managerial learning.pdf

8/14/2019 Managerial Learning.pdf

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Richard Teare

Supporting managerial

learning in the workplace

International Journal of

Contemporary Hospitality

Management

9/7 [1997] 304314

realityofthemiddlemanagersownworld.

Inordertocaptureownworldrealities,

McKennaadvocatestheuseofacomplexity

map.Thecomplexitymapseekstoportray

apersonalizedviewofrealityforeachpar-

ticipantattendingtheforumandasnapshot

ofhowtheirlearningneedsarewovenintoit

andmightbededucedfromit.Inparticular,

themaphelpstoidentifysomeoftheper-

sonalparadigmsandassumptionsthatneed

tobechallengedinordertostretchthe

participant.Insodoing,themapprovidesa

basisforactionbydepictingthereality-

basedrealplaysthatconfront

participants,togetherwiththepatternsand

interrelationshipsonwhichtheyneedtoact

inordertoleveragepersonaldevelopment

andbusinessimprovementgainsfromthe

complexitiesthatsurroundthem.Thisform

ofcognitivemappingoffersadynamicand

personalizedmeansofenablingmanagers

toassesstheircurrentcapabilitiesandlearningneeds.Setinthecontextofa

generativelearningforum,itprovidesa

diagnostictoolforself-managedlearning

anddevelopment.

Dixon(1995a,1995b)relatesastudyofpriva-

tizedfirmstotheculturechangeneededto

releasethepotentialofmiddlemanagers

workinginnewlyprivatizedorganizations.

Sheoutlinesherfindingswithreferenceto

theviewsofmanagersontheneedto:invest

ineducationandtraining;create,translate

andsharethenewstrategicvision;estab-

lishconstructivechannelsforcommunicat-

ingwithseniormanagers;developincentives

andrewards;andbreakwithtraditionby

encouragingmiddlemanagerstoinitiateand

lead.Dixonobservesthat:Theoverwhelm-

ingdemandfrommiddlemanagerswasfor

theorganizationtoinvestineducationforall

levelsofemployee.Therewasanimplication

thattheorganizationneededtobecreativein

thetypeoftrainingandeducationprovided

asthetraditionalapproacheswerenolonger

appropriate(Dixon,1995b,p.11).

Mumford(1994)examinestheproposition

thatmanagerslearninhindsightbyreview-ingtheexperiencestheyhavehadand,less

frequently,learnbyidentifyinginadvance

howtouseopportunitiesforlearningasa

meansofself-development.Heusesevidence

TableI

Managerial learning and work

Authors Focus Sub-themeShenharandRenier Applies a modular approach to defining managerial work and roles Defining managerial

(1996) so that managers can assess the complexities of their own jobs and work

related development needs

Margerisonand Outlines the eight main types of work in organizations (advising, Preferences and

McCann(1996b) innovating, promoting, developing, organizing, producing, inspecting, managerial work

maintaining) and advocates self-profiling or work preferences so as to

understand and work effectively with others

Oshagbemi(1995) Discusses the nature and the reality of managerial work and how Managers use of

managers spend their time their time

Margerisonand Profiles five key communicat ion skil ls enquiring, diagnosing, Communicat ion

McCann(1996a) summarizing, proposing and directing. Relates these skills to either a skills and

problem-centred or solution-centred focus and describes a self - managerial work

assessment resource for use in personal and team development

Dixon(1995a, Summarizes a study undertaken in 46 privatized firms concerned with Middle

1995b) middle managers and their attitudes towards the culture change they management

had experienced during the privatization process potential and

development

Megginson(1994) Considers the challenges posed by helping managers to learn when Planned and

they are reluctant to take responsibility for the direction of their own emergent

development or seem unable to learn from their own experiences managerial learning

