment after landing would be available in duplicate in case of an

emergency. A one-way human mission to Mars would not be a one-time commitment as was the case with the Apollo program. More than 40 years after thelast Apollo mission, no human has set foot on a planetary body beyond Earth. Such a hiatus cannot be afforded if humanity is to commit to a grander vision

of space exploration (Davies and Schulze-Makuch 2008; Schulze-Makuch and Irwin 2008).No base on the Moon is needed to launch a one-way human mission to Mars. Given the broad variety of resources available on Mars, the long-term survival ofthe firstcolonists is much morefeasible than it would be on the Moon.

3. Mars colonization IS possible, its technologically feasible, become efficient in harvesting and utilizingnecessitated resources and keep costs low.

DirkSchulze-Makuch 10. Dirk is an Associate professor of geology and astrobiology at Washington State University.

To Boldly Go: A One-Way Human Mission to Mars. URL: http://www.abadss.com/forum/1125-universe-space/157531-journal-cosmology.html. DA: 3/22/11.

A human mission to Mars is technologically feasible, but hugely expensive requiring enormous financial and political commitments. Acreative solution to this dilemma would be a one-way human mission to Mars in place of the manned return mission thatremains stuck on the drawing board. Our proposal would cut the costs several fold but ensure at the same time a continuouscommitment to the exploration of Mars in particular and space in general. It would also obviate the need for years ofrehabilitation for returning astronauts, which would not be an issue if the astronauts were to remain in the low-gravityenvironment of Mars. We envision that Mars exploration would begin and proceed for a long time on the basis of outbound journeys only . Amission to Mars could use some of the hardware that has been developed for the Moon program. One approach could be to sendfour astronauts initially, two on each of two space craft, each with a lander and sufficient supplies, to stake a single outpost on Mars. A one-wayhuman mission to Mars would not be a fixed duration project as in the Apollo program, but the first step in establishing apermanent human presence on the planet. The astronauts would be re-supplied on a periodic basis from Earth with basicnecessities, but otherwise would be expected to become increasingly proficient at harvesting and utilizing resourcesavailable on Mars. Eventually the outpost would reach self-sufficiency, and then it could serve as a hub for a greatlyexpanded colonization program. There are many reasons why a human colony on Mars is a desirable goal, scientifically and politically . The

strategy of one-way missions brings this goal within technological and financial feasibility.Nevertheless, to attain it would requirenot only major international cooperation, but a return to the exploration spirit and risk-taking ethos of the great period of Earth exploration, from Columbusto Amundsen, but which has nowadays been replaced with a culture of safety and political correctness.

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Lebowski

Solvency (3/5)

4. We have the technology and the resources now. (The one way trip to Mars avoids their

spending impacts)

Nicholas K. Geranios 10. Nick works for the Associated Press and is an intelligence officer in Seattle. Scientistspropose one-way trips to Mars. URL:http://www.boston.com/news/science/articles/2010/11/15/scientists_propose_one_way_trips_to_mars/?p1=Well_MostPop_Emailed6 . DA: 3/26/11.

It's usually cheaper to fly one way, even to Mars. Two scientists are suggesting that colonization of the red planet could happen

faster and more economically if astronauts behaved like the first settlers to come to North America -not expect ing to

go home . "The main point is to get Mars exploration moving," said Dirk Schulze-Makuch, a Washington State University professor whoco-authored an article that seriously proposes what sounds like a preposterous idea. At least one moonwalking astronaut was not impressed. "This is

premature," Ed Mitchell of Apollo 14 wrote in an email. "We aren't ready for this yet." Also cool to the idea was NASA. President Barack

