Uniwersytet Mikoaja Kopernika Wydzia Filologiczny

Katedra Filologii Angielskiej ukasz Motkowski

Nr albumu: 139873

Praca magisterska na kierunku: filologia angielska

Mechanisms of foreignisation and domestication in

translations of science fiction literature (on the basis of George Lucass Star Wars)

Mechanizmy adaptacji i wyobcowania w tumaczeniach literatury science fiction,

na podstawie Gwiezdnych wojen Georgea Lucasa

Praca wykonana pod kierunkiem Dr Ewy Kociakowskiej-Okoskiej Katedra Filologii Angielskiej UMK

Toru 2006

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Contents/Spis treci

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 4

Chapter 1: Outline of foreignisation and domestication mechanisms ................... 6

1.1 Foreignisation and domestication ................................................................ 6

1.1.1 Definitions............................................................................................. 6

1.1.2 Brief history .......................................................................................... 7

1.1.3 Domestication in theories by Eugene Nida........................................... 9

1.1.4 The Skopos and Nords documentary and instrumental translation ... 10

1.1.5 Hatim and Masons framework........................................................... 11

1.2 Proper names.............................................................................................. 12

1.2.1 Classification of proper names............................................................ 13

1.3 Major categorizations of translation procedures........................................ 15

1.3.1 Definition of translation strategies and procedures ............................ 15

1.3.2 Vinay and Darbelnets procedures...................................................... 16

1.3.3 Newmarks procedures ....................................................................... 18

1.3.4 Vermess translation operations applied to proper names .................. 20

1.3.5 Consolidated taxonomy of lexical procedures, as proposed by

Kwieciski.................................................................................................... 21

Chapter 2: The science fiction genre and Star Wars as its representative ........... 25

2.1 Introduction to science-fiction ................................................................... 25

2.1.1 Key terminology concerned with science fiction................................ 28

2.1.2 Brief historical outline of science-fiction and its best known

representatives.............................................................................................. 31

2.2 Star Wars as a representative of science fiction......................................... 38

2.2.1 Influences on Star Wars ...................................................................... 39

2.3 Science-fiction in Poland ........................................................................... 41

Chapter 3: Source materials and empirical study................................................. 45

3.1 The research ............................................................................................... 45

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3.1.1 Source materials for empirical study .................................................. 46

3.1.2 Applied methodology.......................................................................... 48

3.1.3 Projected results .................................................................................. 49

3.1.4 Abbreviations ...................................................................................... 50

3.1.5 Subcategory Locations: ................................................................... 50

3.1.6 Subcategory Characters ................................................................... 54

3.1.7 Subcategory Vehicles and starships ................................................ 57

3.1.8 Subcategory Organisations.............................................................. 62

3.1.9 Subcategory Other ........................................................................... 65

3.2 Research summary ..................................................................................... 68

3.2.1 Brief survey; comparison of results .................................................... 70

Conclusion............................................................................................................ 72

Bibliography......................................................................................................... 74

Primary sources:............................................................................................... 74

Material sources: .............................................................................................. 75

Streszczenie.......................................................................................................... 77

Appendix A: Campbells Heros Journey and Star Wars ................................ 80

Appendix B: Complete list of researched vocabulary items................................ 81

Appendix C: Details concerning the main research............................................. 83

Appendix D: Details concerning the survey conducted among SF readers......... 84

Appendix E: Interview with Piotr W. Cholewa ................................................... 86

Appendix F: Interview with Agnieszka Sylwanowicz......................................... 88

Appendix G: Interview with Maciej Szymaski.................................................. 91

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Introduction

The focus of the present thesis is to explore the notions of foreignisation and

domestication and their application through different procedures to translations

of contemporary literature. In order to estimate the possible dominance of one of

the above strategies over the other, a study will be made on a body of

contemporary, science fiction literature. George Lucass Star Wars series was

selected as the genres representative, due to its popularity among science fiction

(SF) readers and critics today.

The notions of foreignisation and domestication, though formulated and

defined only recently, have dominated the discipline of translation since its very

beginnings. They are respectively connected with the word-for-word and

sense-for-sense strategies of translation, which have been in use since the times

of ancient Rome. The former term was regarded as means of transferring the

source text literally into the target text, thus preserving the original style and

introducing alien vocabulary. Sense-for-sense renditions, on the other hand,

aim at a fluent and intelligible target text, even at the expense of terminological

precision. As a result, the original passages were transformed into the target

version rather than translated, often through the deletion or substitution of

elements typical for the source culture.

The domesticating sense-for-sense strategy was the dominant approach in

translation until only recently. The 19th century saw a tendency towards the

foreign, expressed mainly through the theories put forward by Friedrich

Schleiermacher, who stated that the audience was to have the feeling that they

are in the presence of the foreign (Fawcett 1997: 116). His views were later

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revised by Venuti, who regarded foreignisation as a means of combating the

dominant, assimilative position of the English-language culture.

The results of the main research will allow, first and foremost, to identify

the dominant translation strategy in Polish renditions of popular literature. They

will also make it possible to measure the degree of tolerance, or resistance, to the

foreign element in Polish SF.

The present thesis is comprised of three chapters. Chapter 1 introduces

relevant theoretical background, essential for further study of the subject matter.

It explores the notions of foreignisation and domestication, provides their

definitions of them and presents them in a historical context, along with

contemporary approaches to the problem. Since the study is to be conducted on

proper names, the chapter will also provide their established definitions and

classifications. The chapter will conclude with the presentation of popular

classifications of translation procedures.

Chapter 2 aims at a concise but informative presentation of the science

fiction genre. After providing its established definitions, the chapter will present

key terminology concerned with SF, as well as its brief historical outline. It will

then move on to Star Wars, defining and enumerating its influences and setting it

against a general background of the SF genre. Finally, the Chapter will conclude

with a brief look on the Polish SF tradition in order to present the rich heritage of

Polish SF literature.

Chapter 3 will present a detailed account of the materials on which the

main study is conducted. It will also provide details concerning the methodology

of the study and projected results, based on theories presented in Chapter 2.

Following the summary of results of the main study, the chapter will provide

details and outcome of the research conducted among a group of SF readers. A

comparison of the results of the two studies will conclude the chapter.

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Chapter 1: Outline of foreignisation and domestication

mechanisms

Chapter 1 aims at providing theoretical background with reference to the subject

matter of the present dissertation. Consequently, it will primarily deal with

foreignisation and domestication mechanisms, providing definitions, brief history

and examples of contemporary approaches to the notions in question. Definition

of proper names will be supplied, followed by their classification by Newmark

and Vermes. The chapter will conclude with a definition of translation strategies

and procedures, and their major categorisations.

1.1 Foreignisation and domestication

The terms foreignisation and domestication have been coined by Venuti as

means of providing general classification for translation procedures (see 1.3). He

defines them in detail in his influential work, titled The Translators Invisibility: A

History of Translation (1995).

1.1.1 Definitions

According to Ventui (1995: 19-20), a foreignising strategy consists in acquiring a

translation method which does not conform to norms and values prevalent within

the target language system. Employing such an approach, which preserves

linguistic and cultural differences between the two systems, requires a translation

style designed to make the intervention of the translator visible (Munday 2001:

147), resulting in a non-fluent, alienating TT (Baker 1998: 243). This effect is

usually achieved through close reconstruction of the ST structure and syntax in

the TT and importation of foreign cultural forms.

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Domesticating translation strategy, as a contrast, entails an appropriation,

or reduction (Venuti 1995: 20), of the foreign text into target-language

conventions and makes use of stylistic devices, which provide for a transparent

and fluent reading, minimizing the foreigness of the TT (Munday 2001: 146).

Domestication is also said to involve selecting texts which adhere to domestic

literary canons, resulting in a conservative and openly assimilationist approach

to the foreign text (Baker 1998: 242), which is to serve domestic publishing

trends and political alignments.

1.1.2 Brief history

Domestication strategies were in common use since ancient Rome, chiefly as

means of conquering the SL (Baker 1998: 241). Latin translators not only deleted

culturally specific markers, but also added allusions to Roman culture and

deleted resistant passages (Kwieciski 2001: 17), that is to say, lexical

elements which required a great deal of study since they could easily by

misinterpreted.

