Techniquesof

Applied Linguistics

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology.

Major branches of applied linguistics:• bilingualism• multilingualism• computer-mediated communication (CMC) • conversation analysis • language assessment• discourse analysis• language pedagogy• sociolinguistics• second language acquisition• language planning and policies• forensic linguistics• translation

The term multilingualism can refer to an occurrence regarding an individual speaker who uses two (bilingualism) or more languages, a community of speakers where two or more languages are used, or between speakers of different languages.

Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) - any form of human interaction across two or more networked computers. While the term has traditionally referred to those communications that occur via computer-mediated formats (i.e., instant messages, e-mails, chat rooms)it has also been applied to other forms of text-based interaction such as text messaging.

Conversation analysis - is the study of talk in interaction. CA generally attempts to describe the orderliness, structure and sequential patterns of interaction, whether this is institutional (in the school, doctor's surgery, courts or elsewhere) or casual conversation.

Discourse analysis (DA) or discourse studies

- is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken or signed language use.

- the objects of discourse analysis (discourse, writing, talk, conversation, communicative event, etc.) are variously defined in terms of coherent sequences of sentences, propositions, speech acts or turns-at-talk.

- Contrary to much of traditional linguistics, discourse analysts not only study language use 'beyond the sentence boundary', but also prefer to analyze 'naturally occurring' language use, and not invented examples.

Sociolinguistics

- is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used.

- it also studies how lects differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, etc., and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social class or socio-economic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place (dialect), language usage varies among social classes.

Second language acquisition

- is the process by which people learn a second language in addition to their native language(s). The term second language is used to describe the acquisition of any language after the acquisition of the mother tongue. The language to be learned is often referred to as the "target language" or "L2", compared to the first language, "L1".

- Second language acquisition may be abbreviated "SLA", or L2A, for "L2 acquisition".

Forensic linguistics

- is the name given to a number of sub-disciplines within applied linguistics, and which relate to the interface between language, the law and crime.

Translation

- is the action of interpretation of the meaning of a text, and subsequent production of an equivalent text, also called a translation, that communicates the same message in another language. The text to be translated is called the "source text," and the language it is to be translated into is called the "target language" ; the final product is sometimes called the "target text."

Translation is fraught with the potential for "spilling over" of idioms and usages from one language into the other, since both languages repose within the single brain of the translator. Such spilling-over easily produces linguistic hybrids such as "Franglais" (French-English), "Spanglish" (Spanish-English), "Poglish" (Polish-English) and "Portunol" (Portuguese-Spanish).

Contrastive Linguistics- is the systematic comparison of two or more

languages, with the aim of describing their similarities and differences. Language comparison is of great interest in a theoretical as well as an applied perspective. It reveals what is general and what is language specific and is therefore important both for the understanding of language in general and for the study of the individual languages compared. (Johansson and Hofland 1994: 25)

- the term 'contrastive linguistics', or 'contrastive analysis', is especially associated with applied contrastive studies advocated as a means of predicting and/or explaining difficulties of second language learners with a particular mother tongue in learning a particular target language.

Interlanguage

- an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) who has not become fully proficient yet but is approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language (or L1), or overgeneralizing target language rules in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations.

- is idiosyncratically based on the learners' experiences with the L2. It can fossilize, or cease developing, in any of its developmental stages.

To study the psychological processes involved one should compare the interlanguage utterances of the learner with two things:

• Utterances in the native language to convey the same message produced by the learner

• Utterances in the target language to convey the same message, produced by a native speaker of that language.

Pedagogic Grammar - a description of a given language which has been

created (usually in written form but more and more are electronic) with the intention of enabling a defined set of learners to learn that language.

As such, it is influenced by several external factors: * it is written with an audience in mind;* it makes use of one or more linguistic theories in establishing its descriptive framework;* it makes a number of assumptions about how learners learn.

Communicative competence

- is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.

Communicative language tests are intended to be a measure of how the testees are able to use language in real life situations. In testing productive skills, emphasis is placed on appropriateness rather than on ability to form grammatically correct sentences. In testing receptive skills, emphasis is placed on understanding the communicative intent of the speaker or writer rather than on picking out specific details.

Language competence - an idealized notion which somehow embodies the collective knowledge of a speech community in the person of an ideal speaker-hearer. However, the basic notion is the competence of an individual in a language. If the language in question is not the native language, it is taken for granted that the person may be proficient in the language to some degree. The standard is then generally set by native competence.

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