8

Managing Audio-Visual Archives

William H. Leary

II all began in 1839 when the Frenchman Louis J .M . Daguerre announced that.he had caplure~holographic image on a: silv~r-coaled copper plate . In 1877the remarkable Thomas Al va Edison successfully recorded sound on a'rol;;TI;;'glin foil cylinder. A felVyears later, in 189] , Ed ison introduced the first commer­ci~l/y successful mol io n picture de~r.own as a kinetoscope. By the laic1920s, motion pictures featured both sound and color, and cornmercial televi­sion was introduced in Great Britain and the United States in the late 1930s.

Today there are few places left in the world where audio-visual means ofcommunication are not commonplace. Few if "'w his lorians or archivists dis­put e the importance of photographs, sound and video recordings, and motionpictures in documenting the past. The demand for recorded sound and pictures(still and moving) to recreate the life and limes of any people will undoubtedlyincrease as we rely more and more upon aural and . visual means ofcommunication .

Most national archives and a growing number of smaller archival institutionshave accepted the responsibility to systematically acqu ire and preserve audio­visual records . The most ubiquitous and accessible audio-visual records are stil!pholographs, and they are the ones most likely to be found in an archi valInsrltunon. Arch ives of mol ion pictures and sound and video recordings a rewidespread eno ugh 10 ha ve genera led three International organizations: theInternation al Federation of Film Archives (FIAF), the Inrernarional Fedcr a­lion of Television Archives (FiJ'_T), and the Inlernational Associati on of SoundArchives (lASA).

While most archives now regularly acquire some nudio-vlsual matcrlals , par­licularly pho tographs, many ar ch ivists rem ain be wildered , even inriru id utcd , h yau dio-visual media . They assume , quite incorrecrly , that managing materi als

104

A udio- VIII/ol A rchlvcr IOj

physically so unlike traditional paper reco rds mu st requ ire radically diff~r~nl

archival prin ciplcs . Nol surprisingly, the most daunting challenge fo.' ar chlv.1S1Snewly inlrod uccd to audio -visual media is the apparently endless varoely of srzesand Iorrnats, each of which may requ ire different .handling .., A selecti ve sample of still pholographic processes, for example, would

include dagnerrcolypes , calotypes, platinum prints, cyanotypes , am~rolypes ,

tintypes, glass lantern slides, albumen prints, stereographs, carbon prints, andantochromes , and would still leave us in the nineteenth century without anyment ion of different negative Iypes. The variety of motion picture formalsreflects different combinations of IiIm type (nltrate, acetate, or polyester),gauge or size (most commonly 8 mm, 16 mm, 35 mm, and 70 mm) , color, sound(opt ical or magnetic soundtrack), and gen eration [everything from the camcraoriginal 10 a projection print via several intermediate steps) .

Sound has been recordcd on cylinders coated wilh wax and other materials :on discs coaled wilh shell ac, cellulose nitrate, celluloseacelale, zinc, and vinyl ;magnetically on wire and tape of many different formats ; and, most recently,sound has been digilally encoded on tapes and disks . Even the relat ively newvideo recordings have changed formal repeatedly since the inlroduction ofvideotape in 1956. Videocasselles ( V. inch and V, inch) have already replaced2-inch and l -inch videolape for many applications, and further changes can beexpected in th is rapidly changlng field .

The essenti al pr inciple underlying the physical varintlon in audio-visual med iais that they all consist of an original or mas ter copy produced by the camera orthe sound or video recorder , which in turn can be used 10 produce a copy forviewing or listening. M~lion picture sound productions usually involve addedinlermediate steps between the camera or iginal and the projection or releaseprint, which combines sound and moving images . These intermediate vers ionscan include an optical sound track a nd a fine -grain po sitive or duplicat e

negalive.Modcrn negative ~ntl positive IiIm materials consist of a support material

known as the base, which is co aled with an emulsion Ilfnl is sens it ive 10 light andhasa dull appearance. Similarly, contemporary audio and video recordingsconsist of a base, such as polyester , with a magnetic coaling that is sensitive 10

electronic signals produced by sound or light.Each audio-visual medium has unique characteristics that archivists must

recognize . Nevertheless, most guidelines for the archival management o r"anyone type of audio-visual record will also apply to the others with only sligh Ivari ations. Also, despite thcir special phys ical characterist ics, many of the bas ic ,principles o f archi val appraisal, processing, preservati on, and refe rence ,should be applied, wilh occasional modifications, 10 audio-visual reco rds . ,,/

This chapter will survey the management of audio -visual archives under the. scp a'riil<!ilicadings of appraisal , a rran gement and dcscr iprio n , preservation, and

ref er en ce . \ Vhil c d iscu ss ing ea ch of Ihcse top ics separately co nrri bu res roclarir y,Ihe working archivi st soon Icarn s how ine xtric ably these tas ks 3rC related 10 each

}06 A( wlJging Archives and Archivat Institntlans

• other . "'ppmisers of audio-visual records must rem ember, for example, thatwhen ever new mat erial s a re selected, presumably they have cornmiued the 'archives 10 a substanti al burden of preservation, cataloging, and serv icing.Accessioning new materials without the realistic prospect of processing themcontributes lillie 10 the advancement of knowledge .

Pres er vation priorities quite properly will refle ct a considered judgmentabout rhe reference demands on materials as well as their condition and relativevalue . There is lillie point in undertaking expensive pres ervation of an audio­visual collect ion if the archives does not have the resources to describe andservice the materials . On the other hand, it would be irresponsible to makefragile materials available to researchers without firsl performing properpreservation . Sim ilarly, the quality of descript ion and reference services in anaUdio-visnar-.rr"~ lves will certainly affect the institution's abilit y to preservematerials . In suniill\lry, responsible decis ions cannot be made about any singleaspect of managing audio-visual archives without careful consideration of theinevitable effect upon other archival tasks.