The largest step for the formulation of domesticating translation theory is

considered to be made by St. Jerome, the author of Vulgate Latin translation of

the Bible commissioned in 384 CE. Following remarks offered earlier by Cicero,

he identified the notion of word-for-word translation, a foreignising strategy, and

opposed it with a domesticating alternative, a sense-for-sense strategy, as the

correct method to render SL text, thus introducing an important distinction,

which shed new light on the study of foreignisation and domestication.

The use of exoticisms in translation was advocated by Augustine, due to

concerns about the reaction of the Christian community to the unfamiliar features

of Jeromes Latin text of the Bible. He does, however, oppose the use of Greek

calques should these be incompatible with Latin or resistant.

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Bible translation became a key issue, around which different approaches

to translation surfaced (Bassnett 1991: 47). The domesticating strategy was

employed in the Wycliffite Bible translation, where the sense-for-sense strategy

aimed at rending the text in a common language so that the Holy Scripture be

accessible to a layman, and not loosing scholarly accuracy at the same time.

Renaissance largely contributed to the development of the domesticating

theory. The use of contemporary idiom and style was much advocated; in his

Circular Letter of Translation (1530), Martin Luter emphasised the necessity to

rely on the common language (Kwieciski 2001: 24). He recognised that

exoticisms in certain cases cannot and should not be avoided, provided that the

translator uses them after careful historical and philological study.

The 17th century translation style pushed domestication beyond earlier

limits. Abraham Cowleys comments in his Preface to his Pindarique Odes

(1656), in which he states that he has taken, left out and added what I please

(Bassnett 1991: 56) while translating, are highly symptomatic of the general

atmosphere affected by the Counter-Reformation movement.

The first systematic approach to the issue of translation strategies was

offered in 1791 by A.F. Tyler in his Essay on the Principles of Translation. In it

he points to three laws which should govern translation in general: a) the

rendering is to be carried out sense-for-sense; b) style and register are to remain

invariant; c) the translation should have all the ease of the original composition

(Kwieciski 2001: 35).

The 19th century saw a turn towards the foreign in thinking on translation.

This new tendency, visible in the works of Shelly and Goethe, claimed

translation to be a mechanical function, which consists merely of making

known a given text or author to the reader (Bassnett 1991: 66). This approach is

conveyed in the theories offered by Friedrick Schleiermacher in his lecture ber

die verschiedenen Methoden des bersetzens (1813). The document deals with

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two opposite concepts, the foreginising reader-to-author strategy and the

domesticating author-to-reader strategy with no in-between area (Kwieciski

2001: 39). The former option was favoured, through the use of which

consciously archaic translations were produced, aimed at a minority of learned

readers. Indeed, the audience was to have the feeling that they are in the

presence of the foreign (Fawcett 1997: 116).

1.1.3 Domestication in theories by Eugene Nida

A significant shift in translation theory was brought forth by the influential

theories of Eugene Nida, who addressed the issue of translation correspondence

through the viewpoint of the receptor of the text. It is suggested that audience

design has profound impact on the shape of the target text, and therefore

different translations will be correct for different readerships (Fawcett 1997:

56). Thus, meaning is to have precedence before style, the TT aiming at being an

equivalent of ST rather than its identical representation. This return to

Augustinian principles of sense-for-sense translations is exemplified by Nidas

formulation of notions of formal and dynamic equivalence.

The latter, domesticating strategy was seen as privileged since it aimed at

complete naturalness of expression and finding the closest natural equivalent

to the SL message (Nida 1964: 159). Dynamic equivalence acknowledged

situations where foreign associations can hardly be avoided, in which case the

use of importation combined with intratextual covert glosses was suggested as

the proper way of approaching the foreign. Translations in the formal

equivalence manner on the other hand, were regarded as cases where semantic

accuracy is given priority over naturalness (Kwieciski 2001: 50). Such

renderings were seen as acceptable and for certain types of audiences (the

aforementioned accuracy is of great importance in legal texts, for instance).

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Though Nidas model has been challenged by some theorists, particularly

for its departure from the notion of translation as exchange of information

towards appropriation of a foreign text for domestic purposes (Kwieciski

2001: 50), the idea of function of a given text with respect to its readership was

indeed influential for contemporary theories.

1.1.4 The Skopos and Nords documentary and instrumental translation

A domesticating bias in translation theory was also expressed by German

scholars under the Skopos theory. The Skopos, here understood as the purpose of

translation, is a central notion deciding on the mode of translation a particular

task may require. The domesticating nature of this approach is visible through the

requirement of intelligibility of the TT, which should be acceptable and

consistent first and foremost with the receivers situation. Translation, moreover,

is regarded as inherently involving domestication, since a foreign culture can

only be perceived by means of comparison with our own culture (Nord 1997:

24).

In terms similar to Nidas theories, Nord recognises two general modes of

rendering a text, namely documentary and instrumental translation. Similar to

Nidas notion of formal equivalence, it is regarded as means of creating a TT,

where the SC setting is left unchanged, but where preservation of intelligibility is

essential for the translation to be successful. This is contrasted with the notion of

instrumental translation, which aims at the effect through which readers are not

supposed to be aware that they are reading a translation at all (Nord 1997: 52),

an approach which requires extensive use of normalisation and covert cultural

substitution.

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1.1.5 Hatim and Masons framework

The relevance of a translation to audience design and task is of crucial

importance in the analytical framework put forward by Hatim and Mason. Their

theories concern different text types (e.g. argumentation or instruction) which are

to be adjusted by translators skills to be effective and efficient for a given group

of recipients (Hatim and Mason 1990: 9). These are points similar to those raised

by Nord, what is here unique, however, is that the perspective on domestication

is viewed through the prism of the notion of cultural asymmetry (the relative

strength or weakness of the TC vis--vis the SC, Kwieciski 2001: 72) and

cultural politics:

Whereas textual patterns and conventions are constantly modified when texts in

less dominant languages are translated into English, the reverse is not the case.

It seems that many of the worlds languages are finding English rhetorical

patterns creeping in. The degree of tolerance of foreign structures seems to be

proportional to the relative prestige of a language. (Hatim and Mason 1990:

191)

In the revised, 1997 version of their formulation, Hatim and Mason challenge

Venutis view of foreignisation as a preferred strategy, a resistancy to the

growing tyranny of English language system values occurring worldwide

(Munday 2001: 147). This notion of preservation of linguistic and cultural

differences through the conscious use of foreignising procedures, Hatim and

Mason point out, only holds within a translation situation in which the TL and

not the SL is culturally dominant (Kwieciski 2001: 68).

This comment is highly relevant for the present thesis, for the study

undertaken in Chapter 3 deals indeed with a transfer from a dominant to an

inferior language culture. Since the research is conducted on proper names, it is

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essential to explore their classifications in order to be able to ascribe the items

studied into fixed categories.

1.2 Proper names

Proper names, as defined by Newmark (1988b: 70), refer to persons, objects or

processes peculiar to a single ethnic community. They prototypically have

singular references, with the exception of trademarks, brand-names and

proprietary names (see 2.2.1 below), which refer to categories of objects.

According to common theories, proper names do not require translation,

since they do not carry any connotations or meanings (Vermes 2003: 90).

Considered mere labels, proper names are often recognised as a simple matter of

automatic transference in translation.

There are, however, less restrictive approaches in circulation. Newmark

suggests a given name should not be translated, unless there already is an

accepted translation in circulation or the name is used as a metaphor. Vermes

(2003: 90) is even less restrictive; quoting Searle (1975) and Strawson (1975) he

argues that proper names function not only as mere labels and not only should

one translate them, but also one should be aware that there is delicate decision-

making involved in the process.

Vermess study, moreover, provides valuable insight as far as the typical

application of translation procedures to various proper names sub-classes is

concerned. Vermes claims prototypical proper names, which do not carry a

descriptive content, are associated with empty logical entries (e.g. stock names)

and are typically transferred (Vermes 2003: 92). Less prototypical instances

names which have the logical entry at least partially filled (e.g. pseudonyms)

undergo translation in most cases.

There have been numerous attempts to account for the multiplicity of

disciplines the proper names have come to refer to, by means of classification

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into fixed categories, governed by individual rules as far as translation in

concerned.

1.2.1 Classification of proper names

The problem of classification of proper names was discussed in detail by Peter

Newmark in his A Textbook of Translation (1988a) and Approaches to

Translation (1988b).