Mumford(1994) Investigates how managers learn from experience with reference to Learning from

a study of 21 directors in 15 UK organizations and proposes four managerial

approaches (intuit ive, incidental, retrospective and prospective) experience

Barclay(1996) Emphasizes the value of real world experience in learning about Learning from

management especially interpersonal skills development, learning experience withabout ones organization and industry and learning how to manage learning logs

personal development and self-understanding


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Management

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fromastudyconductedoverathree-month

periodbypersonalinterview,with21 direc-

torsfrom15UKorganizationstocharacterize

fourapproachestolearning.Thepurposeoftheinterviewswastodiscusstherespon-

dentsexperiencesatworkandwhattheyhad

learnedfromthemsoastoexplorehowthey

mightusealternativewaysofanalyzingexpe-

riencesandultimatelyenhancetheircapac-

itytolearnatwork.Thefourapproaches

definedbyMumfordare:

Theintuitiveapproach learningfrom

experience,butnotthroughaconscious

process.Learningordevelopmentalissues

arerarely,ifever,mentioned,asthis

approachseesmanagingandgoodbusiness

prac

tices

assynonymous

wi

thlea

rning.

Theincidentalapproach learningby

chancefromactivitiesthatpromptthe

individualtoreflectandreview.Typically,

thisincludesunusualoccurrencesand

plannedactivitieswithunanticipatedor

undesirableoutcomes.

Theretrospectiveapproach learningfrom

experiencebyreviewingwhathappened

andreachingconclusionsaboutit.

Promptedmainlybymishapsormistakes,

butthosewhousethisapproacharemore

inclinedtodrawlessonsfromunexpected

variances.

Theprospectiveapproach includesretro-spectivecomponentsandanelementof

planningtolearnbeforeaneventtakes

place.Here,futureeventsareseennot

merelyasthingstobesuccessfullycom-

pletedbutasopportunitiestolearn.

Mumfordadds:Individualsusingthis

approachareexpectantlearnerswiththeir

antennaeconstantlytunedintothepossi-

bilityoflearningfromawholevarietyof

experiences(p.6).

Theme2:coaching,mentoringandteamdevelopment

Thelearnersupportprovidedformanagers

whetheritbeindividualcoachingandmen-

toringorworkgrouprelated,playsaninte-

gralroleinworkplacelearning.TableIIlists

asetofsub-themesthatspans:theroleof

coachingindevelopingmanagers(including

theapplicationofsportscoachingtechniques

toteam-buildinginbusiness);mentoringand

otherformsoforganizationalsupport;learn-

ingandteamdevelopment;workgroup

dynamics;andlearningandcross-functional

teamdevelopment.

Phillips(1996)examinesthepossibilities

forusingcoachingasamanagementtooland

considersitspartinthemanagement

process.Heidentifiesanumberofapplica-

tionsandoutlinestherolesandresponsibili-

tiesofboththecoachandthosebeing

coached.Heseesflexibilityasthekeywith

thecoachactingasanenabler.Bloch(1995)

relatessoftskillsdevelopmentinthework-placetoenablingemployeestoachievetheir

potentialandsheusesevidencefromastudy

toemphasizetheperceivedvalueofinternal

coachingtoorganizations:Individualswhoaregivenownershipof

theirowndevelopmentandcareermanage-

mentareusuallymorehighlymotivated

thanthosewhosepathsaremappedoutfor

them.Yetthesurveyfoundthatonlyaround

one-thirdofthecompaniessurveyedencour-

agedindividualstotakeresponsibilityfor

theirowndevelopment.Overhalfsaidthe

developmentoffuturetopmanagersshould

bethe

join

tresponsibili

tyofthe

individual,hisorherlinemanager,andthecompany.

However,whatactuallyhappensinpractice

issometimesverydifferent.Asonerespon-

dentremarked:Responsibilityfordevelop-

mentismeanttobetripartite,butwespend

outlivestryingtogetthelinemanager

involved(pp.20-21).

Forretetal.(1996)reviewtheissuesinvolved

inthedevelopmentandimplementationofin-

companymentoringprogrammes,withrefer-

encetointerviewswithmanagersinfive

organizationswhohadestablishedtheirown

programmes.Scanduraetal.(1996)address

thequestion:Whydomentorsengageinmentoring?anddiscusstheroleofleader-

shipinthedevelopmentofleader-supported

mentoringprocesses.Theyofferanarrayof

insightsontheprocessofmentoringandthe

Figure1

Interrelationships between personal and organizational development

ability to understand,interpret and respondto the complexitiesand realities of theorganizational situation

