machining (mit 2.008x lecture slides)
TRANSCRIPT
2.008x
MachiningMIT 2.008x
Prof. John Hart
2.008x
2.008x
Machine shop in the DC printing office (1909)National Photo Company Collection via wikimedia. This work is in the public domain.
A present-day CNC machine shop“KIM_6446.” Kim Becker (CC BY 2.0) via Flickr
CNC Tools“Drill bit set” via Pixabay.
This work is in the public domain.
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What is the highest volume CNC machined
part in history?
2.008xManufacturing the Macbook ‘unibody’
(+ iPhone etc)
Excerpt from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxbiIpXZfG8about Jony Ive (Apple VP of Design): http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/02/23/shape-things-come
2.008x12” Macbook (released 2015)
Terraced CNC housing to hold 30% more battery volume;; single PCB2.03 pounds, 0.51” thick (max), 9hrs using wifi at 75% brightness
http://www.apple.com/macbook/design/
2.008xWhat is machining?
§ … “a general term describing a group of processes that consist of the removal of material and modification of the surfacesof a workpiece after it has been produced by various methods.” (Kalpakjian and Schmid)
§ Traditional machining: a rotating cuttercontaining several 'teeth' that removes material from a local region of the part.
§ Other machining processes that use different removal mechanisms and/or energy sources include electron discharge machining (EDM), laser machining, and water jet cutting.
Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
2.008xMachined parts: from small to large
Brass fittingsImage from Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
iPhone 5 and 6 housings
Boeing 777 panel outboard
Watch mechanismhttps://pixabay.com/en/watch-time-gears-clock-time-clock-932693/
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Diagram from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.
Machining is good at flat and curved surfaces, threads;; tolerances ~0.001”
0.5 mm
Brass fittingsImage from Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
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2 mm
2.008xAgenda:Machining
§ Tool-material interaction§ Cutting mechanics§ Geometry and motion§ Forces§ Energy and power
§ Demonstration experiments!§ Cutting forces§ Tools, finish, and wear
§ Milling (+iPhone housing)§ Design for machining§ Conclusion
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Machining:
2. Basics of tool-material interaction
2.008xA lathe
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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2.008xCNC turning a chess rook (2X speed)
Turning
Video excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lcGHtI9Lql4Diagrams adopted from Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Contour turning Facing
Boring (internal turning)
Cutoff (with saw)
2.008xBasic cutting (turning) nomenclature
§ Feed: axial distance tool moves per spindle revolution
§ Depth of cut: amount of material removed perpendicular to workpiece
§ Spindle speed: rotation speed of workpiece [RPM]
à The cutting tool is set to a certain depth of cut and travels to the left with a certain velocity as the workpiece rotates (spindle speed)
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
2.008xExample: cutting speed and MRR
A 304 stainless steel rod is being turned on a lathe. § The rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut.§ The spindle rotates at N=300 rpm, and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
§ The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-s/mm3.
à What is the initial cutting speed? (tangential velocity)
à What is the initial material removal rate (MRR)?
2.008xExample: cutting speed and MRR
à What is the initial cutting speed? (tangential velocity)
m/min 18.8m/s 31.0 === NDV oc π
2.008xExample: cutting speed and MRR
à What is the initial material removal rate (MRR)?
fdVNfdDMRR c== 1π
cm/rev 0.067==NVf a
cm 0.052
=−
= fo DDd
2.008xExample: cutting speed and MRR
à What is the initial material removal rate (MRR)?
fdVNfdDMRR c== 1π
cm/rev 0.067==NVf a
cm 0.052
=−
= fo DDd
/mincm .301 3== fdVMRR c ----correct:6.3 cm3/min
2.008xMaterial removal = controlled failure
Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRuSYQ5Npek
Material is removed (and a chip is produced) at the head of the tool by plastically deforming and continuously shearing the material
2.008xWhat do the tool and material experience during cutting?
§ Force§ Motion (sliding, vibration)§ Heating
à These lead to deformation of the workpiece and wear of the tool
à All of these are coupled and influence part quality!