1.2.1.1 Peoples first and surnames

This is by far the largest category identified. Transference is suggested (see 1.3)

in most instances as the correct translation procedure, however there are certain

exceptions. Translation is generally encouraged in renditions of Christian names,

as well as names of historical figures, saints, monarchs and popes (Newmark

1988b: 70). Additionally, naturalisation (see 1.3) may be employed, particularly

when translating names of classical writers.

What is more, for names appearing in fiction (in comedies, allegories,

fairy tales, folk tales and children stories) translation is also preferable, unless

nationality expressed in a given item is important, in which case transference is

advisable. Where it is essential to retain not only the nationality, but also the

connotations a given name carries, Newmark suggests to first translate the

word that underlies the SL proper name into the TL, and then to naturalise the

translated word back into a new SL proper name (Newmark 1988a: 215).

Consulting with previous translations of a given title is advisable, in order to

avoid introducing new and possibly unacceptable names.

1.2.1.2 Geographical terms

Geographical terms constitute the second largest category of proper names.

Included within its boundaries are names of villages, towns, cities, also streets

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and squares. The translator should respect official labels established by the

country in question. It is essential, therefore, to stay up-to-date with current

geographical terminology, which also helps avoiding inventing new terms where

unnecessary. On the other hand, Newmark observes that some features are

sufficiently politically uncontested to remain as they were in English: Belgrade

(Beograd), Prague (Praha), Algiers (Al-Djazair), Tunis (Tunus), Tripoli

(Trabulus Libya and Lebanon) (Newmark 1988a: 216).

1.2.1.3 Names of objects

Within this category trademarks, brands and proprietaries (ie. legally restricted

names) are distinguished by the author. Transference is suggested as the

prototypical procedure; if a given name is not likely to be identifiable in the TC,

a classifier may be added in translation to deal away with any ambiguities.

Translation is also acceptable if a given name is used generically (e.g.

refrigerator).

1.2.1.4 Other subcategories

Forms of address including aristocratic and professional titles, are to be

translated if there is a recognised equivalent (Newmark 1988b: 73). Otherwise

they are to be either transferred or deleted, with the professional information

added, if necessary.

Names of firms, private institutions, schools, universities, hospitals etc.

are not to be translated due to their strong link with the SC However, Newmark

acknowledges exceptions from this rule, particularly in informal texts.

Similar approach is suggested for names of newspapers, journals and

periodicals, which are to be transcribed without exception. Works of art are

commonly referred to by established translated titles, however if a given piece of

art is little known transference in suggested.

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1.2.1.5 Vermess classification of proper names

An expansion on the above classification is offered by Vermes (2003: 96). Apart

from categories coined by Newmark, he also distinguishes the following sub-

classes: names of nationalities; events; temporal units and festivals; abstract

ideas; animals and species. He does not, however, provide any individual

guidelines for translating these sub-categories.

Following, is a brief exploration of categorisations of translation

procedures, which are applied to proper names in the study conducted in Chapter

3.

1.3 Major categorizations of translation procedures

With reference to the study conducted in Chapter 3, it is essential to provide the

reader with background information on translation procedures applied to lexical

items, which are at the same time relevant to the present subject matter.

1.3.1 Definition of translation strategies and procedures

For the sake of further study, it is essential to distinguish between translation

strategies and procedures. While both notions are textually manifest, norm-

governed and intersubjectively verifiable (Kwieciski 2001: 120), the former

represents a global tendency represented in the degree of underlining the source-

culture versus target-culture concepts, norms and conventions. The latter term is

applied to individual actions carried out on lexical items undergoing translation.

There are several independent systems of translation procedures

classification. Taking into consideration the current study, the most relevant

theories are presented in the remainder of the chapter.

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1.3.2 Vinay and Darbelnets procedures

The earliest classification of translation procedures, coined in 1958 (translated to

English in 1995), was put forward by Vinay and Darbelnet. By studying the

exchange of lexical items between French and English, they have pinpointed

seven different mechanisms to take place (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995:31) and

subdivided them into direct (literal) and oblique translation procedures.

There are three direct translation procedures. Borrowing is regarded as the

most straightforward option, by means of which translators are able to bridge

gaps (or lacunae) between languages whenever a SL term has no equivalent in

TL. Borrowing entails direct transference of a given SL lexical item into TL;

some borrowings have entrenched themselves deeply into TL, so that they are

currently regarded as part of it (e.g. dj vu, rendez-vous). Calque is similar to

borrowing in that it introduces a SL expression into the TL, however, each

element of the term borrowed is translated literally into TL. The resulting calque

either follows the syntactic structure of the TL and introduces a new mode of

expression (a lexical calque), or introduces a completely new construction into

the TL (a structural calque). As with borrowings, calques also become part of the

target language, up to a point, when they are considered calques no longer.

Finally, literal translation, a direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and

idiomatically appropriate TL text (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995: 33), is regarded

as most commonly used in cases where translation occurs between two languages

of the same family. Ideally, the translated passage is fully reversible, i.e. back

translation reverts the TT to the original message with very high accuracy.

Vinay and Darbelnet provide four oblique translation procedures.

Transposition is a strategy, by means of which the translator changes the

grammatical category of a given element for the TL rendition, without changing

the overall meaning of the message. Vinay and Darbelnet also regard this

procedure as applicable within just one language, since it is possible to re-express

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a message merely by means of grammatical substitution. The authors recognise

two types of transposition: obligatory (employed when the TL does not allow the

use of direct procedures) and optional. Modulation, the second oblique

procedure, involves manipulation of the form of the original message through the

change of perspective in its TL version. The authors distinguish cases of fixed

(i.e. recognised) and free (ad-hoc) modulation and provide its subtypes: abstract

for concrete (an SL item is rendered by its more general TL counterpart),

explicative modulation (involves substitution of effect by cause, result by means,

and the object by substance), the part for the whole (a SL object is represented by

its single feature in the TL), one part for another (a SL item is translated by a

related term in TL), reversal of terms, negation of the opposite (a SL passage is

rendered by its opposite in TL in terms of positiveness/negativeness), active to

passive and vice versa, space for time, exchange of intervals for limits (SL time

and space expressions are translated into fixed points in TL) and change of

symbol (exchange of images in translating fixed metaphors).

Of the remaining oblique procedures, equivalence entails rendering a

given text through different stylistic and structural means in the TL. Equivalence

is best represented by idioms, clichs and proverbs, the literal translation of

which is often impossible. To retain the original sense, the translator must

significantly alter the form in accordance with TL conventions, since most

equivalences are already established within the TC. Finally, adaptation is

reserved for cases, where a given SC concept, represented by a SL item is

unknown within the TC/TL; it falls on the translator to create a new message

which is as close to an equivalent of the original meaning as possible; the

procedure is therefore regarded as a special kind of equivalence, a situational

equivalence. The authors strongly advocate the use of adaptations as opposed to

calques, which often render the text ambiguous.

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1.3.3 Newmarks procedures

A much expanded classification of translation procedures was put forward by

Peter Newmark in his A Textbook of Translation (1988a). Literal translation is

defined as the most important procedure and a basic means of translation, its

application ranging from single words to whole sentences. Since it is regarded to

be mechanical, unnatural and not clever (Newmark 1998a: 75), literal

translation is often abandoned for other procedures, even if they are not required

and justified. Transference, the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as

a translation procedure, corresponds to Vinay and Darbelnets borrowing. This

procedure is applicable in translation of a wide variety of names and terms, e.g.

brand names, geographical and topological names, names of periodicals and

newspaper, and so forth. Related to transference is naturalisation, by its means,

however, a given word is not only borrowed, but also adapted (both in terms of

pronunciation and morphology) into the TL. The use of cultural equivalent

procedure involves rendering a given cultural SL item by its TL cultural

counterpart. Though such equivalents are often not accurate, they are nonetheless

useful as means of disambiguation, where text receivers are ignorant of relevant

SC items. Functional equivalent is regarded as a common procedure, applied

chiefly to cultural words, involving the use of TL lexical items free of cultural

bias. As a result, the SL word is neutralised and generalised. By means of

descriptive equivalent procedure, a given SL word is translated through its

function and description in the TL. Synonymy is used chiefly where a precise

equivalent to a SL word in a context does not exist; the use of synonymy is

sanctioned if literal translation is not possible and the word in question is not

important enough to be subjected to other, more time consuming procedures.