Appraisal

Beca use of the relat ively late archival interest in audio-visual records, the mosturgent challenge for audio-visual archivists has been to save as much as possibleof a heritage too long negle cted. After a generation of serious attention, how­ever, most audio-visual archivists now recognize the need to develop guidelinesfor the appraisal of visual and aural materials. While the work of salvaging theearly audio-visual record must continue, modern audio-visual records pose anequally demanding and more complex challenge for ' audio-visual appraisalarchivists.

The wid espread use of low-cost, easy-to-operate equipment has contributed10 an exponential growth of audio-visual production that shows no sign ofslackening. In the United States alone, for example, about 10 billion pho ­tographs are produced annually. Obviously only a small proportion of thatoutput can or should be preserved indefinitely. As the volume of audio -visualrecords continues to increase, we can assert categorically that appraisal, mean­ing selecti on of some a nd rejection of others, will ha ve to lake place . Theresponsibility of archivists is to make the appraisal process as rational aspossible .

The ess ra isal is a well-defined and coor­nate c uisilion 0 ic for each instilulion Ihat has a serious program lel

preserve audio-visual recor~ Without complementary an circurnscrr ccollecting st ratcgres thai ar e respected by o the r institutions, the elus ive dream ofsaving all audio -visual materials of historical value will become a certifiedimp ossibility. Only by sharing the expensi ve and escalating burden ofpreserving the audio-visual record can archives hope to avoid both excessiverepetition and the loss of currently unfashionable bUI important materials.

Andlo-Visnat Archives 107

Proclaiming the need for coordinated acquisition policies is much easier thandivining the means to accomplish such a Iransformation. Who should acquirewhat is a question that will be answered differently from count ry to cou ntry,depending upon the legal mandale of the national a rchives and the nature ofother institutions seriously engaged in accessioning audio-visual records. Each 'instiuuiou must first determine its official or legal obligations and identify themajor them es or characterist ics of its current holdings. Information about thecurrent holdings and acquisition policies of audio-visual archives must then beshared widely . FIAF, FIAT, and IASA ha ve sponsored important work incollecting and disseminating such information, especially by encouraging thepreparation or national filmographies . Audio -visual apprai se rs mu st consultsuch sources and confine their active colle cting 10 materials thai are not alreadythe responsibility of existing arch ival agencies .

The arch ival appraiser of audio-visual records needs to foll ow several generalop erating principles as well as applying specific appraisal standards . The prepa­ration for appraisal should begin with a thorough analysis or the lnstiunlou'scurrent audio-visual holdings. No ar chiv al instirution can hope to build fromstrength, fill in gaps, or avoid excessi ve redundancy if the appr aiser does notknow about Ihe undescribed , infrequently used mat erials on the lop shelves aswell as the heavily used collections . Appraisers should also be familiar withcurren I historical literature and the history of each audio-visual medium.

Audio-visual records have archival importance almost exclusively because 0

their informnrlonal value. Th ey rarely pro vide unique evidence about arorgan ization's operat ion, although there are occasional exceptions to thi s rule.Audio-visualmalerials arc wo rth preserving in an archi ves, therefor e, in direclproportion 10 the extent that the appraise r can anticipa te resea rcher interest inthe Information they contain. The best way to measure such informationalvalue is by studying pas I and present rese ar cher inquiries at the appraiser'sinsl ilution and elsewhere .

The mo st important criteria for appraising audio-visual records are age,subject content, uniqueness, quantity, quality , and ident lflca ric n. Old age con ­Icrs value on au dio-visual records, but the determination of what constitutesold age obviously varies according 10 many circumstances . For example, instant ­aneo us disc recordings of radio broadcasts from the late 1920s and early 1930sare extremely valuable because of their scarcity and fragilit y, whereas relativelyabundant and st abl e commercial 78 r.p.m. records from the same peri od wouldha ve to be appraised on the bas is o f other criteria ,

A crucial,ractor in a r all audi -v' ual media is determinin the pointal which lechnolo and other faclors accelerated production levels sufficienl yto require a rch ivists 10 make sciecl/o llS rom I ,e quanl/tles of mat erial aval ­able . 1liat ' ltvld ing line 1',11 diller Irolll country 10 co unt ry and medium 10

~llIn . 'In Ihe history of still photography, two dates a re particularly impo r­tant: 1888, when George Eastman invented amateur photography, and 1932,when the 35 rum camera began to transform the nature of photography.

108 .\-Iollogillg Archives and Archival lnstitutlons Audio-Visual Archives I(

Some institutions give insufficienl weight 10 the standard of uniquene:because of the mistaken notion that an archives can always afford to acceptfew more audio-visual records . But, even though the volume of audio-vim.records is smaller than paper records, their numbers are growing dramaticaland their handling costs .per unit are substantial. ·Therefore, volume is a pertnenl concern for audio-visual appraisers. The cost of preserving a 30-minunitrate film, for example, may be a hundred limes the cost of conserving a cubfool of paper records. Weeding and sampling, the traditional archival remedi­ror excessive volume, can be applied usefully 10 audio-visual records in spedcircumstances.

Time-consuming weeding of voluminous files to eliminate ephemeral sui[ect-rnaucr, unneeded duplicates, and poor-quality materials can be undetaken most efficienLly in conjunction with other archival processing worl

~Whenever ~oss.ible, Ihere~ore, archives should s~ek Ihe ri.ght 10 weed maleriafter accesslOnmg aceordm 10 slandar s ne ollaled du a ra isal pfl

. cess k uch weeding is particularly warranted for motion pictures because of I/ great expense of processing a single item . Sampling has been used mo

effectively in making selections from the massive amounts of material geneaicd by radio and lelevision br oadcasters , especially the more epherner,mnterials such as soap operas and other entertalument series. sports broadcastand daily news bulletins .