Personal and professional development

Adding value tothe organization

Source:adapted from McKenna (1994, p. 9)


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Richard Teare





Management

9/ 7 [1997] 304314

rangeofrelationshipsthatneedmanagingif

theprogrammeistoyieldbenefitsformen-

tors,menteesandtheorganizationasawhole.Clawson(1996)presentsmentoringas

avaluableformofsocialdevelopmentand

raisesquestionsabouthowmentoringmight

beshapedbytheeraofelectroniccommuni-

cations.Heviewsmentoringasavitalsup-

portmechanismintheinformationageand

posesanumberofquestionsformentorsto

addressintheinformationage:

Howwillpeoplefindtheirprotgormen-

torcounterpartsinthenewera?Willthey

continuetoworkthroughface-to-facemeet-

ingsorwilltherebeforumssetuponthe

Internetlikethepersonaladcolumnsinnewspapers?

Howlongwilltheserelationshipslast?

(Withe-mailprovidingworldwidesupport,

thereisnoproximityreasonforbreaking

themoffwhenthementeeispromotedor

transferred).

Howcancompaniestakeadvantageofthenewtechnologiesandthenewinsights

aboutmentoringtofosterandencourage

healthy,workingdevelopmentalrelation-

shipsamongtheiremployees?

Howwillcross-culturalmentoringwork

out?Willtherebeearlyexamplestoencour-

ageandguidesubsequentgenerations?

Theme3:competences,manageriallearningandthecurriculum

Theextenttowhichworkplacelearningcan

beformalizedandevenmeasuredinrelationtospecificoutcomesisconsideredhere.Table

IIIdepictsanarrayofsub-themesrelatingto:

theattainmentofcorecompetencesandtheir

relationshiptoindividualperformance;open

TableII

Coaching, mentoring and team development

Authors Focus Sub-themeBloch(1995) Reports that 14 respondents ( from a survey of 39 firms) c ited The role o f

internal coaching as a key method used to develop managers; coaching in

more t han 25 per c ent of t he sample w ere using ex ternal developing

consultants as mentors managers

McNutt andWright Observes numerous parallels between sport and business and Applies sport s

(1995) suggests that the methods used by successful sports coaches might coaching

be used to improve employee performance techniques to

team-building in

business

VealeandWachtel Describes Coca-Cola Foods coaching and mentoring programmes An integrated

(1996) and relates mentoring to human resource development strategy approach to

coaching and

mentoring

Forret,Turbanand Provides a how to overview on the steps involved in setting-up a A practical guide

Dougherty(1996) mentoring programme and outlines the benefits of such a programme to mentoring

for the organization and for the mentees and mentors

Booth(1996) Contrasts mentoring with typical employee/manager relationships Mentoring and

and considers the advantages and disadvantages and how gender other forms of

influences the mentoring process with reference to a case study of organizational

two supervisory mentoring relationships relations

BeebyandSimpson Describes a non-prescriptive means of assisting managers to recognize Cognitive mapping

(1995) and work on change issues. The approach uses a cognitive mapping and learner

technique to draw on the experiences of managers and to define development

causal problems and appropriate responses

Strachan(1996) Reviews the organizational l iterature and ident ifies the ro le of Learning andteamworking in building a learning organization team development

Kur(1996) Depicts patterns of team behaviour using a series of temperaments. Work group

Reflects the dynamic qual it ies o f groups of individuals working dynamics and

separately and interact ing together to achieve ag reed tasks learning

Proehl(1996) Reviews the effectiveness of cross-functional teams in tackling Cross-functional

broad-scale organizat ional problems. Ident ifies some of the team development

difficulties in sustaining cross-functional team effort and considers

the implications for team development


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Management

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anddistancelearninginmanagement;self-

managedlearning;relatingmanagement

developmenttocurrentandfutureneeds;

universityandcommunitylearning

networks;thefutureorientationofMBA

programmesandrelatingcoursedesigntoorganizationallearning.

LaneandRobinson(1995)reportonastudy

undertakenonbehalfoftheManagement

CharterInitiative(MCI).Thestudysoughtto

determinethemainareasofdecisiontaking

andactionwhichareofstrategicimportance

toorganizationsandneedtobeimplemented

effectively.