Through-translation refers closely to Vinay and Dabelnets calque; it concerns

mostly the literal translation of common collocations, names of organisations and

19

some popular phrases. Ideally, through-translation should not be initiated by the

translator and should be used only if they are already accepted into the TL.

Shifts or transpositions, as defined earlier by Vinay and Darbelnet,

involve a change of SL grammar while translating to the TL. The change can

concern the number of a given lexical item, the grammatical structure (when the

SL structure does not exist in TL) or the natural usage of a given item within

the TL (transposition is necessary when literal translation produces an

unnatural passage). Under the term modulation Newmark recognises a

collection of sub-procedures, as put forward by Vinay and Darbelnet. Rather than

a definition, Newmark offers a discussion on validity of terminology used by

aforementioned authors, quoting their complete classification of modulations.

Recognised translation is a common translation procedure, by means of which

mainly SL institutional terms are rendered by their official and generally

accepted TL counterparts, possibly accompanied by an explanatory gloss.

Translation label is used chiefly with new institutional terms, this procedure

allows for introduction of provisional translation, possibly in inverted commas.

By means of compensation, the loss of meaning which occurred during

translation is compensated elsewhere in the same, or neighbouring sentence.

Componential analysis is a rather time-consuming procedure, reserved for

vocabulary items of much importance in the text and which do not have a clear

one-to-one equivalent in the TL. Componential analysis involves the study of a

given word by breaking it down to its sense components which make it possible

to identify and produce a valid counterpart. The use of this procedure entails in

most cases significant expansion of a given term, thus sacrificing economy for

accuracy. Reduction and expansion are common and largely intuitive procedures

providing means for rendering a SL term by a greater or lesser amount of TL

lexical items. Finally, the use of paraphrase involves extrapolation and

20

expansion of an SL passage, the minimal recasting of an ambiguous or obscure

sentence, in order to clarify it (Newmark 1998a: 91).

Moreover, under the term other procedures Newmark discusses, and

ultimately dismisses, two procedures coined by Vinay and Darbelnet, namely

equivalence and adaptation. Newmark also recognises that combinations of the

above procedures, the so-called couplets, triplets, and quadruplets

(involving respectively two, three and four procedures), can be brought down to

deal with a single problem. Finally, notes, additions and glosses are discussed

briefly and defined as translation extensions frequently accompanying other

procedures, used for disambiguation.

1.3.4 Vermess translation operations applied to proper names

A separate classification, designed specifically to account for operations on

proper names is offered by Albert Pter Vermes in his Proper Names in

Translation: An Explanatory Attempt (in Across Languages and Cultures,

Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad 2003).

Vermes recognises four procedures (translation operations) to take place

in translations of proper names. Ttransference refers closely to Newmarks

classification; by means of this operation, a given SL proper name is to be

borrowed into TL without change of form. Substitution is viewed as applicable to

instances of proper names which have a conventional counterpart in the TL,

representing a translators first and natural choice (Vermes 2003: 93). It refers

to the notion of literal translation, present in classifications offered by Vinay and

Darbelnet, and Newmark. Additionally, cases of transliteration are also included

under this sub-category. Translation, bearing close resemblance to Newmarks

procedure of synonymy, involves rendering a given proper name by a TL

expression which gives rise to the same, or approximately the same, analytic

implications in the target text as the original name did in the source text

21

(Vermes 2003: 94). Modification entails the use of a significantly altered TL

counterpart to a SL proper name; it is possible to draw comparison between

Vermess modification and Vinay and Darbelnets collection of procedures under

the modulation sub-category.

1.3.5 Consolidated taxonomy of lexical procedures, as proposed by Kwieciski

In his Disturbing Strangeness (2001) Kwieciski attempted at a consolidated

classification of translation procedures based on insights from several

acknowledged theoretical frameworks. The procedures are arranged from the

most foreignising to the most domesticating.

Foreignising procedures include seven operations. Transference of images

or sound refers to cases where a given SC-specific sound or image is transferred

without change in the target version. It is, consequently, reserved for research

concerning modern media such as television or radio. Borrowing refers closely to

Vinay and Darbelnets notion of borrowing, as well as Newmarks category of

transference. It concerns cases where both free (ad hoc) and recently established

borrowings are introduced into the TT. Distancing devices may be employed,

including the use of inverted commas and qualifiers (the so-called); moreover,

the borrowings may be morphologically, phonologically and orthographically

adapted into the TT. The definition of calque, coinage or semantic extension (or

rather a collection of procedures) is consistent with Vinay and Darbelnets notion

of calque, as well as Newmarks through-translation. In a fashion similar to that

of the above category, the procedures are clearly subdivided to involve both the

cases of ad hoc and recent renderings. This subcategory deals with lexical items

formed either on the basis of SL (e.g. Native Americans Rdzenni Amerykanie) or TL structures (e.g. registered partnership spka jawna). The remaining foreignising procedures are combinations of operations.

The borrowing + calque/coinage or semantic extension category is consistent

22

with Newmarks notion of couplets: it represents two foreignising procedures,

borrowing and calque, brought down to deal with a single problem. By means of

the borrowing + normalisation (gloss) combination, a borrowed SL item is

accompanied by a normalising, explanatory gloss. In the case of

calque/coinage/extension + normalisation (gloss) couplet, the normalising,

explanatory gloss accompanies an item calqued into the TT. Other combinations:

couplets, triplets, quadruplets, as per Newmarks definition, deal with

combinations of two, three of four procedures, including, but not limited to, cases

of borrowing, calque and normalisation, borrowing, calque, substitution, and

borrowing or calque, normalisation and substitution.

The recognised exoticism procedure, which is a borderline case within the

spectrum of foreignisation and domestication, entails rendering of a given

source-culture (SC) item through the use of already existing and established

official target-culture (TC) counterpart. As a result, the rendered item is clearly

recognised by TC members as an SC-specific concept, but is nevertheless

intelligible as such (e.g. House of Commons Izba Gmin). The category also includes instances of limited normalisation, by means of which a given item is

translated by another SC item which is more likely to be recoverable by the TC

member. Such items are often considerably expanded when compared to the

original passage (e.g. Super Bowl finay futbolu amerykaskiego). Domesticating procedures are chiefly represented by the normalisation

category, which is a collection of operations similar to the modulation subclass

suggested by Vinay and Darbelnet, dealing with shifts in style and semantics.

Normalisation is subdivided into the following sub-procedures: repackaging

(diffusion or condensation), which involves rendering a SL item by a

significantly expanded (diffusion) or compressed (condensation) TL equivalent,

generalisation (a SL term is translated by a relevant, but more general TL term),

specification (a SL term is translated by a relevant, but more detailed TL term),

23

modification (concerning cases of shifts in style, semantics or syntax an item

undergoes during translation) and mutation, by means of which the SL item is

rendered in such a way that its original form and meaning is irrecoverable.

Deletion is regarded as a domesticating procedure involving complete

omission of the SL item or items. Covert cultural substitution or covert

acculturation entail rendering of SC culture-specific concepts by their TC-

specific equivalents in such a way that the translational manipulation is not

visible to the TC receiver; covert acculturation, moreover, involves the use of a

TC-specific item to substitute a more generalised, transcultural structure

belonging to SL. Overt cultural substitution or overt acculturation, on the other

hand, introduce TC-specific items recognised as clearly not representatives of the

SC, hence the transparency of translation is compromised. A similarly TC-

manifest item is introduced through overt acculturation in substitution of a more

generalised, transcultural SL structure.

Having provided the necessary theoretical background, the present

dissertation, with reference to the subject matter, will offer a brief outline of the

science fiction literary genre, along with its definitions and best-known

representatives. Chapter 2 will, moreover, present in detail George Lucass Star

Wars and conclude with an overview of the Polish science fiction tradition.

Since the present thesis aims at the identification of the dominant

translation strategy within contemporary literature, it is essential for the study to

concentrate on popular and recent titles available. There is little doubt to the fact

that science fiction novels are currently among most eagerly read books. The

genre itself is relatively young and, therefore, one can expect translations of SF

to be characterised by a certain degree of fluency, since conventions governing

its renditions are not yet set. Therefore, SF represents an ideal research object in

general; through the results of the study on its most popular representative, one

24

could potentially provide data applicable globally to current trends in

translations.