Because audio-visual materials are studied for details and are meant 10 Ireproduced, appraisers must emphasize the importance of saris factory techncal quality, which includes proper exposure, clear focus. good composilioiand audible sound. Even when actual or potential preservation problems can Ialleviated - as with deleriorating nitrale, diacetatc, or color film- appraisemust rcalistlcnily balance Ihe potcntial research value against thc'liktly cosand instiuuional capabilities. If an archives cannot afford 10 copy a colleclicof dctcrioratlng nitrate films, for example, they may not remain available Irresearch for very long . Appraisers should lake care 10 idenlify potential prollerns so that threatened collections can be treated or copied before it is lOO lat-

The importance of uniqueness and quality requires that an archives malevery effort 10 acquire the original camera negative or master recording, as weas a reference copy. For film records, particularly motion pictures, the archiv,should also try 10 accession any master positives or duplicate negatives, whiearc crucial for Iong -tcrrn preservation. On the other hand, cost consideratiosmay dictate that Ihe archives should not accession every production elemeiand all unused footage for each mol ion picture appraised as archival.

Finally, appraisers should remember that without some identification of Itwho, what , where, and when for audio-visual materials, their value as historic.evidence is severely limited . II is Irue that photographs and complete audievisual productions (unlike most unedited rum footage or incomplete prod", .lions) contain internal evidence thaI compensates for inadequate ideruificatiorNevertheless, one of the appraiser's most important tasks is 10 locale and ensui

Audiotape cassettes and videotapes introduced in the I960s clearly were water­shed developments in the history of audio and video recordings. Motion picturerilm production has resisted the transformation from professional 10 amateurstatus. Nevertheless, Iilrn productions escalated in most parts of the world afterWorld War II and must, therefore, be judged more skeptically Ihan earlierrums.

Subject-matter is the most difficult appraisal criterion 'to define and apply.Who can say with certainty what subjects will interest future researchers? II isessential, however, 10 ask the question. If Ihe appraiser cannot anticipatecontinuing interest in the informational contenl-the subject-maller-of audiovisual records, Ihen questions of age, quality, and quantity are largely irrel ­evant. Fa~inating subject content, on the other hand, will compensate fordeficiencies 'In.other respects.

When evaluai1h , sub'ecl content, appraisers sho d ecial vir- Iltue of audio-visual recbrds is their a ,lity to documentlhe mundane, the trivial , -'t:1\\Ihe everyday lexlure or- life so often i nored b more raditional records.

ear y, I IS no on y Impossible but undesirable to compile a list of non­archival subjects for appraisers . Nevertheless, each institution should attempt10 identify the subjects that will receive the highest priority as well as the lowest. ,The Nalional Archives of the Uniled States, for example, has given advanceauthorization for the disposal of photos of routine ceremonial actlvities andrum footage and video recordings of routine surveillance and rout ine scientific,medical, or engineering activities . Local historical societies, in contrast, mayallach greater significance to photos of routine ceremonial occasions that helpto document a community's social history, The Imperial War Museum's SonndRecords Department has suggest cd another approach by developing a ratherdetailed list of subject priorities for future collecting based on a careful analysisof their currenl holdings .

Because all audio-visual records' are meant 10 be reproduced, lt is especiallyimportant 10 apply the archival appraisal standard of uniqueness . Emphasizing QIhe acquisition of camera originals or magnetic masters will help avoid theunknowing accessioning of materials th~.t are duplicated at other insrluuicns. Itis also appropriate 10 consider carefully the extent to which Information is G;lduplicated in another medium. The audio recording of a prepared speech, forexample. diminishes in value significantly if a printed version is also preserved,and its value may be toratly supplanted if a film or video recording is alsoavailable. Indeed, the archival value of spoken word recordings in general willbe tested severely by the inevitable spread of inexpensive video recordings . .Similarly, appraisers should consider carefully the relative merits of still andmoving pictures of the same subject. If the mol ion and sound do not addsignifl cantly to the information conveyed, a photograph or even a file ofpholos-can be preserved more inexpensively than a film . If a mol ion picturehas been or will be accessioned, however, .il may not be necessary 10 acquiresimilar photographs . .

I iO Managing Archives and Archivol lnstitutiuns

the aCCessioning of all rel aled documental ion Ihal will explain the provenanceand enhance Ihe usefulness of any audio-visual C!'llleclion .&veral categories of documentation should be acc~ssioned if they can belocated. Production files that document the origin and development ofmaterials could include scripts for motion piclures or video productions, Iran­scripts of oral history interviews, and any other information about who madethe pictures or recorded the sounds, how, and why. This information is particu­larly crucial for unedited film footage, incomplete productions, or poorlycaptioned photographs .

Also important are any finding aids used by the creator such as still photocaption lists, shot lists that describe motion picture film, and indexes andcatalogs fm any medium . Any information about how mnterjuls were used orpublicized, s'i1eh;~s publication data, movie stills, and materials related 10 thepublicity surrounding a finished production will enhance their research value .Finally, it is essential 10 gather all available information about any copyrightsor other restrictions thai'the archives must enforce.

The key to systematic appraisal and planned development of an audio-visualarchives is an active records management program . The audio-visual archivistas records rnnnager can and should encourage the lise of archival mater ials andprocesses to create archival records, promote riling schemes thai separate sig­nificant materials from the trivial , encourage necessary weeding of sprawlingfiles, and encourage proper preservation practices-all of which will lessen theburden of archival management.

The basic archival ob'ective of records managemenl is to identify and sched­ule Ie transfer of his' valuable recor s a soon as ossible III ' 1' h S~. liS is especially important for audio-visual records because Ihey areusually less stable than paper records, and their creators are often reluctant 10

part with them. The scheduling process should identify precisely all theelements of an audio-visual record Ihal are archival-negative, print , etc.­their location at the lime of scheduling, and any related documentation.