2.008xHow we’ll understand cutting mechanics
Step II:Forces
Step I:Motion &Deformation
Step III:Energy &Power
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Machining:
3. Tool motion and material deformation
2.008xWe assume a 2D (orthogonal) cutting path
Orthogonal (2D)Provides insight for understanding
Oblique (3D)Realistic, yet difficult to analyze
x
y
z x
y
z
2.008x2D model: angles and assumptions
Three important angles:§ Rake angle α§ Shear angle φ§ Relief angle ε
Shear plane
Tool
Workpiece
+-
α
φ ε
Chip
Assumptions:§ The tool is perfectly sharp§ The tool moves at a constant V and t0
§ A continuous chip is produced
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Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRuSYQ5Npek
What type of deformation do you see?α
φ ε
2.008xShear model of orthogonal cutting
In reality the ‘pages’ are very thin and related to the microstructure of the material being cut: ~0.001-0.01 mm (10-3-10-4 in)
Tool
Workpiece
Chip
tc
tc
t0
2.008xAnalysis of shear strain
φ
( ) ( )αφφγ
γ
−+=
+=
Δ=
tancotaccdbc
Ax
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What do we learn?§ φ ↓ = γ ↑ or α ↓ = γ ↑§ γ ∼2-4 (very large!)
à Think of the material ‘turning the corner’
( ) ( )αφφγ −+= tancot
Shear planeTool
Workpiece
+-
α
φ ε
Chip
Analysis of shear strain
2.008x(Tesla video)
Here, digital image correlation (DIC) is used to map the strain fieldNIST high speed videos of tool/chip/material interaction: http://www.nist.gov/el/isd/sbm/hsds-machining-videos.cfm
Mapping shear strains during cutting
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Machining:
4. Cutting forces
2.008xWhy do we study cutting forces?
§ Forces are related to the material and cut geometry
§ Forces cause the tool and workpiece to deform
§ Forces (and speed) determine the power required for cutting
à The coupling of motion and force at the cutting interface influences quality, tool life, and productivity!
2.008xCutting force (FC)
Workpiece
+-
α
φ
Chip
FC
2.008xDemo #1: Measuring cutting force
2.008xMeasuring cutting force
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Cut Feedrate [in/rev]
Spindle [RPM]
Rake angle [deg]
Depth of cut [in]
Diameter [in]
Force [lb]
1 0.0042 140 60 0.03 2 0.43 2 0.0147 140 60 0.03 2 0.90
3 0.0147 140 0 0.03 2 1.83 4 0.0147 330 0 0.03 2 2.03 5 0.0147 330 0 0.06 2 3.87
6 0.0147 330 0 0.06 1 3.38 !
Cutting force data from video
Tool
Workpiece
+-
α
φ ε
Chip
2.008xCutting force data for aluminum (AA2014)
http://www.sv-
à Here too, cutting force depends strongly on feed (f) but not on speed (Vc)
Gokkaya, “The Effects of Machining Parameters on Cutting Forces,Surface Roughness, Built-Up Edge (BUE) and Built-Up Layer(BUL) During Machining AA2014 (T4) Alloy”, Journal of Mechanical Engineering 56(2010)9, 584-593
2.008xMerchant’s relationship: relating the angles
(reference slides to be posted)
is derived assuming that the shear angle (φ) self-adjusts to minimize the required cutting energy
Tool
Workpiece
+- α
φ ε
Chip
à if rake angle ↓ or friction angle ↑: shear angle ↓
à consequences of smaller shear angle:§ chip thickness ↑§ energy dissipation via shear ↑§ heat generation ↑§ temperature ↑
224αβπ
φ +−= [radians]β = friction angle (µ = tan β)
2.008xValidating Merchant’s equation
Chart adapted from: Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, Stephenson and Agapiou
224αβπ
φ +−=
Key assumptions:§ Slow, orthogonal cutting§ Constant material properties with temperature
§ Simple sliding friction§ No strain hardening
α
φ ε
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Machining:
5. Field trip to IMTS
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2.008xRegular CNC machines
Haas DT1 drill-tap centerhttps://www.haascnc.com/mt_spec1.asp?id=DT-1&webID=DRILL_TAP_VMC#gsc.tab=0
2.008xGiant machines (25 ton table capacity)
2.008xLots of tools
2.008xLots of tools
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2.008xAnd tool mascots!