25

Chapter 2: The science fiction genre and Star Wars as its

representative

This chapter aims at presenting the Star Wars novels as enclosed within

theoretical boundaries of the science fiction genre. In order to set up a relevant

literary background, the chapter will primarily concentrate on the history of

science fiction and provide information on most influential writers of the genre.

Subsequent subchapters will focus on the science fantasy subgenre and Star Wars

as its best known representative. The concluding subchapter will deal with the

Polish science fiction literary tradition and the appearance of foreign SF titles on

the Polish market.

2.1 Introduction to science-fiction

Science fiction is generally regarded as largely successful as a literary genre

during the second half of the twentieth century. It is commonly considered to be

an American art form, though its origins lie outside the United States (Aldiss

1988: 14). Its rise to prominence was prompted by the marvels of the Industrial

Revolution, and thus science fiction has been termed the fiction of a

technological age.

All attempts at setting the boundaries of science fiction involve

generalisations. As Aldiss (1988: 15) puts it, the time never existed when

science fiction was a homogeneous commodity. The difficulty in providing a

fixed definition of science fiction lies in the uncanny flexibility of the genre,

which continuously spawns new designs, therefore making it possible for SF

(see 2.1.1.1) literature to be conventional and innovative at one and the same

time.

26

It is important to first look at the definitions provided by acknowledged experts

in the study of science fiction. James Gunn (1985, 1 [1977, 1]), an established

scholar on the subject of SF, offers the following definition:

Science fiction jest gazi literatury, ktra zajmuje si opisem wpywu zmian

na ludzi mieszkajcych w wiecie realnym, obserwowanym na tle przeszoci,

przyszoci lub te z odlegoci. Czsto opowiada o zmianach zachodzcych w

wiecie nauki lub techniki, a zazwyczaj dotyczy spraw, ktrych znaczenie

wzgldne jest wiksze ni znaczenie jednostki czy spoeczestwa;

niebezpieczestwo czsto tu zagraa cywilizacji lub caej rasie. [Science fiction

is a branch of literature, which deals with describing the influence of changes

on people living in the real world, observed against a past or future background,

or from a distance. It often speaks about changes taking place in the world of

science and technology, and it frequently concerns itself with issues, the relative

meaning of which is greater than the meaning of an individual or of a society;

the danger here befalls often the whole civilization or race.] (Gunn 1985, 1: 9;

transl. M)

Brian Aldiss, a science fiction novelist himself, puts forward a well-known

definition, stating that science fiction is the search for a definition of mankind

and his status in the universe which will stand in our advanced but confused state

of knowledge (science), and is characteristically cast in the Gothic or post-Gothic

mode. It is essential to note that Aldiss recognises science fiction as a mode of

writing, rather than a genre, to account for its wide potential, flexibility and

complexity. He also stresses the roots of SF are found in the Gothic (1988: 21), a

viewpoint which has only recently received appreciation.

Common definitions of science fiction, though varied to a degree, give

similar characteristics of the genre. It is agreed that SF explores possible

consequences of changes (improbable or even impossible) in basic conditions of

27

human existence. The presence of a technological invention, acting as a trigger

for the transformation, is not necessary, however, the reality (biological or

physical) is altered profoundly. Hence the popular SF themes of time travel,

extraterrestrial invasion, or ecological catastrophe (Baldick 1991: 200). It is the

effect of such phenomena on human (or intelligent non-human) beings that is of

key importance in SF literature. The influence of changes may be based on

scientific facts that exist within the contemporary world or may involve

farfetched notions which contradict the principles of science (Britannica Volume

10: 552).

The rendition found in A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary

Theory dwells heavily upon the multitude of themes science fiction can

undertake:

A science fiction story is a narrative (usually in prose) of short story, novella, or

novel length. As to what it is about, this is not easily classifiable. Such stories

are about an amazing variety of things, topics, ideas. The include trips to other

worlds, quests, the exploration of space, visits to other planets and

interplanetary warfare. Some SF stories are concerned with utopia and utopist

visions, and also with dystopia. Others are set in the future but are not utopian.

Still others are set in the past. Many have a contemporary setting which is

somehow influenced by the arrival or invasion of alien beings or by some

invention which profoundly alters normality. They are also concerned with

technological change and development, with scientific experiment, with social,

climatic, geological and ecological change. Some are concerned with

supernatural forces and agencies. They are often fantastic, though they may be

rooted in reality. They stretch the imagination.(Cuddon 1998: 790-800)

The above definition raises the issue of the fantastic within science fiction.

Indeed, there have been equally many attempts at drawing a fixed line between

fantasy and SF; unfortunately, such separation is impossible in most cases, since

28

it is agreed that both notions are part of fantasy in a general sense (Aldiss 1988:

30). Generally however, it is accepted, for the sake of easier classification, that

fantasy as a genre leans more towards the mythical element than towards an

assumed realism (Aldiss 1988: 31), whereas SF emphasises the scientific quality

as essential for the plot:

Plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the

genre as Mary Shelleys Gothic novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus

(1818) and Robert Louis Stevensons Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde

(1886) are science fiction, whereas Bram Strokers Dracula (1897) based as it is

purely on the supernatural, is not. (Britannica Volume 10: 552)

Prior to the presentation of a brief historical background of science fiction,

the present chapter will provide definitions of key concepts concerned with SF,

which are essential for the present thesis.

2.1.1 Key terminology concerned with science fiction

2.1.1.1 Science fiction, SF, sci-fi, speculative fiction, scientifiction, scientific

romance

The term science fiction, popularised in the 1930s in Hugo Gernsbacks

magazine Science Wonder Stories, sought to replace scientific romance, an

already existing name, which originated in the UK and was used to describe

mainly the works of H.G. Wells (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1076). This shift in

terminology also marked a transition in style: typical scientific romance works

are characterized by long evolutionary perspectives; by an absence of much

sense of the frontier and a scarcity of the kind of pulp-magazine-derived hero

who is designed to penetrate any frontier available; and in general by a tone

moderately less hopeful about the future than that typical of genre sf until recent

decades (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1076). In the late 1940s, the US SF style

became dominant, displacing the preceding term and mode of writing, which

29

sparked accusations of transforming, vulgarising and changing beyond

recognition the European SF heritage (Aldiss 1988: 252).

What is interesting, prior to coining science fiction, Gernsback used the

term scientifiction, a contraction of scientific fiction (Clute & Nicholls 1999:

1076). The term never gained popularity and has since achieved a rather

derogatory colouring to describe mainly the awkward and technology-oriented

stories published by Gernsback.

Science fiction adopted the acronym SF which is largely accepted as the

only correct abbreviation. An alternative form, sci-fi is generally regarded as a

down-market appellation (Aldiss 1988: 23) and is frowned upon by science

fiction devotees (Baldick 1999: 200). SF can equally well be said to represent

the speculative fiction and science fantasy subgenres (see 1.1.2.4), which

acknowledges the fact that many SF titles have much in common with fantasy.

2.1.1.2 Pulp SF

Pulp SF is a somewhat derogatory name for the SF published in pulp

magazines. Called so because of the poor quality of the paper, the pulps

appeared thanks to the magazine-publishing revolution of the 1880s which made

it possible to print cheap magazines on low quality paper manufactured from

chemically treated wood pulp. The period of the greatest popularity of pulps, and

SF pulps in particular, is attributed to the late 1930s (Clute and Nicholls 1999:

979). Magazines such as Amazing Stories quickly attracted devoted readers, who

shared opinions and addresses in the letters column, which in turn sparked the

beginnings of the fandom movement.

2.1.1.3 Fandom, fanzine and conventions

Clute (1999: 403) defines fandom as a collection of people with a common

background in sf and a common interest in communication, whether through

30

discussion, chatter, correspondence, or fanzine publishing. Formed, by readers

and, later, writers of SF, fandom counted no more than 500 people between the

1920s and 1950s, whereas a decade later, the figure increased to over 10,000

(Clute and Nicholls 1999: 403).

Fanzines, amateur magazines produced by SF fans and readers of

contemporary professional SF magazines, vary greatly in form and content.

Usually photocopied or printed, fanzines contain reviews, discussions, fandom-

specific topics, and even amateur fiction (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 414).

Established in the early 1930s (The Planet, The Comet), they have since became

increasingly popular and contributed largely to cementing the SF community.