Theseare:

Understandingandinfluencingtheenviron-

ment.Identifyingandevaluatingopportuni-

tiesandthreatsorobstaclesfortheorgani-

zationinrelationtoitsinternalandexter-nalenvironments.

Settingthestrategyandgainingcommit-

ment.Contributionstodevelopingand

communicatingthemission,objectives,

Figure2

Cyc le of key strategic act ions and decisions

Evaluating and improving

Planning and monitoring

Interpreting the environment

Devising strategy

Source:adapted from Lane and Robinson (1995, p. 7)

TableIII

Competences, managerial learning and the curriculum

Authors Focus Sub-themeLaneandRobinson Reviews aspects of the management charter init iative (MCI) and Competences for

(1995) its aim of establishing standards of good practice for managers in managers

the UK

Ashton(1996) Repor ts on how Holiday Inn Worldw ide has implement ed C ore compet enc es

competency-based human resource strategies which provide a and individual

direct link between individual performance and business objectives performance

Davies (1996) Surveys the literature on open and distance learning (includes Open and distance

flexible, self-paced and resource-based learning) and identifies a learning in

gap that might be partially filled by a more comprehensive model of management

open learning in management development

King (1996) Describes IKEAs self-managed learning programme which is being Self-managed

used to support its expansion plans and to strengthen its competitive learning

position

Kilcourse(1995) Decries the rapid proliferation of business schools and asserts that Relating

dynamic, continuous change poses new challenges for managers, management

requiring a different form of manag ement development development to

current and future

needs

Critten(1996) Makes a case for a new kind of partnership between universities and University and

their local communities within which organizat ional as wel l as community learning

individual learning can be recognized, developed and accredited networks

Carnall(1995) Examines the changes which are likely to occur in MBA programmes The future

during the coming decade. Predicts that the third generation MBA orientation of

will place more emphasis on the learning process than its curriculum MBA programmes

and contentZuber-Skerritt (1995) Explores ideas and issues related to management education and Relating course

development for the new learning organization and presents an design to

example of a course design for experienced managers which is organizational

work-based learning


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Management

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traditionalbusinesscurriculum,adynamicsyllabusforwork-basedaction

learningseekstoaddressspecific,relevant

questionsfortheorganizationanditsmem-

bers,ratherthanfollowingaprescribed,

staticlistoftopics.Adynamiccurriculum

guidesindividualstodrawfromthebodyof

knowledgeandanarrayofothersources

(suchascompanyliteratureandothercon-

textualizedinformation).Dilworth(1996)sees

aneedtointerrelateacademicandworkplace

domainsandarguesthatbyaddressingeither

domaininrelativeexclusionfromtheother

riskscreatingaworkplacecontextwhere

learnersareabletograspreal-worldprob-

lemsbutlacktheunderlyingacademic

knowledgetosolvethem.

Limericketal.(1994)considerthecharac-

teristicsofanactionlearningorganizationin

termsofitsbiasforreflection-in-action,for-

mationoflearningalliances,developmentof

externalnetworks,multiplerewardsystems,

thecreationofmeaningfulinformation,indi-

vidualempowerment,leadershipandvision.

Theyconcludethattheknowledge-generating

organizationthatengagesinthesekindsof

activitiesismorelikelytobeabletosurvive

inturbulentmarketconditions.McNultyandCanty(1995)foreseethat

tomorrowsmanagerswillhavebe:simul-

taneouslyandconsecutivelyspecialistsand

generalists,teamplayersandself-reliant,able

tothinkforthemselvesasabusinessofoneandplanaccordingly.Theybelievethatto

succeed,managerswillhavetocommitthem-

selvestoalifelonglearningcareer,atthe

heartofwhichwillbe:knowingonesself

andknowingwhatonehastoofferinthede-

jobbedmarketplace.Thisnewemphasis

demandsdifferentkindsofdevelopment

programmes:thosewhichemphasizelearn-

ingnotteaching,actionnottheoryandbusi-

nessresultsnotclassroomresults.