The unfortunate reality is that the boxes of audio-visual records shipped toarchives frequently show few signs of informed records management prior totheir arrival . Not uncommonly , the-new treasures will be disorganized, incom­plete, dirty, inadequately identified and, in some cases, clearly damaged .Establishing physical and intellectual control over new materials must begin byrecording some basic information at the time of acccssioning. Keeping theaccession register simple will hclp to ensure minimum descriptive control for allnew acquisitions as soon as they arrive. This register will provide the onlyintellectual control over male rials until more extensive cataloging can berom~d~. '

The basic categories of information required for all media arc: a uniqueaccession number, date received, source, title, and storage location, For stil]photos, also record the number and type of containers and a brief description ofthe collection's contents. For filin and sound or video recordings, indicate the

Autiio- Visual A rchives III

number of reels , tapes , or cassettes and their gauge or size-35-mm or 16-mmfor most film; for tape, 2-inch, I-in ch , J~-inch, V,-inch , or !I.-inch .

~rrl\nr.Cll1cnl and dcscriplioll .

Planning ahead as carefully as possible is the essential first step in processingaudio-visual records . Plans must balance institutional objectives, an evaluationof current holdings, researcher interests, and staff and funding limitations .Sophisticated cataloging systems, for example, are unnecessary for only a fewhundred items and not feasible without. sufficient well -trained staff. Becausethere will never be enough lime 10 catalog and preserve every item ideally ,priorities must be established . /\ user profile provides valuable information inmaking the difficult choices . Instilutional resources should be concentrated onprocessing the collections likely to be used most heavily.

As a general rule, arrnngernent and descrintive calaloging should precedesystemntic laboratory preservation . This will permit weeding of unnecessaryduplicates and irredeemably poor-quality materials and more careful identi­fication of the items thai warrant expensive preservation treatment . Thetrnditional archival principle of provenance applies 10 the processing of allaudio-visual media. ()OCUI11CllliI1G, their orgnnizational and Iunctional originshelps 10 explain Ihe crucial question of why materials were created , preservesthe interrelaticuships among materials created in a series, and maintainsthe connecting links between visual images or recorded sound and relateddocumentation.

The closely-rel ated principle of the "sanctity of the original order" is nor­mally pertinent only for still photographs, thus distinguishing them from otheraudio-visual media. Since motion pictures and sound and video recordingscan only be examined by using a machine-since researchers cannot browsethrough Ihem-the archivist's' Iradilional concern to discern and perfect anarrangement pattern is largely irrelevant. The arrangement of these materials isimportant only to the extent that some order (usually numerical) is needed toenable staff to retrieve them efficiently from storage. Therefore, item-levelcataloging of these materials is normally required to provide minimalresearcher access.

The still photo archlvisr.In contrast, must normally cope with a much greatervolume of materlal thnn the archivist who deals with moving images or soundrecordings. A master catalog of all images or reorganizing all photos accordingto a single filing scheme is not only prohibitively expensive in most cases butunnecessary. By maintaining the separate integrity of series that have someinternal coherence and by preserving the original order of photos wheneverpossible-l hal is, by exploiting fully the principles of provenance and ori ginalorder-the slill photo archivist can rely upon description at the series or grouplevel to provide satisfactory access 10 most photographs. General des cription of,a collection of photos combined with information about their arrangement

1I", lIn·l'/.r""I , I ,.r ll' l'l's II )

IInll ell' enoblrs , c~ c n rehe rs 10 browse th rou gh per.. " c'" purls o f a co llectio n In More del ailed intellectu al access 10 photographs ca n be pro vided by variousseurc h o f rhe ric hI hn age , rinding nids, som e of which mal' have been produced by lhe creal or . One of the

T he (ir sl step In arra nging and dcscribi ug photographs is 10 delermine Ihe un i- simplest rindin g aids 10 produce is a box- contents listing of fold er titles. which is .f ing cha rac lerist ics of a colleclion-·wh Ihe were creal cd or kepllogelher-'- parti cularly helpful if prin ts are organ ized by subje ct . Some inst itut io nsw lIC 1 proba II' will include one or more of Ihe following : they arc the wor k 0 a auernpt ro idcntlf'y all cred ited photogrnphers and inde x the cotlect ion s in whichsingle photographer or firm : Ihey relate 10 the activities of a pa rtic ula r offlcc : they a rc represent ed .they de pict the same subje ct , pla ce, person, or eventjor they comprise a simi la r The most pr act icable way ro pro vide gene ral subject access 10 photographs isformal, such as a col lection of daguerreotypes or 35-mm negati ves. Totally to describe each co llectio n with a limi ted number of subject -index terms derivedunr elated items Ihal a rc nol pari of any idenr ifiable colle ct ion ca n be placed in.a from the same su bject author ity list used 10 organize a gen eral file. In th at waygenera l pict u re rile, in which 'photos a rc normall y ar rang ed alphabet ically by rese archers arc directed-to a ll collections that co nta in ph otos on a given su bjec t ,assigned subject headings , Indexes 10 individual photographs arc so lime-co nsuming to crea te tha t the y

The assigned subject headings may be derived from published lisls or a n can ra rely be ju st if ied , even if the archi ves has access 10 a computer . .authori ty lisl d~e1oped by the inst itution , As in so many other aspects of The desc ription of mol ion pictures and sound or video recordings, for rea -archival processin'~~ffecliv€ness depends upon sim plicity a nd a thoroughassessment of th~ instaution's holdings and researcher need s. Keep the ma in sons expl ained pr eviously, no rmally invo lves cataloging each unique item. In aheadings as general and liml ted in number as possible, relying upon subhead- sense , each film and video or sound recording constitutes a co llect ion ofings to p rovide more det ailed 'lIccess as needed, bu t only as needed . One go od . organ ized pictures and sound's, A one-hour film, for .example, contain s 86,400Way to cross-reference pictures that require more than one subject entry is 10 rile . indi vidual frames or pictures . The degree of detail requi red 10 describe theelectroslatie copiesunderlhe appropr iatemultiplelieadings . thousands of individual images or sounds must be determined by realistically