Gatherings of SF fans, so-called conventions (or cons), are a principle

feature of SF fandom. The first formally planned SF convention took place in

Leeds, UK, in 1937. A typical SF convention programme features discussions,

presentations, even masquerades and banquets (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 261).

Of great interest are meetings with established writers and critics, contests, and

sessions of storytelling games. The oldest Polish convention, Polcon, has been

organised annually since 1985.

The Star Wars fandom developed very rapidly. It quickly spread beyond

the US borders; Star Wars fan clubs are present in all major countries, including

Poland. The Polish Star Wars fandom proper was established in 1997 and its

numbers and prominence have been growing ever since. The first Polish

convention devoted exclusively to Star Wars (Konkret 98) was organised in

1998 in Warsaw.

2.1.1.4 Subgenres

What is most characteristic of science fiction, being at the same time perhaps

testament to the statement that SF is more a mode of writing than a genre (Aldiss

1988: 571), is the fact that it can spawn a startling number of themes. The works

31

of classics, such as Poe, Verne, and Wells, established tendencies in writing SF

that later developed into subgenres.

Speculative fiction was first defined by R.A. Heinlein, who sought to

describe a mode of writing SF that would extrapolate from known science and

technology to produce a new situation, a new framework for human action

(Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1144). The term was later developed by Judith Merril,

who applied it to denote a kind of sociological SF which dwells upon the theme

of social change without putting any great emphasis on science or technology.

Since no generic borderlines have been provided, the term is generally accepted

as including fantasy writing as well. Moreover, it is often used as a substitute for

science fiction in general, since it is believed to be more respectable-

sounding and lacking the pulp associations (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1145).

The science fantasy subgenre, first coined in the New Worlds magazine,

appeared as a direct response to the new wave in science fiction which was

developed by Moorcock in UK and Herbert and Zelazny in the US. Typical

science fantasy is regarded as a blend of SF and fantasy themes, usually

colourful and often bizarre, sometimes with elements of horror although never

centrally in the horror genre (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1061). Science fantasy

may contain quasirationalised elements of mythology or magic, though these are

not essential for the story, as opposed to the sword and sorcery and heroic

fantasy subgenres, which are believed to overlap with science fantasy. Mental

(psionic) powers and interplanetary travel and adventure are among the most

common science fantasy themes.

2.1.2 Brief historical outline of science-fiction and its best known

representatives

Science fiction, as defined above, came into existence largely through the

influence of the revolutions in science and technology of the eighteenth and

32

nineteenth centuries. The Industrial Revolution, along with research on the laws

of nature, made it possible for early SF to surface (Gunn 1985, 1: 11), evolving

from the Gothic fantasy, the fiction of the age of industry, somewhere between

romance and realism, as it was between science and myth (Aldiss 1988: 17).

Originally meant as pure entertainment, the Gothic succeeded in

establishing itself as a genre, dwelling upon current fears, hopes and obsessions

(Aldiss 1988: 17). The Gothic, recognised as an artistic form of reaction to

human cognition of changes, explored the theme of mans quest for his own

identity, fuelled by a new comprehension of the natural world expressed in

Darwins theory of evolution (Gunn 1985, 1: 12). The questions on mankind in

general sparked the creation of the key work in the history of science fiction,

Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818).

Frankenstein is regarded as if not the first science fiction novel, then

certainly the first novel to show what science fiction will become (Gunn 1985,

1: 183). Conveying Lockes philosophical arguments and scientific ideas of

Darwin, Humphry Davy, Joseph Priestley, and others (Aldiss 1988: 45), Mary

Shelley succeeded in creating an innovative and completely original work

(Cuddon 1998: 793), dwelling upon the theme of wildness lurking beneath the

veneer of civilization (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 511). The horrible experiment,

the nearly ritualistic creation of the nameless monster is only made possible

through research and science surpassing old knowledge of the pre-scientific age.

Frankenstein thus represents a successful introduction of the scientific into

fiction, a trend which certainly had repercussions in sf which have by no means

died away (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 511).

The works of Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne are also regarded

as influential in the development of science fiction through their attempts at

assimilating science and fiction in a manner similar to Shelleys influential novel.

Identified by some as the father of SF (Aldiss 1988: 73; Gunn 1985, 1: 221), Poe

33

wrote Mellonta Tauta (1848), which is believed to be the first true tale of the

future (Gunn 1985, 1: 223). This story, set a thousand years forward in time,

conveys an important message; that the future will be different to such a degree

that what is currently present will be forgotten, and that which is not forgotten

will be twisted and blurred. Hawthornes The Blithedale Romance (1852), on the

other hand, touches upon the notion of evils permanent existence in a society

dedicated to the idea of infinite progress (Aldiss 1988: 72), a theme clearly

relevant for SF today.

It was Poes writings, translated into French by Baudelaire, which had a

stimulating effect on the works of Jules Verne, which are considered to have

marked the beginning of true modern science fiction (Baldick 1991: 200). Even

though Verne was influenced profoundly by preceding writers, and, in

consequence, the majority of his works were not truly original, the manner in

which he wrote, as well as the subject matter itself, were essential to the

evolution and public acceptance of the new literature, devoted to science and

technology (Gunn 1985, 1: 257). Combining adventure, exploration and the

popularisation of science (Cuddon 1998: 794), Verne became immensely popular

through such works as Voyage au centre de la terre [Journey to the Centre of the

Earth; Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1276] (1864) and Vingt mille lieues sous les

mers [Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea; ibid] (1869). His les voyages

extraordinaires (extraordinary voyages) established what is now recognised as

classic science fiction themes and he himself has been coined the first true SF

writer (Gunn 1985, 1: 259). Aldiss (1988: 130) comments that even if Verne did

not invent science fiction, he was the first to succeed at it commercially.

Mans progress, celebrated so vividly by Verne, spurred further

development of SF. By the end of the 1890s science fiction was flourishing, a

success attributed chiefly to the works of Herbert George Wells. He was termed

the great originator of science fictional ideas (Aldiss 1988: 149), his writings

34

were largely prophetic of the future shape of SF and uncovered many new

themes the genre could explore (Cuddon 1998: 795). He is believed to be the first

writer to look to the past and to the future through the prism of new theories on

evolution. His first book, The Time Machine (1895), an immediate success,

speaks of journeys in time on a scale never considered before. His tales, titled

The Grisly Folk (1896) and A Story of the Stone Age (1897) are regarded as

precursors of the sub-genre of science fantasy (see 1.1.2.4) (Aldiss 1988: 149).

His War of the Worlds (1898) introduced the now popular theme of alien

invaders, who are exceedingly more powerful than their victims.

The novel has set what is now recognised as a classic ground plan for an

SF novel (Aldiss 1988: 152). Wells initially presents the reader with a

recognisable image of his own times and makes use of modern advances in

science (in War of the Worlds, theory on evolution and micro-organisms) as a

background for his story. What is more, however, he encourages criticism of the

society to emerge from the narrative (Aldiss 1988: 152), raising questions and

sparking debates.

Wellss scientific romances (a collective name Wells coined for his

works) were often set on a par with Vernes works, a tendency which Wells

rejected, stating that his tales do not aim at speaking about possible scenarios, but

are rather means of exercising the imagination in a completely different field

(Gunn 1985, 1: 374). Having surpassed his predecessors, including Verne, Wells

was termed the Shakespeare of science fiction (Aldiss 1988: 166) and his works

brought popularity and distinctness from other genres to the SF. He witnessed the

dropping of an atomic bomb, an event which he had predicted many years earlier.

The turn of the century, a time of breakthroughs in science and

technology, is marked by a change in human thought. Belief in the necessity of

technological development began to shake, affected by the horrors of the First

World War (Gunn 1985, 1: 12, Cuddon 1998: 795). The anxieties of these

35

stressful times found reflection in science fiction; themes of Armageddon and the

establishment of a new race of human beings appeared and achieved great

popularity.

Yet it was through the developments in technology that cheap pulp

magazines could appear (see 2.1.2.2). Quickly gaining readership, the new

periodicals offered affordable literary entertainment and it was not long before

they turned their attention to science fiction.