Obama has already outlined a plan to go to Mars by the mid-2030s, but he never suggested these space travellers

wouldn't come home. "We want our people back," NASA spokesperson Michael Braukus said. The article titled To Boldly Go appears in the latestissue of the Journal of Cosmology, which featured more than 50 articles and essays on Mars exploration. Schulze-Makuch and Paul Davies, a physicist atArizona State University, argue that humans must begin colonizing another planet as a hedge against a catastrophe on Earth. They believe the one-way tripscould start in two decades. "You would send a little bit older folks, around 60 or something like that," Schulze-Makuch said, bringing to mind the agingheroes who saved the day in the movie Space Cowboys. That's because the mission would undoubtedly reduce a person's lifespan, from a lack of medicalcare and exposure to radiation. Radiation could also damage reproductive organs, so sending people of child-bearing age is not a good idea, Schulze-

Makuch said. Mars is a six-month flight away, and it has surface gravity, a thin atmosphere, frozen water, carbon

dioxide and essential minerals. The two scientists propose the missions begin with two two-person teams, in separate ships that would serve as

living quarters on the planet. More colonists and regular supply ships would follow. The technology already exists, or is

within easy reach, they wrote. By not taking the extra fuel and provisions necessary for a return trip to Earth,

the mission could cut costs by 80 per cent. Davies and Schulze-Makuch say it's important to realize they're not proposing a "suicide

mission." "The astronauts would go to Mars with the intention of staying for the rest of their lives, as trailblazers ofa

permanent human Mars colony ," they wrote. They acknowledge the proposal is a tough sell for NASA, with its focus on safety, and

suggest the private sector might be more fertile ground . "What we would need is an eccentric billionaire," Schulze-Makuch said. "There

are people who have the money to put this into reality." Indeed, British tycoon Richard Branson, PayPal founder Elon Musk and

Amazon.com Inc. CEO Jeff Bezos are among the rich who are already involved in private space ventures.

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Solvency (4/5)

5. Using a water-powered spaceship, we avoid the resource impact (AND spending impacts)Mike Wall 3/27/11. Mike is a senior writer for SPACE.com, has a PhD in evolutionary biology from University of Sydney,

Australia, and possesses a bachelors degree from Arizona University. Water-Powered Spaceship Could Make Mars Trip onthe Cheap. URL: http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2011/03/25/water-powered-spaceship-make-mars-trip-cheap/. DA:3/27/11.

Spaceships powered primarily by water could open up the solar system to exploration, making flights to Mars and other far-flung localesfar cheaper, a recent study has found. A journey to Mars and back in a water-fueled vehicle could cost as little as one spaceshuttle launch costs today, researchers said. And the idea is to keep these "space coaches" in orbit between trips, so their relativevalue would grow over time, as the vehicles reduce the need for expensive one-off missions that launch from Earth. Thewater-powered space coach is just a concept at the moment, but it could become a reality soon enough, researchers said. [Video: SpaceEngines: The New Generation] "It's really a systems integration challenge," said study lead author Brian McConnell, a software engineer and technology

entrepreneur. "The fundamental technology is already there." Space coach: The basics The space coach concept vehicle is water-driven and water-centric, starting with its solar-powered electrothermal engines. These engines would super-heat water, andthe resulting steam would then be vented out of a nozzle, producing the necessary amount of thrust. Electrothermal engines are

very efficient, and they're well-suited for sustained, low-thrust travel, researchers said. This mode of propulsion would do the lion's share ofthe work, pushing the space coach from Earth orbit to Mars. Smaller chemical rockets could be called into service from time to time when arapid change in velocity is needed, McConnell said. The space coach's living quarters would be composed of a series of interconnectedhabitat modules. These would be expandable and made of fabric, researchers said much like Bigelow Aerospace's inflatable modules,which have already been deployed and tested in low-Earth orbit. Waterwould be a big part of the space coach's body, too, according tothe study. Packed along the habitat modules, it would provide good radiation shielding. It could also be incorporated into the fabric wallsthemselves, freezing into a strong, rigid debris shield when the structure is exposed to the extreme cold of space. Rotating the craft could alsogenerate artificial gravity approximating that of Earth in certain parts of the ship, researchers said. Slashing the cost of space travelThe dependence on water as the chief propellant would make the space coach a relatively cheap vehicle to operate, researcherssaid. That's partly because electrothermal engines are so efficient, and partly because the use of water as fuel makes most of the ship consumable, or