2.008xAnd chip management systems
2.008xAnd chip management systems
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Machining:
6. Tools, finish, and wear
2.008xCutting toolsMonolithic tool (e.g., HSS or Carbide)
Tooling with inserts
Diagrams from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Demo #2: Tools, finish, and wear
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ToolMaterial
Speed[RPM]
Depth of cut[in]
Feed [in/rev]
MRR[in3/min]
HSS
90 0.05 0.007 0.40
140 0.05 0.007 0.62
330 0.05 0.007 1.45
Carbide
330 0.05 0.014 2.90
385 0.05 0.014 3.29
585 0.05 0.014 5.15
Demo #2: Data
2.008xTool hardness, temperature rise
Tmean ∝Va f b
max
Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
speed V and feed f;; a and b are constants that depend on the tool and part
2.008xTool wear
Depth of cut
Flank wearCraterwear
Flankwear
Crater wear
Crater Wear on the Rake
Face
Wear on the Flank
Face
Deposition causing a “Built Up
Edge”
Thermal Cracking
Crater Wear on the Rake
Face
Wear on the Flank
Face
Deposition causing a “Built Up
Edge”
Thermal Cracking
Images from Figure 23.2 Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition) by Groover. (c) Wiley (2010).Wear schematics from: http://www.sandvik.coromant.com/en-us/knowledge/milling/troubleshooting/tool_wear
2.008xChips from demo: carbide tool, 385 RPM
Craterwear
Flankwear
à Examine both sides
2.008xChip types (selected)Continuous chip (narrow primary shear zone)§ Ductile materials @ high speed§ Entanglement bad (use chip breakers)
Continuous chip with built up edge (BUE)§ Bad for surface finish and tool wear
Discontinuous chip (good)§ Brittle materials;; very low or very high cutting speeds
Continuous chip
Continuous with BUEDiscontinuous
Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.
2.008xWhat determines surface roughness of machined parts?
2.008xSurface roughness
Figure 7.44 from "Product Design for Manufacture and Assembly (2nd Edition)" by Marinescu, Boothroyd. © Marcel Dekker Publishing (2002)
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Taken using Zygo profilometer
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Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.Figure 21-8 from DeGarmo's Materials & Processes in Manufacturing (10th Edition) by Black and Kohser, © Wiley (2008).
Improved tool materials à higher cutting speed
Layers: 2-20 μm thickTiN: low frictionTiCN: wear resistanceAl2O3: high thermal stability
Carbide: hardness and fracture toughness
Rate = 200x faster in 100 years
à ~5% increase per year, (1.05)100
à Machine requirements?
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Machining:
7. Cutting energy and power
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Step II:Forces
Step I:Motion &Deformation
Step III:Energy &Power
2.008xA simple estimate of cutting force
FC ~b t0 Sb = depth of cut (d in turning)t0 = feed (f in turning)S = strength
Material UTS* (MPa)Wax 0.86
Aluminum 110Aluminum 6061-T6 310
Steel (high strength alloy) ASTM A-514
760
Titanium alloys 900
*UTS = Ultimate Tensile StrengthShear strength ~0.5*UTS
Workpiece
+-
α
φ
Chip
FC
2.008xWhat other forces are present?
§ Thrust: Ft
§ Cutting: Fc
§ Friction: Ff (µ = Ff/N)
§ Tool normal: N
§ Shear: Fs
§ Chip Normal: FnR
Fc
FtFn
Fs N
Ff
2.008xEstimating the cutting powerPower input = Power out + Power dissipated
Power input:§ Machine: Pc = Fc * V
Power dissipation:§ Shear: Ps = Fs * Vs§ Friction: Pf = Ff * Vc
Vs V
Vc
Fs
Not deformed
Plastically Deformed
Fc
Fc
α
φ
Chip
- +
NOTEVc = velocity of chipV = cutting velocity
(denoted VC earlier)
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Contributions to cutting energyà specific energy = power/MRR
*Kalpakjianneglects Units =
Power/(volume/time)[W*s/mm3]
Shear + Friction + Others = TOTAL
Vs V
Vc
Fs
Not deformed
Plastically Deformed
Fc
Fc
α
φ
Chip
- +
2.008xLet’s estimate the cutting power and force§ A SS rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut (full rotation).
§ The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
§ The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-s/mm3.
à How much power is required?
MRR =Vfd = πD1Nfd
àpower and force limits in demo #2?Carbide@385 = 2.45 kWKalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
2.008xLet’s estimate the cutting power and force§ A SS rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut (full rotation).
§ The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
§ The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-s/mm3.
à How much power is required?
drive
t
drive
spindleinput
tspindle
MRRuPP
MRRuP
ηη==
= MRR =Vfd = πD1Nfd
àpower and force limits in demo #2?Carbide@385 = 2.45 kW
P = 0.6 kWwith efficiency = 0.7
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
2.008xLet’s estimate the cutting power and force§ A SS rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut (full rotation).
§ The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
§ The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-s/mm3.
à What is the approximate cutting force?MRR =Vfd = πD1Nfd
fduVVfdu
VMRRuF
MRRuVFP
ttt
c
tcspindle
===
==
àpower and force limits in demo #2?Carbide@385 = 2.45 kW
F = 1 kN
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Material-dependent cutting energies
à Also see ‘machinability rating’
2.008xWhat did we learn so far? (summary)
§ Cutting removes material from a workpiece by (severe) plastic deformation.