WillsandOliver(1996)describehowaction

learningsfocusoncompany-specificissues

makesiteasiertoreviewthehardreturn

oninvestmentfortheenterprise.Theycon-

cludethattraininganddevelopmentman-

agerscanandshouldmeasurethevalue

addedbyevaluatingtheorganizationaland

financialimpactoftheirownorganizations

investmentinmanagementeducation.Inso

doing,theyfeelthatabudgetarilysupport-

ivecultureismorelikelytoemerge.This

approachwouldalsohelptohighlightthe

rangeofsofterpersonalbenefitsderivedby

individualparticipants.Theseinclude:

changedbehaviours,growthinconfidence

andlearningfromfellowmembersofthe

smallactionlearninggrouporset.PetersandSmith(1996)alsoconsiderwaysofachieving

thebestreturnonalearninginvestment.

Theysuggestthattheorganizationshould

identifyitsself-motivated,high-potential

TableIV

Work-based action learning

Authors Focus Sub-themeHarrison(1996) Crit ically examines the concepts of action learning (AL) and the Using action

learning organization and concludes that AL offers the potential learning in the

to develop strategic awareness and thinking even in turbulent learning

environmental conditions organization

Chan(1994) Relates an act ion learners experience of act ion research and Relat ing act ion

discusses how AL and action research deliver a balance of knowledge research to

and action, academic rigour and managerial relevance managerial

development

Reeves (1996) Compares two companies use of action learning, one primarily for Action learning

individual staff development, and a second where action learnings and its impact on

questioning, problem-solving ethos had pervaded corporate life corporate culture

Howell(1994) Presents a case study of the International Management Centres Using action

(IMC) and shows that its graduate managers can operationalize AL learning and

and action research to bring about organizational, professional and research skills in

personal development as wel l as product iv it y improvements the workplace

Mumford(1996) Identifies a gap in the current literature on action learning re: drawing Contributions from

contributions from set members as distinct from facilitators. Offers the learning set in

a method that might be used to overcome this bias action learning

Wills andOliver Report on a four-year impact analysis of act ion learning MBA Measuring return

(1996) programmes. The findings reveal an array of benefits for employing on investment from

organizations and show that individual managers gained a variety management

of soft benefits education


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Management

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Peters,J.andSmith,P.(1996),Developinghigh

potentialstaff:anactionlearningapproach,

TheJournalofWorkplaceLearning,Vol.8

No.3,pp.6-11.

Phillips,R.(1996),Coachingforhigherperfor-

mance,TheJournalofWorkplaceLearning,

Vol.8 No.4,pp.29-32.

Pierce,C.,HannonP.andWilson,L.(1995),The

standardsofcompetenceforseniormanage-

ment:fieldtestresults,ExecutiveDevelop-

ment,Vol.8 No.6,pp9-12.

Proehl,R.A.(1996),Enhancingtheeffectiveness

ofcross-functionalteams,Leadership&

OrganizationDevelopmentJournal,Vol.17

No.5,pp3-10.

Reeves,T.(1996),Roguelearningonthecompany

reservation,TheLearningOrganization,Vol.3 No.2,pp20-9.

Scandura,T.A.,Tejeda,M.J.,Werther,W.B.and

Lankau,M.J.(1996),Perspectivesonmentor-

ing,Leadership&OrganizationDevelopment

Journal,Vol.17 No.3,pp50-6.

Shenhar,A.J.andRenier,J.(1996),Howtodefine

management:amodularapproach,Manage-

mentDevelopmentReview,Vol.9 No.1,

pp25-31.

Strachan,P.A.(1996),Managingtransforma-

tionalchange:thelearningorganizationand

teamworking,TeamPerformanceManage-

ment,Vol.2 No.2,pp32-40.

Veale,D.J.andWachtel,J.M.(1996),Mentoring

andcoachingaspartofahumanresource

developmentstrategy:anexampleat

Coca-Colafoods,Leadership&Organization

DevelopmentJournal,Vol.17 No.3,

pp16-20.

Wills,G.andOliver,C.(1996),MeasuringtheROI

frommanagementactionlearning,Manage-

mentDevelopmentReview,Vol.9 No.1,pp17-21.

Zuber-Skerritt,O.(1995),Developingalearning

organizationthroughmanagementeducation

byactionlearning,TheLearningOrganiza-

tion,Vol.2 No.2,pp36-46.

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