recyclable. Because there are fewer single-use materials, there's much less dead weight. Waterfirst used for radiation shielding, forexample, could later be shunted off to the engines. Combined, these factors would translate into huge savings over a more"traditional" spacecraft mission to Mars using chemical rockets, according to the study."Altogether, this reduces costs by a factorof 30 times or better," McConnell told SPACE.com. He estimates a roundtrip mission to the Martian moon Phobos, for example, could be

made for less than $1 billion. A space coach journey would also be more comfortable, McConnell added. The ship would carry largequantities of water, so astronauts could conceivably grow some food crops and luxury of luxuries even take hot baths now and again.McConnell and co-author Alexander Tolley published their study last March in the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. A fleet of space coaches?McConnell envisions space coaches cruising around the solar system, each individual vehicle fueling up with water in low-Earth orbit when the needarises. In the future, fuel could be sourced along a space coach's travels for example, water could be mined from an asteroid or a Martian moon. Partscould be swapped out and upgraded on orbit as well, helping to keep the space coaches in good operating condition for several decades, McConnell said.Each mission undertaken from low-Earth orbit would be far cheaper than anything launching from the ground. McConnell thinks an entire fleet of spacecoaches could one day populate the heavens, flying a variety of different flags as long as somebody takes the initial plunge. "If one party decides to do

this, I think it would spur a lot of other activity," McConnell said. "I think countries wouldn't want to get left behind." From vision to reality No hugetechnological leaps are required to make the space coach a reality, McConnell said. Bigelow's expandable habitats are already space-tested,for example, as are several varieties of electrothermal engine. "There's not a lot of new technology that needs to be built," McConnell said. Electrothermalengines that use water as fuel, however, have not been flight-tested, so some work needs to be done on the propulsion system. McConnell envisionsholding a design competition for the engines, as well as one for the overall ship design cash-reward contests that would be like smaller versions of theGoogle Lunar X Prize, which is a $30 million private race to the moon. Once winners of these competitions emerge, ground-testing and, eventually, flight-

testing would follow. McConnell declined to put forth any specific timelines, but he's optimistic about the possibilities. "I think things could happen

very quickly," he said. "It's really just a matter of convincing decision-makers that this is worth getting into."

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Solvency (5/5)

6. And empirically, the nations that expand mankinds reach of colonization can maintain or gain unipolar hegemonicstatus. In order to maintain leadership the US must take action now.Michael Griffin 05. Michael Griffin is the former administrator of NASA, an American physicist, and aerospace

engineer. URL:http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=18901. DA: 3/20/11.

I'm certain that most of us here will agree thatit is important for the United States to be a leader among the nations of the world, andthat such leadership has many dimensions. Economic, cultural, diplomatic, moral and educational leadership are certainlymajor components of world leadership,and clearly we still live in a time when any wealthy and prominent nation must have the ability todefend itself and its allies.But true leadership also involves defining, and then pursuing, the frontiers that expand mankind'sreach. It means occupying the cutting edge of science and technology. It means establishing world technical standards - aswe have done in the computing and aviation industries - not through coercion but because we have developed a capabilitythat others wish to use. It also means having the ability and determination to take the lead in building coalitions andpartnerships to do those things that fulfill the dreams of mankind. And those dreams have always included the desire to seewhat lies beyond the known world. To journey beyond the known world today, we must leave Earth entirely. That is the long-held dream that has actively engaged our country and others for nearly 50 years, since our first primitive steps in the exploration of space became possible.