§ Using a 2D approximation (applied to turning) we can relate the geometry and motion of the tool to the cutting force and power required.
§ Tool-material interaction is dominated by shear and friction, causing deformation and heating.
§ Commercial machine tools easily exert many kN of force at many kW of power.
§ Recommended cutting parameters are stated based on material and tool limits.
à Now let’s talk about milling.
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Machining:
8. Milling
2.008xHow are milling and turning different?
Excerpt from Ingersoll https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUBQN1JfY80
Feed per tooth (f)v = velocity of tool or workpieceN = rotational speedn = number of teeth (‘flutes’)
Diagrams from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
2.008x3-axis milling machine
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Climb milling versus Conventional milling
6061-T6 Aluminum with ¼” endmillSpindle Speed: 4000rpmFeed: 20.0ipmDepth of cut: .400”Width of cut: .070”
Diagrams from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
2.008xCommon milling operations
Diagram from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.
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End$mill
Face$millFly$cutter$(single$point$for$making$smooth$surfaces)
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Front-facing camera
Faceplate
Screen (flipped)
Camera Battery
Logic board
Housing
iPhone 6 chassis assembly
Modified from: https://d3nevzfk7ii3be.cloudfront.net/igi/DSCkX6EfcARJYOHa.hug
iPhone 6 teardown
Type of joint Number
Bolted 44
Adhesive 5
Clip 8
Threaded inserts 46Counted from teardown sequence
2.008xiPhone 6 housing: What do we notice?
‘Straight’ tool path
‘Curved’ tool path
Plastic insert
Press-fit threaded insert
T-slot endmill
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2.008xFeature sizes
0.5 mm
0.5 mm
6 mm
2 mm
2.008xTool paths
Contour-parallel tool path
https://en.wikipedia.or g/wiki /CNC_pocket_milling
Zig-zag tool path
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How the toolpath for each area is designed
Add finishing passes where needed
Generate the pocket cutting pathsContour-parallel tool path Direction-parallel tool path
Begin with offset elements of the contour to generate cutting paths
Step inwards or outwards for subsequent passes
Select reference line and mill along parallel lines
Zig milling: Feed along spindle direction
Zig-zag: Both directions (includes significantly fewer tool retractions)
Finishing pass around features
Contour parallel path
Diagrams from M. Held, On the Computational Geometry of Pocket Machining;; Lecture Notes in Computer Science;; Springer Berlin Heidelberg: Berlin, Heidelberg, 1991;; Vol. 500.
Evaluate the shape of material to be removed
Boundary contours pf the pocket
Contours of drilled holes and features such as bosses
2.008xOptimization for cost or time?
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Cost of machining =§ Machine use ($/time)§ Tool cost
§ Tool change cost ($/time)§ Nonproductive cost ($ for load/unload operations etc)
Time (1/rate) of machining = § Machining time§ Tool change time§ Nonproductive time (load/unload etc)
Taylor’s equationV*(Tool_life)n = Constant
2.008xiPhone housing: 4 à 5 à 6§ Materials?§ Advantages / disadvantages of each design?§ Other notable differences?
2.008x4/5/6 back
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5-axis machining
3-axis 5-axis
Photo from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqePrbeAQoMDiagrams fromhttp://www.awea.com/awea_en/milling/5-axes/fmv/overview.htm
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Video excerpt from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mudofisRCjA
5-axis machining
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Machining:
9. Design guidelines for Machining
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Design for Manufacturing (DFM):
The process of designing parts/products to enable easier* and more robust** manufacturing.
*fewer steps, lower cost
**more reliable, better quality
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From Otto and Wood, Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New Product Development
Design for Machining
Use standard dimensions
D = 0.627” D = 0.625”Don’t Do
DoDon’t
Provide access for tools
Avoid long, narrow holes
Avoid long, thin sections that cause vibration
Do
Don’t Difficult to fixture
Easier to hold
Design parts that are easy to fixture
Impossible
DoDon’t
Radius smaller than ¼”
Use ¼ - ½” radius
Design for reasonable internal pockets radii
Impossible
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DFM: what’s wrong with this part?
§ Sharp internal corners are impossible!
§ Avoid thin sections à(deformation, poor surface finish).
also§ Minimize the number of tool changes, while considering overall machining time (e.g., rough removal versus fine finishing).
§ Know the limits of tooling available (e.g. minimum size, maximum depth)!§ Consider fixturing (how you will hold the part, and reference it if re-fixtured)
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Machining:
10. Conclusion
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How is machining advancing now?