Th e a rra ngement patterns of discre te series or coll ect ions of photograp hic balancing researcher needs and institutionat resources .prints may not be read ily apparent but archi vists should analyze th e system and Full y del ai led t a la logi ng of each unique reel of Iilrn, sou nd, o r video usuallyimprove it as needed, or impose an internal order where none exists , The mosl produces a steadily growing ba cklog of tot ally unc atal oged materi als .common ar rangement schemes for pr ints are chro no logica l, numerical, or Researchers arc bett er ser ved by a po licy th at emphasize s minimal bUI timelyalph abetical by subject, place, or surname. Occasionally, thes e pa tt erns may be . ~aloging. of a ll malerials and more exlensive des cript ion only in limited, .combined to arrange prinls, for example, alphabeticall y by subject or surna me camulT)' prescribed cir cumstances .and thereunder chronologicall y o r num er ically. Sim ple nu merical arran gement The cat aloging of film and video inv ol ves gatherin g informati on from thepro vides no int ellectual access 10 prints. Negat ives, in cont ra st. which sho uld reco rd itself and from seco ndary wrillen sources. Fla tbed viewing mach inesnever be used for reference, arc normally arranged in numerical order to Iacili- should be used 10 exa mine films , A t so me major film archives the resp onsibilitylatetherelrievalofspecificitemsforreproduction. for collecting film histories a nd other secondary sources is assigned to a sepa -

While refining the arrangem ent of photographs, archi vists should gather the rat e documentation department . The·basic descriptive elements are Ihe litle,informal io n needed to describe each series or collection , The essent ial calc- country of ori in, roducer d irector dale h sica l descnpllon, a brief sum-gories of infor ma l ion arc the following: collection title , based eithe r on content ma ry of Ille conlents uni ue' enlircat ion number, identification of supp c-or ori gin; inclusive dales of cov erage; description of the contents th at expl ains menia l fin d ' a d restricl ions on reus e.the who , whal, why, and where with pa rticula r attent ion 10 an y not eworthy or T he preferred Iille is the original release II le; if thai cannot be determ inedunexpect ed images; description of th e a rr a ngeme nt of bo th prints a nd record the til I'-I hat appears on thc film or in related document at ion . In somecorr espo nding negati ves; number o f items and st orage containers , such as case s, particularl y for uned ited film, ir will be necessar y to de vise a desc ript ivebo xes or riling drawers ; formal ; including the type of prll.lls and ncgar ivcs an d titl e , The tit le fo r newsreels and certa in other serial productions , especiallytheir size, access io n num ber; numbering scheme for each item; sto rage loca- television programs, will be a series title a nd the seq uence wirhiu ihe series. Thetion; acce ss restr ictions, if a ny; and identificat io n ofany finding aids. producer credi t m ay incl ude a go vern ment agency o r other spons or as well as an

Adequ ate physical control requires a unique identificat ion number for each indiv idual or prod uct ion company. for ed ite d pro duc tions , reco rd the dal e o fphotog ra ph ; it can also be used 10 determi ne the pre cise location of each print release and for un edi ted material . the dale of shooting ,a nd negat ive. f or example, in the number 210-0- 12H-1 18, 210- 0 identifies M: Th e ph ysical de scri ption should ind icat e whethe r th e item is film or vide o, itsthe series; 121-( refers 10 the bo x a nd folder where the print is filed , alpha - ! . running lime in minu tes, wheth er sound or silent or bo th , colo r or bla ck -nnd-berica lly by su bject; and 118 is the unique image number identifying both Ihe : while or both , a nd Ihe film gaug e (8 nuu, 16mm, 35 mm, 70 mm) or rape formatprinla nd ilscorr espo nding nega t ive. I (cassett e or open -reel rape a nd its wid th), T he uniq ue identi fica tio n num ber

~.{o-nwJ\~.y

~ Preservation .

Preservation is a particularly important responsibility Ior audio-visualarchivists because audio-visual records arc generally more perishable Ihanpaper and their preservation cosls per unit are so relatively high . This discussionwill highlight broad preservation guidelines applicable 10 all audio-visualmaterials and briefly review a [ew special requirements Ior each medium. Thedetails or laborat ory preservation processes are beyond the scope or Ihis chapterand Ihey are co vered more extensively in Ihe professional literature than any01 her aspect or mana sing audio-visual records .

An archival preservation program for audio-visual materials 1J)11SL rcOtcrlh,obligation to olon Ihe lire or all accessioned materials, rew or which ma bexqUisile treasures. Ihis obligalin n leads to ae.&.realer emphasis on prevel!ili'e

mainlenance ror II . on roviding the mosl-elaborale preser-vation and v vEffective preventive maintenance requires protecting audio-visual records fromthe two primary contributors to deterloration. improper storage and improperuse, and recognizing the signs or deterioration in lime to lake corrective action.

Proper storage requirements include adequate environrnental cont rols andsatisfactory storage containers . Recommended environmental standards Iormost bla ck-aud-white [ilrn and sound and video recordings are lempemlprr:>adhumidity levels that do not exceed 65 10 10 degrees Fahrenheit-and 40 to 50percenl relative humidily. Mainlaining consistent levels or temperature andhumidity is as IInporlanl as str ict adherence to preferred readings ..£2Lo.it.mlea color it wer lem eralure and humid ill' read in s 5 de reesFahrenheit and 30 percent relative iunu II)' arc advisab tomain-~In genera, ower lem eralures retard deterioralion, especi~y ~l~ fadingorcolor dyes. Excessively high humi Ill' promotes t ie growth or harm u ungus

'14 ""OI/(I/:i",1: Arc:!lil'C',f und Archivat Inst itntioos

specifies the' collection and unique item within it. More elaborate numberingsystems may also incorpora te information about the rilm type, format , andpreservation status or individual copies.

The summary should describe Ihe who, what , where, and why or the produc­tion as briefly, objectively, and specifically as possible . II should give somealieni ion 10 the sound aspects or the production and identify the genre or typeof film or video, such as feature film, newsreel, documentary, cartoon. etc. Forcomplete edited productions ;I summary of thc main theme or themes is nor­mally adequate . For unedited rilm.or tape that laCKS an overall coherence, moredel ailed descriptiou is appropriate . Normally, a brier summary or eachunrelated scene is recommended . The precise local ion or scenes can be indicatedby noting the reel number and Iootage count .