And I firmly believe that in the 21st Century world that is taking shape as we speak, a vital part of world leadership will be

leadership in the exploration and development of the space frontier. For many years, our country has been rightly recognized as the worldleader in the exploration and use of space, and in developing and deploying the technologies that make space leadership possible. Our determinationto be first on the Moon and preeminent in other space activities resulted in some of the iconic moments of the 20th Century, and helped tosolidify American leadership in the generation after World War II. But, as they say, that was then and this is now. We cannot rest onnor be satisfied with past accomplishments. The true space age, in which humans will explore the worlds beyond our own, is just gettingunderway. Leadership in establishing a human presence in the Solar System will, in my judgment, be a key factor in definingworld leadership back home on Earth for generations to come. Throughout history, the great civilizations have alwaysextended the frontiers of their times. Indeed, this is almost a tautology; we define as "great" only those civilizations whichdid explore and expand their frontiers, thereby ultimately influencing world culture. And when, inevitably, somesocietiesretreated from the frontiers they had pioneered, their greatness subsided as well. Today, other nations besides our own aspireto leadership on the space frontier. These nations are making progress, and they will undoubtedly utilize their advancementsin space to influence world affairs. Their activities will earn them the respect, which is both sincere and automatic, that isaccorded to nations and societies engaged in pioneering activities. These things are not in doubt, and so the question beforeus is this: when other nations reach the Moon, orMars, or the worlds beyond, will they be standing with the United States, or willwe be watching their exploits on television? The President has given us his answer. America will lead. Nearly two years ago, the President said,"We have undertaken space travel because the desire to explore and understand is part of our character. And that quest has brought tangible benefits thatimprove our lives in countless ways." He also said our Vision for Space exploration is a "journey, not a race." These words are unambiguous. They chart a

course for action that is unmistakable. It is imperative that this commitment transcend any given Administration and any givenCongress. Today, as other countries renew their commitment to space, America has the opportunity, and I would argue theobligation, to maintain our leadership role in space exploration. As we watch other countries commit to developing newexploration systems and technologies to expand into space, we too must remain committed to new advancements, lest wefall behind. In that regard, it may be significant to note that, of today's major spacefaring powers only Russia and China have spacecraft - Soyuz andShenzhou - that are capable of returning crews from a trip to the Moon. Through the Vision for Space Exploration however, this countryhas a renewed commitment to maintain our leadership and restore the capabilities we set aside many years ago. The vote bytwo successive Congresses to support the Vision for Space Exploration outlined by President Bush two years ago offers wonderful evidence of nationaldetermination to regain lost ground in space. But beyond those very important congressional votes, there are some very serious challenges that we must

face as a nation. We must think carefully about what the world of tomorrow will look like if the United States is not thepreeminent spacefaring nation. And if we don't like that picture, if we truly want the United States to be the world leader inspace now and in the future, there are a number of critical things we simply must decide to do. The Vision gives us the opportunityto take on the leading role in the exploration of space, not just for this century, but for centuries to come. But we have to seize that opportunity, and make it

a reality. The first essential step is that American leadership in the exploration and development of the space frontier must bean explicit national goal. There must be continued and sustained bipartisan cooperation and agreement on the importance and necessity of Americanleadership in space, just as we are determined to be leaders in other areas such as defense, education, and scientific research. There need not, indeed theremust not, be partisan debates over whether to have a vibrant space program or not. And we must get beyond revisiting this determination each year, or afteran accident, or after a technical problem. In addition to needing national agreement on the importance of American leadership in space, we need to makethis a commitment from generation to generation. Space exploration by its very nature requires the planning and implementation of missions and projectsover decades, not years. Decades of commitment were required to build up our network of transcontinental railroads and highways, as well as our systemsfor maritime and aeronautical commerce. It will be no quicker or easier to build our highways to space, and the commitment to do it must be clear and

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sustaining. To ensure the success of the space program across a wide spectrum of political thought and down the generations, it is essential to have simplebut compelling goals. The space community has an obligation to communicate to the country our plans to ensure America's leadership in space exploration.The President's Exploration Vision has established goals that people can understand and support - moving our space exploration activities beyond lowEarth orbit, and returning to the Moon as a stepping-stone to Mars and other destinations beyond, such as the near-Earth asteroids. Broad support for thesegoals is certainly there. A recent Gallup poll indicated that, with funding levels at or below 1% of the Federal budget, three-quarters of Americans aresupportive of our plans to return to the Moon and voyage to Mars. This is amazingly strong support for any government initiative, and I believe it provides