Contrary to the scientific romances of H.G. Wells, early American pulp

science fiction appealed to simpler audiences (Aldiss 1988: 217). The period

between the mid-1920s and the late 1930s was dominated by Hugo Gernsbacks

(1894-1967) vision of SF. He is popularly believed (Gunn 1985, 1: 17) to be the

founder of the first SF magazine, Amazing Stories (1926), later continued as

Science Wonder Stories (1929). Whether this is the case is open to debate; there

are examples of European SF magazines published as early as 1886 and

continuing to 1921 (Aldiss 1988: 251). Undoubtedly however, Gernsback had a

profound influence on the shape of science fiction. It is commonly agreed that

Gernsback gave shape to the whole SF magazine industry, introducing the figure

of a demanding editor and enforcing fixed criteria for SF stories that were to be

published. He was also the first to use the name science fiction (Science

Wonder Stories, 1929) to specify the literature he intends to publish (Gunn 1986,

2: 19 [1977, 2]). Aldiss (1988: 791), however, argues that the term itself was first

used in 1851, in William Wilsons A Little Earnest Book upon a Great Old

Subject.

Gernsbacks magazine attracted new writers, but it was not until the late

1930s that pulp SF gradually became more intellectual and sophisticated

(Cuddon 1998: 797). This tendency is attributed to John W. Campbell, who first

edited and later took over, in 1937, the magazine Astounding. A proficient and

ambitious editor, Campbell encouraged and supported his writers, suggesting

36

they should develop their ideas where necessary and give them much more

thought (Aldiss 1988: 268). A fairly successful writer himself, Campbell is said

to have influenced many young writers, Arthur C. Clarke among them. His best

known short story, Twilight (1934), imitating to a degree Wellss The Time

Machine, brought a refreshing new alternative to SF trash stories published in

the pulps (Aldiss 1988: 267; see 1.1.2.2). This experience later enabled him to

create a thought-provoking and imagination-stirring (Aldiss 1988: 275)

atmosphere and the much needed intellectual revival to magazine SF (Gunn

1986, 2: 22). Campbells influence, and the influence of the writers to whom he

passed his ideas, have spurred the coming about of what we today call the

Golden Age of science fiction (Gunn 1986, 2: 22).

Campbells Astounding, renamed during 1960s to Analog (Aldiss 1988:

282), recruited writers, whose works are now considered unquestionable classics

of the genre, Isaac Asimov and Robert A. Heinlein among them. Asimov, the

most popular figure within the world of science fiction for nearly fifty years, is

best known for his Foundation trilogy, first published in Astounding between

May 1942 and January 1950 (Aldiss 1988: 330). Asimovs novels The Caves of

Steel (1954) and The Naked Sun (1957) were the first to set ground for future SF

detective stories. Famous for quoting his three laws of robotics, Asimov did

away with the stereotype of slavering metallic hordes which had been a

boringly predominant feature of the magazines (Aldiss 1988: 270) and

introduced the new ideas in his stories, later collected in I, Robot (1950):

(1) a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human

being to come to harm; (2) a robot must obey the orders given it by human

beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law; (3) a robot

must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with

the First or Second Law. (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1018)

37

For his novel The Gods Themselves (1972), he received the Science Fiction

Achievement Award (the Hugo) (Gunn 1986, 2: 438).

Both Asimov and Heinlein brought literary law and order into science

fiction magazines (Aldiss 1988: 270). Heinleins intelligent and educated stories

were published in Astounding as early as 1941, forming the basis for what he

later called Future History stories. His novels were among the first SF titles to

be published by the more established publishing houses (Gunn 1986, 2: 472). A

fragment of his Rocketship Gallileo (1947), published originally by Scribners,

was filmed under the title Destination Moon (1950), a venture which is believed

to have sparked the new wave of SF movies of the 1950s (Gunn 1986, 2: 472).

His Stranger in a Strange Land (1961) is commonly recognised to be the first SF

bestseller, almost immediately achieving popularity far beyond the established

circle of SF readers (Gunn 1986, 2: 472). Along with Frank Herberts Dune

(1965), Stranger in a Strange Land marked a new turn in American SF literature,

which started to evolve beyond the magazine format to achieve recognition and

commercial success.

This so-called new wave in science fiction was nourished by the influence

of Michael Moorcock and the UK SF New Worlds magazine, which Moorcock

took over in 1964 (Cuddon 1998: 799). Moorcocks works (The Final

Programme, 1965-1966), introducing fantasy and heroism to the SF formula

were regarded as a welcome breadth to the genre (Clute & Nicholls 1999:

1195). This tendency is seen developed in the works of Roger Zelazny, whose

tales (He Who Shapes, 1965) are a blend of science fiction and fantasy (Gunn

1987, 3: 541 [1979, 3]). The fantastic element within SF was further reinforced

in the already mentioned Dune by Herbert, who added elements of mythology

(sacred religious practices of the Fremen, the coming of Muad'Dib, the Prophet)

and provided detailed social and historical background for the plot (Gunn 1988,

4: 145 [1982, 4]). Through the use of such devices, Herbert fostered the creation

38

of what would later be known as the science fantasy and sword and sorcery (see

1.1.2.4) subgenres of the science fiction.

Dune inspired George Lucas to create Star Wars (1977), the space opera

in the grand manner (Aldiss 1988: 339), one of the most influential and

commercially successful titles spawned by the new wave, and the best-known

representative of science fantasy.

2.2 Star Wars as a representative of science fiction

Luke Skywalker lives and works on his uncle's farm on the remote planet of

Tatooine. Bored beyond belief, he yearns for adventures out among the stars,

adventures that would take him beyond the farthest galaxies to distant and alien

worlds. But Luke gets more than he bargains for when he intercepts a cryptic

message from a beautiful princess held captive by a dark and powerful warlord.

Luke doesn't know who she is, but he knows he has to save her - and soon,

because time is running out. Armed only with courage and the lightsaber that

was his father's, Luke is catapulted into the middle of the most savage space war

ever... and heads straight for a desperate encounter on the enemy battle station

known as the Death Star. (George Lucas Star Wars, 1976 Sphere Books)

Without a doubt, Star Wars remains one of the most influential and most

financially successful SF titles to date. Star Wars is a representative of the new

wave in science fiction, which started with Moorecocks New Worlds magazine,

and the works of Herbert and Zelazny in the US and the advent of science

fantasy. The late 1960s and early 1970s were a period of significant development

in SF; SF novels reached the bestseller lists, SF conventions became big

business [and] everyone went to SF movies (Aldiss 1988: 339). It was

largely the success of 2001 (1968), a movie directed by Stanley Kubrick and

based on Arthur C. Clarkes novel, which paved the way for the future SF

cinema.

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Star Wars presents a conflict between the forces of Good and Evil, much

in the tradition of pulp SF magazines:

Young Luke Skywalker becomes involved in a mission to rescue a princess

from the evil head of a decadent Galactic Empire. The Empires military

headquarters is the Death Star, the size of a small moon and capable of

destroying whole planets. With the help of an old man who possesses

supernatural powers a human mercenary and his alien sidekick Luke

rescues the princess and secures information that enables a group of rebel

fighters to destroy the Death Star (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1160)

The movie script was the basis for the book adaptation of Star Wars. Clute

(1999: 1160) argues that the novel version attributed officially to George Lucas,

was actually written by Alan Dean Foster. Aldiss agrees on the subject (1988:

468), adding that Fosters name is found on the covers of adaptations of other SF

movies of that time (Dark Star, 1974; Alien, 1979; The Black Hole, 1979).

Sequels to Star Wars (retitled A New Hope in 1981), are The Empire Strikes Back

(1980) and Return of the Jedi (1984), adopted for the book format by Donald F.

Glut and James Kahn respectively. George Lucas has also written and directed

the so-called prequels to the original trilogy, which describe events prior to the

plot of A New Hope: The Phantom Menace (1999), Attack of the Clones (2002),

and Revenge of the Sith (2005).