Additional o(itional ·inrormation includes other credits (writer, camera, edi­lor, narrator, and i·~aa.i.ng cast members or feature films) and subject headingsIor indexing purposes . SUbj,cI headings should be based on the summary andshould highlight important persons. places, events, activities , and themes . Mostmajor Iilrn and video archives attempt to provide somelevel or subject indexingas well as a separate title index. FI AF also recommends inde xes arrangedaccording 10 director, country or origin, and year or production. The mosteffective ways to produce several indexes are either 10 make multiple copies orthe basic catalog card-including one Ior each assigned subject heading-andrile them accordingly, or. 10 create an automated data base that can sorl infor­marion in many ways.

The 'ca la loging or sound recordings follows most or thc guidelines [or rilmand video, though normally in less delail. Series-level descriptions will furnishadequate access 10 clo scly-rctatcd , repetitive recordings, such as recurring orri·cial committee meetings or field recordings or bird calls. Even when cataloging

~ at the item level, a descriptive title may provide sufficient intellectual control.00 Summaries or the subject content are not standard bUI arc reserved for unique

and particularly significant collections.The tirle line will vary according 10 the type- or recording . The tltlc or a

commercial recording, especially music, is usually apparent, bUI a tille mustoften be devised Ior non-commercial recordings. Speakers and performers(rather than producer, director, and cast) should always be identified as well asany other pertinent in fo rmatio n 1'0 establish context, such as the ma in subjectsof an interview .

Thephyslcal descriplion or a sound recording should identify the Iormat orthe original recording (disk, cylinder, tape, ctc.) and its total running time.Information about the dale or the recording, restrictlons on use and reproduc­tion, unique identificaticn number, and related finding aids is comparable 10

the calaloging information for other audio-visual media. Indexes-by dale,Iiile, speakers or performers, or subject-s-are the most common type or findingaid ror sound recordings.

Film, sound, and video archives, because or their reliance upon item-level

I -I

"" udio-Vi,w ill A rchtves 115

cataloging and indexing, understandably have soughI to use computers indescription wo rk. Despite obvious ad vantages, the use or computers entailsplanning and labor costs in addition to the purchase and maintenance or equip­ment or services. The successful use or computers requires very precise languageand Iormat , including adherence to a thesaurus Ior subject indexing. The cata­loging starr must also recognize that alterations 10 an established computerprogram are expensive. In summary, computers can improve the cataloging oraud in-visual matcr ials but only if there is very careful advance planning.

In addition 10 describing each collection as fully as possible , all audio-visualarchives should prepare a general guide 10 their holdings . Since Ihe guide willintroduce most researchers 10 the archives, it should be attractively designedand carefully edited . It should describe the purpose or the archives and itsreference procedures, and briefly summarize the subject and dale coverageor the holdings and Iheir quantity and. highlight a [ew or the most notablecollections .

while exccssi ecly dry conditions can cont ribute to brittlen ess and the shrinka geof film and magneti c tnpe . Filtralion of air pollut~nts is also recommend d ,particularly for magnelic reco rdillgs, which c~n e seriousl damaged by dust.

roper use invo ves care ul handling safeguards, observed by archivists andresearchers, a s well as special att ent ion to protecting the o rigin al negative ormas te r record in g. The latt er -req uires storing o rigina ls se pa rat e ly fr om othercopies and en su ri ng that they are not used for reference . Dupl icat ion is a llessential Ingredient of a n a ud io-v is ua l p reserv a tio n program , not only 10 makereference co pies when need ed, bu t to replace or back -up deteriorat ing o r cspc ­cially valuable originals . Because of the costs of duplication, priorities mu st beassigned by evaluating the actu al a nd potential use of the record, its ph ysicalcondition, a nd its relat ive va lue. C onservation treatment should be underta kencauliously, only;.bs tr ained professionals, and only on the mosl va luable itemso r when necessary ·rttf.:{l up lica lio n .

All a rch ivists muslle"arn basic preservation skills so thai preservation actionscan be integrated into all aSDt;ls of pracessine and [eference. Cataloging andreference staff should routinely make note of problems since lhey handle th erecords more extenSively than an one else. I hey must also rollow the generalguidelines for ca refu l handling or au io-v isua! materi als, which include: wear­ing calion gloves ; keeping the records away from food , drink, o r smoke; writ­ing on the back of photographic prints only with a graphit e pencil; not usingpressure-sensitive labels or tape on records ; and removing extraneo us objectssuch as paper clips, rubber bands , staples , or acidic papers (afler extracting anyuse ful information they contain). Within th is framework of general poli cy.guidelines, each a ud io -visual m ed ium has sp ecific preserv ation needs, part icu ­larly witl) rega rd 10 sto ra ge co rual ncrs and duplication .

SliII pholograph ie negat ives sho uld be indi vidually stored in enclosure madeof paper with a neutral pH (about 7.0) ' or inert plastic, such as polyester.Ideally , prints also sho uld be individually sleeved. Since this is somet imes notfea sible, concentrate on providing such protection for origin al , or vint age,prints or those needing extra protection. Other prints can be sto red in non­acidic folders . 'Avo id the usc of kraft paper, manila envelopes , or glassineenvelopes, all of wh ich arc acidic.

The dupl ication of still photographs Is warranted most freq uently by thea bsence of a reference copy and the deteriorat ion of nitrate or unstable sa fely(di acet atc) negati ves, which is to say virtually an y negat ive produced prior 10

the mid -1950s . T he deterioration rates of nitrate and unstable safety negativesvary, but they should be inspected regularly. The gaseous byproducts or dctetio­ratin g nitrate rilm can ha rm other photographic mater ial s in close proximit y. rAlthoughthe inflammability of nitrate still negatives has been exaggerated, th eysh ould be sto red separately from other materials. The on set o f nitrate deicriora­lion can be detected by di scoloration, brittleness , sticki ness, or an acrid odor.The de composit ion of unstable safely negatives results from shri nki ng thatcau ses Ihe emulsio n 10 separate froni th e base a nd produces an ac rid odor.