a firm foundation upon which to build in the years ahead. The first step might be to explain that, actually, we're spending only 0.7% of the Federal budget!Still another key requirement for long-term leadership in space is the ability to build and maintain a strong internationalcoalition of spacefaring nations. A critical component of this ability will always be our credibility in making agreements,and honoring them. In any partnership, the most critical commitments fall upon the senior partner. Since that, of course, isthe role we wish to play, we must be thoughtful, deliberate and sure about any commitments we make. But once made, we need to keep them. I thinkwe can all agree that one of the best results of the International Space Station program is the cooperation it has fostered among the participating nations. A

prime goal of the President's Vision for Space Exploration is to continue and expand this cooperation as we plan for human lunar return. These aresome of the key things we need to do if we Americans are indeed serious about being a leader on the space frontier. As we liftour eyes to the future, I see a space program that will bring hope, opportunity, and tangible benefits as we renew our commitment to lead in theseendeavors. While we cannot predict today at what pace others will venture beyond Earth orbit and establish the first outposts on distant worlds, I earnestly

believe those nations that are the most adept at reading the lessons of history will be taking the lead. I have mused often upon theselessons, looking for the patterns that can provide guidance for our own time. Indeed, if we were alive 500 years ago, or thereabouts, and acandlelight conference were held in Lisbon by the Portuguese Oceans Authority, no doubt we would be listening to suchgiants of exploration as Vasco da Gama and Pedro Alvares Cabral, the explorer who claimed Brazil for Portugal, explain

how their activities would bring about Portugal's rise to global influence. Perhaps all of us would be speaking Portuguesetoday had not first Spain, and then later England, made a greater commitment to the discovery, exploration, and settlementof new territories. As an example of how the choices that nations make matter, not only for themselves, but also for thefuture of humanity, let us consider the case of John Cabot. Cabot, whose true name was Giovanni Caboto, was an Italian who sailedfor the English government and with private merchants, after Spain and Portugal expressed no interest in his ideas onfinding a westward passage to Asia. While exploring the coastal regions of North American in Newfoundland, heestablished the basis for England's claim to North America, and was the first to bring our language to the shores we nowlive. There are more recent examples of similar pivotal crossroads in our history. While American ingenuity, in the form of thosequintessentially American inventors, Wilbur and Orville Wright, did lead the way into the era of powered flight, we tend to forgetthat we squandered our initial leadership in aviation. And so, ninety years ago, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, NASA'smajor predecessor, was founded precisely because our nation's leaders feared the European nations already had a significantadvantage in the development of strategically important aviation systems and technologies, just one decade into the age offlight. This was in fact true, and as a consequence, the air war of World War I was fought with European airplanes. But

because we made a strong commitment at that time to this emerging field, the influence of American air power and aviationtechnology can, today, be seen in everything from the fact that we live in a world not dominated by fascism or communism,to the fact that when you fly anywhere in the world, say from Bangalore to Bangkok, the International Civil Aviation Organization dictates that pilots and

air traffic controllers speak English. This is a lesson that cannot be learned too thoroughly: if we become complacent, other nationscan and will surpass our achievements. As we look forward to the events that will define the 21st Century, as viewed by thehistorians of yet future centuries, there is no doubt that the expansion of human civilization into space will be among thegreat achievements of this era. We have the opportunity, and I would say the obligation, to lead this enterprise, to exploreworlds beyond our own, and to help shape the destiny of this world for centuries to come. I am convinced that leadership in theworld of the 21st Century and beyond will go to the nation that seeks to fulfill the dreams of mankind. We know what motivatesthose dreams. Exploring new territory when it becomes possible to do so has defined human striving ever since our remote ancestors migrated out of the

east African plains. The human imperative to explore new territories, and to exploit the resources of these territories, will surelybe satisfied, by others if not by us. What the United States gains from a robust, focused program of human and robotic spaceexploration is the opportunity to define the course along which this human imperative will carry us. The Vision for SpaceExploration affords the United States nothing less than the opportunity to take the lead, not only in this century but in the centuries to follow, in advancing

those interests of our nation that are very much in harmony with the interests of people throughout the world. Space will be explored andexploited by humans. The question is: which humans, from where, and what language will they speak? It is my goal thatAmericans will be always among them. If this is the future we wish to see, we have a lot of work to do to sustain the Vision which takes us there. To me,the choice could not be more compelling.