2.2.1 Influences on Star Wars

Witold Jaboski, novelist and critic, commented on the subject of George

Lucass Star Wars in an interview with Dawid Brykalski:

[George Lucas] Uczyni rzecz bez precedensu: posugujc si stylistyk SF

przesyci j klasycznymi, archetypicznymi motywami, takimi jak dzielny

prostaczek, uwiziona ksiniczka, czarny rycerz, tajemniczy pustelnik, czy te

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rozbjnik o zotym sercu. Stworzy ponadczasow ba, w ktrej nie brak

cakiem aktualnych odniesie...[What George Lucas did was without

precedence: making use of SF stylistics, he enriched it with classical, archetypal

motifs, such as a brave, straightforward youngster, a princess held prisoner, a

black knight, a mysterious hermit, or the kind-hearted rogue. He created a

timeless fairy-tale, which is not without up-to-date references...](Jestem z

natury poganinem; http://www.ksiazka.net.pl; transl. M)

Similarly, Clute (1999: 1160) points out that Lucas draws upon comics strips,

old serials, Westerns, James Bond stories, The Wizard of Oz, Snow White, Errol

Flynn swashbucklers and movies about WWII. Lucas is believed to have been

inspired by E.E. Smiths Gray Lensman, Harry Harrisons Deathworld and Frank

Herberts Dune, works which influenced heavily the shape of Star Wars (Aldiss

1988: 341). Moreover, Oliver Denken in his Gwiezdne wojny jak powstawaa

kosmiczna trylogia (1997: 50 [Star Wars Die Film 1996]) observes that Alex

Raymonds Flash Gordon stories and Edgar Rice Burroughs SF novels (John

Carter of Mars) had a profound impact on Lucass vision of Star Wars.

In an interview for the DVD edition (2004) of the classic Star Wars

trilogy, Lucas sheds new light on the subject of inspirations for his work. Beside

acknowledging some of the aforementioned works, he also points to an early SF

movie Metropolis (1926) as influential in creating his humanoid robot C3PO.

More importantly, however, he quotes Joseph Campbells analysis of archetypes

(The Hero with a Thousand Faces) as critical in the development of character

and plot elements of Star Wars.

Campbell made use of the idea of archetypes, coined by Carl Jung, as the

basis for analysing the underlying structure behind religion and myth. In his The

Hero of a Thousand Faces, he argues that common stories from cultures all over

the world share the same pattern, which he called the Hero's Journey. In the

aforementioned interview, Lucas agreed that the Hero's Journey heavily

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influenced his Star Wars script and in turn the novel adaptation by Alan Dean

Foster (see Appendix A for a table comparing Heros Journey with Star Wars).

Therefore, Star Wars is said to have developed from what was an already

established genre on paper (Aldiss 1988: 342). Though some critics claim that

the various elements do not interact together as seamlessly as they should,

Lucass creation does provide an enjoyable, even nostalgic entertainment (Clute

and Nicholls 1999: 1160). Successful and influential, Star Wars has been

translated into over 30 languages, including Polish.

2.3 Science-fiction in Poland

Although critics (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990) point to Micha Dymitri

Krajewski and his Wojciech Zdarzyski ycie i przypadki swoje opisujcy

[Wojciech Zdarzyski Describing his Life and Adventures; Clute & Nicholls

1999: 944] (1785) as the earliest example of Polish literature conveying science

and the fantastic, it is in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century that the

real roots for Polish science fiction are found (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz

1990: 17). Early examples include the novels by Wadysaw Umiski (Balonem

do bieguna [To the pole by baloon], 1894; Samolotem dookoa wiata [Around

the world by airplane], 1911), inspired largely by Vernes voyages

extraordinaires, and popularizing current scientific achievements.

However, it is Umiskis contemporary, Jerzy uawski, who is believed

to be the father of Polish science fiction. His lunar trilogy (Na srebrnym globie

[On Silver Globe; Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1370], 1903; Zwycizca [The Victor;

ibid], 1910; Stara Ziemia [Old Earth; ibid], 1911) was immensely popular and

profoundly influenced the shape of future Polish SF works (Niewiadomski &

Smuszkiewicz 1990). uawski, poet and essayist, touched upon the most crucial

theme for twentieth century science fiction (Niewiadomski 1987: 11). He shows

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that knowledge can be destructive if gained for its own sake, and that science is

ultimately powerless against the forces of nature.

Written in the tradition of Wellss scientific romances (Niewiadomski

1987: 12), uawskis lunar trilogy spurred a further expansion of Polish SF. The

inter-war period, dominated by themes of wonderful invention and catastrophe,

saw the appearance of popular and influential novels, such as Mieczysaw

Smolarskis Miasto wiatoci [The city of light] (1924), Jan Karczewskis Rok

przestpny [Leap year] (1931) and Antoni Sonimskis Dwa koce wiata [Two

ends of the world] (1937) (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990: 21). Moreover,

at that time there also appeared first pulp stories (Kapitan Mors [Captain Mors]),

the satirical SF works by Bruno Winawer (Promienie FF [FF rays], 1921), and

Stefan Grabiskis weird fiction, influenced largely by Poe (Niewiadomski

1987: 14).

The post-war period in Polish SF is without doubt dominated by Stanisaw

Lem, who debuted as a SF novelist with his Astronauci [The Astronauts; Clute &

Nicholls 1999: 711] (1951). Lems works remain to this day among the most

eagerly translated novels in modern Polish literature (Niewiadomski 1987: 15).

One of the most significant SF writers of our century and a distinctive voice in

world literature (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711), Lem wrote a wide range of

fiction. His early works (Obok Magellana [The Magellan Nebula; ibid], 1955)

deal with themes of global destruction brought about by military action, whereas

his Solaris (1961) or Opowieci o pilocie Pirxie [Tales of Pirx the Pilot; ibid]

(1968) dwell upon the subject of humanitys limitations and strengths (Clute &

Nicholls 1999: 711). Lems other works include Doskonaa prnia [Perfect

Vacuum; ibid] (1971), Kongres futorologiczny [The Futurological Congress;

ibid] (1971), and Fiasko [Fiasco; ibid] (1986), the awkward but ferocious

assault upon human cognitive pretensions (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711).

43

The mid 1950s was also when some of Lems peers made their debuts,

most notably Krzysztof Boru and Andrzej Trzepka, authors of a popular SF

trilogy Zagubiona przyszo [The Lost Future; Clute & Nicholls 1999: 944]

(1954), Proxima (1956) and Kosmiczni bracia [Space brothers] (1959), and

Adam Hollanek with his SF detective novel Zbrodnia wielkiego czowieka [Big

mans crime] (1960).

A great breakthrough in Polish SF is attributed to Zbigniew Przyrowski,

who introduced SF stories to a poplar youth magazine Mody Technik [Young

technician]. On the pages of Mody Technik appeared the first stories by Janusz

A. Zajdel, who achieved popularity as a political SF writer (Niewiadomski 1987:

16). The mid 1970s, a significant period in the history of Polish SF, saw

increased interest in SF themes, resulting in the creation of the first clubs and

fanzines (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990: 26). By far the most influential

SF magazine, Fantastyka, was founded in 1982 and was edited by Hollanek.

Piotr Krywak, in his article on SF and fantasy Fantasy i science fiction,

czyli znw o materii mieszaniu [Fantasy and science fiction, or the mixing of

the subject matter yet again] published in Konspekt (2005), observes a crisis in

Polish SF literature, which started in the late 1970s. Science-fiction, in his

opinion, has since then been slowly superseded by the fantasy genre. Similarly,

Wojciech Kajtoch, in his introduction to Solaris (ycie Literackie 1983), points

out that Polish SF lacks ambition and is likely to fall into second place to its

rival. This tendency is largely attributed to fantasy being more marketable (Clute

and Nicholls 1999: 944), but also stresses the fact that gradual disappearance of

censorship caused political SF writing (a dominating mode since the 1960s) to

dissolve.

The resulting gaping hole in the Polish SF is currently being filled by

means of mass importation of science fiction literature (Clute & Nicholls 1999:

944). The Polish market is open mainly to western popular fiction (W krainie

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dreszczowcw; in: Konspekt 2/2005), which achieved great popularity chiefly

through the efforts of private publishers. Star Wars is found among these titles,

initially being published by InterArt, and later by Amber, an independent

publishing house.

The present thesis has thus far explored the theoretical and historical

background of the foreignisation and domestication phenomena, as well as

provided classifications of translation procedures and proper names, with respect

to the subject of the empirical study. Chapter 2 provided a brief outline of science

fiction, including recognised definitions, key terminology and history of the

genre. Following background information on George Lucass Star Wars, novel

adaptations of which serving as the object of empirical study, Chapter 2

concluded with brief outline of the Polish science fiction tradition. Having

provided theoretical background for all components of the empirical study, the