Audio- Vi.wnf ..tr rhives 117.

Whcn co py ing positive or ucg ari vc origina ls 10 crea te reference (p ositi ve}copies , Ihe opt ions 10 consider are clcctrost urs, photograph ic prints, micr ofilmo r micro fiche, o r video disk. The cheapest but poorest qu alit y op tion is a nelectrostatic copy. Photographic prints provide the best quality, but they a re Ihemo st ex pe nsi ve o ptio n, especiall y whe n producing them requ ires the cre ation ofa copy negat ive.

The ad vant ages and disadvant ages o r mlcroforms and video disks are simi­lar. Thei r per un it cost is mu ch less th an photographic prints, bUI co ns iderableexpert ise an d preparat ion ar c requi red for sat isfactory results and s pecia lequipment is needed for viewing . Both m icroforms and video d isks can bere produced inexpensi vely for subsequent di stribution . Because of th e initialstart -up costs th ey a rc most a ppro pria te for cop ying very large and widely-usedcollections.

When mak lng preser vation negati ves, the o ptions ar e dupl icate or copy nega­tives (made fr om film in terp nsitlv es or prints) , microfllrn, or d irect -dupl icatenegati ves. Copy negati ves can be produced in an y size f ro m 35-mm to 8 xIO-inch form at . Th e larger the copy ne gative, the greater th e qu ality a ndexpense . Direct-duplicate negati ves are a less expensi ve option than duplicatenegati ves made from interposit rves because they ar c o nly on e step removedfrom the ori gi nal , but some exp erts have questi oned their long-term stabil ity ,, Molion picture rilm sh ould be stored on cores , n,ot reels, in non -co rrosi vemet al or incrt p last ic co n ta iners Sla ck ed hor izontally, six to eight h igh, 10

prevent war pi ng. Nit rale inot io n picture rilm should be maintained in sepa ratesto rage areas in containers that arc unsealed 10 pe rmit the ventilat ion of ha rm­ful ga ses .

Uns tnblc and iufl nmruable nl trnte film is the most ur gent prescrv ar lon prob­Icm confrontin g film archives . fires caused by the spontaneous combustion ofde te riorating nitrate film have de stroyed milli on s of feel of archi val film . Vir ­tually all 35- mm film produced prior to 1951 is nitrate while 16-mm film hasbeen manufact ured on a safety base sin ce 1916 . Cellu los e di acet a te film th atwa s widely use d from the 1920s (0 th e Iare 1940s is nOI fla mm a ble , bUI it lends toshrink with age and become briule .

The o nly way to preserve these films is by duplica tion o n 10 16-mm or 35-mmpolyester rilm before deterioration becomes too ad vanced : Vid eo tapes ar c notsatisfactory preservation copies because or their un certain longevity . Increas­ingly, ho wever , film arch ives rei)' up on video ca sscues fo r reference cop iesbeca use th ey cosI less than film copies and they are easier for res earcher s 10 use .

Duplication must be performed by s killed laboratory technicians usingar chi val qu al ity equ ipment and sup plies . Id ea lly, for each film the ar chivessho uld ha ve a m:,sler copy (preferably the camera original) , an imernegative orfinc-graiu po sit ive used to print additi onal copies , and a referen ce copy. Forstab le mat erials that arc repro d uce d in freq uen tly, a master and a reference copywill suffice . All .co pies should be made on the same size rilm as the o riginals .Most arch ives prod uce n sepa rat e picture and sound tra ck for 16-mm Iilrn to

CJ1o

ensure that optimum quality is preserved for each .The 'only practicable way 10 prolong the life of color dyes is by cold storage.

as pre viously recommended . A more reliable means of preserving color filmsisby producing a black-and-while separation master for each of the three primarycol ors , an approach that is prohibitively expensive for all but the most valuable[ilms . Some rilm archivists believe that future advances in holography willprovide more effective means (0 preserve color films.

Regu lar inspection is an essential component of a film preservation program.It should begin with an inspection of each new accession 10 lderulfy the follow ­ing : number and length of reels, the gauge of film or video tape, Ihe emulsiontype (negative , positive, fine-grain), base type (nitrate , acetate, polyester),black-and-while or color, silent or sound , image and sound combined(composite} or separate, the projection sp eed (which varies for silent films), thegeneral pfl)'Si~i1lcondition, and the date of inspection.

The inspeclion...of physical condition should include a check for shrinkage,brlutcncss , excess hyl'o and underdeveloped halides, discolorntion, tcar ing,scratches, dirt, and other damage, many of which can be detected visually andcorrected or alleviated. This information should be recorded and updated asaddilional regular inspections or preservation work are performed.

The chief preservat ion problems of sound archives involve recordings madeprior to the era of magnetic tape, with the exception of modern long-playingrecords made of durable vinyl. The chief villains are dust, careless handling ,

and poorly-maintained equipment. Many phonodiscs can be stored safely. intheir original packaging, provided that the cellophane shrink-wrapping isremoved to prevent warpage. Polyethylene envelopes are preferable 10 paper orglassine for most disks. Non-acidic paper envelopes are recommended forinstantaneous recordings made on nitrate or acetate disks and for shellac 78s.Records should be stored vertically, snugly supporting each other. Cylinders

should be stored vertically with some sUPP0rl in the center . Tape reels shouldalso be shelved vertically, storedIn their original bo xes and sealed in thepolyethylene bags usually provided with new reels .

Cylinders and instantaneous recordings are the most fragile sound record­ings , They should never be used for normal reference and, therefore, must becopied on to magnetic tape. Wire record ings, early shellac disks, acetate-basetapes and magnetic tape cassettes arc also not suitable for long-term preserva­tion and should be duplicated on 10 tape reels in priority order, as resourcespermit , The preferred preservation formal is I.j-m il polyester' tape . Thinnerlapes have many undesirable qualifies.