§ Higher speed machining, largely driven by tool materials/coatings à lower cost and higher throughput!
§ Growing demand for machining of advanced materials, e.g., titanium, composites, etc.
§ Networked machines enabling remote process monitoring and optimization à toolpath, cutting speed, tool life, surface quality, etc.
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Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Lh600hVyt8 Figure adopted from 20.31, Degarmo, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
High-speed machining: chip carries the heat away
Total heat generated
% to workpiece
% to tool
% to chip
Cutting speedLow High0
50%
100%
Heat generated
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Conclusion: performance of machining
Machining
Rate Low-Medium
Quality Good!
Cost Wide range, depends on design, material, production volume
Flexibility High (within machine constraints)
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References1 Introduction
Photo of CNC Mill by Roland Josch on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of Machine Shop in DC Printing Office by National Photo Company from U.S. Library of Congress. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of CNC Machine Shop by Kim Becker via Flickr (CC BY) 2.0
Photo of Drill Bit Set by Michael Schwarzenberger on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Video of MacBook Pro Manufacturing © Apple Inc.
Image of MacBook Pro Exploded View © 2016 Apple Inc.
Machining Processes: Figure 1.5e "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (6th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2010).
Photo of Mechanical Watch Mechanism by User: tookapic on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of Brass Fittings by Ingbert Merz on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Machined Part: Figure IV.3 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
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References2 Basics of Tool-Material-Interaction
Lathe Picture: Figure 23.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Video of Rook Machining © 2016 GlacernMachine Tools
Lathe Cutting Operations: Figure 23.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (6th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2009).
Turning Schematic: Figure 21.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Videos of Iscar Chip Formation © Rick Steinard.
3 Tool Motion and Material Interaction
Video of Iscar Chip Formation © Rick Steinard.
Video of Titanium machining example, by NIST of the U.S. Dept. of Commerce 2009.
Photo of CNC Mill by Roland Josch on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
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References4 Cutting Forces
Graphs by Gokkaya, “The Effects of Machining Parameters on Cutting Forces, Surface Roughness, Built-Up Edge (BUE) and Built-Up Layer (BUL) During Machining AA2014 (T4) Alloy”, Journal of Mechanical Engineering 56(2010)9, 584-593
Shear Angle Chart adapted from: Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, Stephenson and Agapiou
6 Tools and Wear
Lathe Cutting Tool: Figure 21.10 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Tooling with Insert: Figure 22.3 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Temperature Distribution: Figure 21.12 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Hardness Chart: Figure 22.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
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ReferencesCrater Wear: Figure 23.2 from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)" by Groover. © John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010)
Wear schematics images © 2000 Sandvik AB
Chip Types: Figures 21.5 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Machining Time: Figure 22.6 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Coating Cross-Section: Figure 22.8 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Insert: Figure 21-8 from "DeGarmo's Materials & Processes in Manufacturing (10th Edition)" by Black and Kohser, © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2008).
7 Cutting Energy and Power
Turning Schematic: Figure 21.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Cutting Energies: Table 21.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
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References8 Milling
Video of Face Milling Slow-Motion © Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company
Parts Produced by Milling: Figure 24.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Milling Operation Parameters: Figure 24.3 b) from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Conventional vs. Climbing: Figure 24.3 a) from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Milling Operations: Figure 24.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Image of iPhone 6 © 2000-2016 GSMArena.com
Image of iPhone 6 Exploded View © 2016 iFixit
Image of T-Slot End Mill Cutter © 2003 Bewise Inc. All Rights Reserved
Image of Tool Paths by Kangkan iitd on Wikimedia. (CC BY-SA) 3.0
Pocket Machining: Figure 1.3 from "On the Conceptual Geometry of Pocket Machining" by Held © Springer-Verlag (1991).
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ReferencesToolpaths: Figure 1.4 from "On the Conceptual Geometry of Pocket Machining" by Held © Springer-Verlag(1991).
Cost Optimization: Figure 25.17 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Diagrams of Advantages of 5-Axis Milling Machines © AWEA Mechatronic Co. LTD. 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Image of 5-Axis Vertical Machining Center © Okuma America Corporation.
Video of Mazak Variaxis i700 © John Hart Pty Ltd.
9 Design for Manufacturing
DFM Practice Diagram: Figure 14.10 from "Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New Product Development" by Otto and Wood, © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2001)
10 Conclusion
Image of Datron M8Cube © 2016 DATRON Dynamics, Inc.
Heat vs. Speed Diagram: Figure 20-31 from "DeGarmo's Materials & Processes in Manufacturing (10th Edition)" by Black and Kohser, © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2008).