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**2AC Blocks**

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Case OV 2AC (Inherency)On Inherency

1. Extend that a dwindling fund from the government makes challenging missions from NASA impossible thatsCookson in 3/18. The funds would have directly been given to the Mars Mission, and the rest of the current money isallocated to fund less expensive missions. Experts say its impossible without more money in the 2011 and 2012 budget.

2. You should prefer our author; he is a board member of Financial Times and has an education at Oxford University.

3. Even if you dont like that card, here is updated evidence:

A.

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Case OV 2AC (Space Race)1. First, extend that China, Russia, and India are all spending money to surpass the US in space policy thats Svitak in3/1. The cancellation of the Discovery was the end of challenging missions in the US, and there are none to be made soon,thats Hawkins in 3/7.

2. Second, well isolate 5 internal links to Heg because of challenging Mars Mission -

A. To make basic missions to places like the ISS we are dependent on the Russians which only injures the image ofUS space policy

B. NASA keeps US students under inspiration to further the limits in space. That aspires students to do better inschool, and promote international competitiveness which ensures sustained Hegemonic control.

C. NASA creates a substantial amount of jobs when doing space missions. Engineers, accountants, biologists,astrophysicists, and an increasing number of doctors are all involved when making a flight to Mars (and preventsyour spending impact).

D. In the status quo, Russia is expanding their space system and China is creating the largest Space engineering centerin the world. Both are on the verge of surpassing the US.

E. Empirically, other nations look to the US to expand humanities reach. The lack of effort loses any credibility andfaith in the US and cedes the hegemonic status to China and Russia.

3. And, on the Impact Debate (Only if you are not doing the Case o/w block) We access all of their war Impactcards, there has not been a major power war since World War 2 because thats when the US became the World Hegemon,thats Walt in 02. The imbalance of power prevents any miscalculation, and the power dampens other countries anxiety.

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Case OV 2AC (Get off the Rock)First, the effects of global climate change are irreversible, thats UCAR in 05. The study showed that even if we hadstabilized greenhouse gas emissions in the year 2000, we would still be doomed to the effects. Climate change will only

grow worse, thats National Voter in 08. And according to the World Meteorologist Organization, we are continuing to getwarmer. In the status quo there are increased heat waves and droughts, food and water shortages, and more rampant disease.Climate change worsens the spread of disease and political instability.

Second, on the Impact Debate Our case infinitely outweighs any DA impacts; extinction is inevitable if we stay on Earth.

A. As water and other resources begin to become scarcer, Nations will become increasingly alarmed and wage wars tocontain their share, thats Wooldridge in 09. Nations will feel safer if they are able to proliferate and destroy othercountries first. This ideology will culminate in extinction.

B. As new cities are built in third world countries, and the rainforest is destroyed, new diseases become more rampantand exposed to the world, thats South China Morning Post in 96. Research and experts in the field show that there is anever-increasing risk of an airborne disease that is infinitely mutating and incurable. Any disease like this will lead to

extinction.

C. Even if you didnt like the other scenarios for extinction, Hawking believes that a supernova, asteroids, supervolcanoes, nuclear war, and biological warfare are all reasons to colonize Mars, thats Schulze-Makuch in 10.

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Case OV 2AC (Solvency)

1. First, we solve for the Space Race Advantage

A. China, Russia, and India cannot surpass us in primacy unless we dont do challenging missions like explore andcolonize Mars. Our Griffin in 05 card indicates that space exploration and

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Case OV 2AC (Case Outweighs)

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**Case Ext.**

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S&R Israel/Russia UniquenessRussia and Israel cooperation ensures that space policy primacy will be takenChannel 6 News 3/27/11. Israel, Russia sign space cooperation agreement. URL:

http://channel6newsonline.com/2011/03/israel-russia-sign