Tape cassettes are acceptable and convenient as reference copies, but archivesshould usc only good-quality cassettes of the C60 length , Ill' using cassettes wilhscrew Iiuings, the casseue can be dismantled for repair. Dig ital compact dis csarc the latest Innovation in sound recording nnd are still too new 10 recommendwith full confidence. Because of their impressive troublc-free quality, however,they.may become the standard audio preservarion formal in the near future .

..t/((/;0· Vi...,,111 A rctuves II I)

The preservation requ irements for video rape arc comparable 10 those fo raud io magnetic tape , The best approach to safeguarding them is to store Ihearchival origjnnlproperly and usc only a copy for reference . Periodic inspectionand careful rewinding of the master tapes me also recommended .

4. Hcfcrcllcc

Reference services for alldio-vis~1 records differ from traditional archival

pracl ices in I hree sign ificanl ways!'!'i rst ,~e~x~a~n~li!!n~a!J1i£!o.!!n.!o~r~ngg~~~~~~~~record in ; and video recordings requires the use a s eelsecondl copyright resrric Ions arc noan trur 1

expec e searc IUS are grealer than fo r aper records. A realistic assment a 1 a ora ory S capa ilities and a prepared order form thai lists alllypes of reproductions furnished and their costs will reduce the number ofrchctitivc inquiries and subsequent complaints . Audio-visual archives shouldensure that laboratory starr are adequately trained and equipped and chargepatrons acgordingly, Many film and sound archives furnish o nly full -reel repro­duct ions because of the excessive labor costs involved in copying selectedpor­lions as well as possible damage to the film or tape.

Professional-grade playback equipment for film, sound, and video record s isnot inexpensive but is essential for reliability, durability, and satisfactory qual­

ill' . II is lmportaut to kcep the equipment cle an and maintained properly . Filmarchives should provide nat-bed viewers ratherthan projectors to reduce wearand lear on film copies . The recording mechanism should be disengaged onmagnetic tapc players and the tabs knocked out of cassettes 10 prevent acciden­tal erasure . For sound records Ihat have not been dubbed 10 tape, most archivesrequire staff 10 play the recording for patrons, who may listen on earphones at aremote listening stat ion . S.2!!!!!!.!Jwes shollid be played alllhe way through andnol rewound after reference so Ihat the e..!!!!!lWm...silk.Jll:lhe lape is 100vard Iheinside of lhe rec l In what is referred to as the "lails oul" posilion .

Aud io-visual archi vlslS frequently encounter copyright qll~ions becausemany audio -visual records are considered creative works that arc entitled tocopyrigh! protection. The users of audio-visual archives are also more likelyIh'1/1 most researchers 10 have cnmmercial plans, which increases Ihe need forarchival safeguards , Archi vists mll si recognize thaI all audlo -visual records nulproduced by govc rmncnt employees are subject to copyright and learn as much

.as possible about the narioual copyright law .

Inmost countries , the concept of "fair use" permits archival institutions tomake copies Inr non-commercial purposes . Archivisls must furn ish researcherswith as much infornmtion as possible about the copyright status of an}' materialand advise them of their oblignrlon to respect co pyr igh t claims . Some potentialproblems can be avoided by attaching 10 all archival reproductions a cred it lineIhal identifies the creator, any known restrictions on reuse, and th e unique

120 Mallaging Archives and Archivol tnstiuntons

archival ldentification number. St ill photo archivists should insist thai publish­ers use the full credit line, including the identification number , which will assistin 'the retrieval of previously published photographs.

Conclusion

Audio-visual records differ from 01her archives in important ways . Their com­plex and diverse physical attributes pose special problems of handling, storage,and preservalion; effective management requires specialized knowledge of theirdistinct characteristics and some special equipment . Satisfactory control and

....accessibility of audio-visual records require more detailed description than;i'l:h~1 institutions normally undertake.

Despite their distinguishing cha racteristics , however, the basic principles ofarchival minagement apply to audio-visual records, with some qualifications.Archives acq'Uire and maintain pictures and sounds for the same reason theypreserve wrill en documents : to provide a usable record of the past. Audio­visual archivists must remain ever mindful of their obligation to preserve andmakc .available their entire holdings, not merely the most precious items . Thereward for providing the best affordable care to all items is thc opportunity towork with materials that not only , inform in revealing ways but often delightwith aesthetic qualities rarely found in other archival records .

,. ,'0

, '

9

Managing Machine-Readable Archives

Bruce I. Ambacher

As citizens and consumers we arc well aware of the astounding growth, use , andimpact of electronic dat a processing and computers in every facet of our lives .Computers are used to guide rockets into space and regulate highway traffic: 10

maintain current inventories and to determine costs and prices: to com pulesalaries and issue paychecks: to predict weather: 10 maintain and produce ournewspapers, magazines, inter-office mail, manuscripts, and home recipes; In

provide administrative record-keeping; and 10 enhance our leisure and play .The computer has revolnlionized the historical record by altering the ways in

which personal, corporate, and governmental records are created, used, main ­rained, and destroyed or preserved. Over the past few decades; electronic dataprocessing has been introduced flrst to ease the administrative burden, then III

produce and maintain records , and finally '10 facilitate access to recordsthrough automated finding aids and other electrooic data bases . '

The contemporary integra ted office system offers word processing to create .revise, and print text; electronic spreadsheets for statistical information ' clcc­Ironic mail 10 transmit documents and messages : logging and tracking rourincv10 mark the progress of documents; automated indexing to locate items: and

• graphic capability 10 illustrate reports with charts and graphs and permit desk',lo ~ publishing, Add itionally, the automated office environment offers the

'apabililY10 share this information with virtually any site in the world which bsimil ~r1y equipped . Increasingly, more advanced computer systems includeknowledge systems or expert systems which all em pi 10 replicate human expcri ­ence and solve problems that previously required human intelligence. Thesesystems are discussed in Chapter Ten . Archivists and records managers are bcin prequ ired to accept and care for the data base s, techniques , and systems ad optedby their sponsoring agencies, archival clients. and other records creators ,

121