Download - MA Starwars
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Uniwersytet Mikoaja Kopernika Wydzia Filologiczny
Katedra Filologii Angielskiej ukasz Motkowski
Nr albumu: 139873
Praca magisterska na kierunku: filologia angielska
Mechanisms of foreignisation and domestication in
translations of science fiction literature (on the basis of George Lucass Star Wars)
Mechanizmy adaptacji i wyobcowania w tumaczeniach literatury science fiction,
na podstawie Gwiezdnych wojen Georgea Lucasa
Praca wykonana pod kierunkiem Dr Ewy Kociakowskiej-Okoskiej Katedra Filologii Angielskiej UMK
Toru 2006
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Contents/Spis treci
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 4
Chapter 1: Outline of foreignisation and domestication mechanisms ................... 6
1.1 Foreignisation and domestication ................................................................ 6
1.1.1 Definitions............................................................................................. 6
1.1.2 Brief history .......................................................................................... 7
1.1.3 Domestication in theories by Eugene Nida........................................... 9
1.1.4 The Skopos and Nords documentary and instrumental translation ... 10
1.1.5 Hatim and Masons framework........................................................... 11
1.2 Proper names.............................................................................................. 12
1.2.1 Classification of proper names............................................................ 13
1.3 Major categorizations of translation procedures........................................ 15
1.3.1 Definition of translation strategies and procedures ............................ 15
1.3.2 Vinay and Darbelnets procedures...................................................... 16
1.3.3 Newmarks procedures ....................................................................... 18
1.3.4 Vermess translation operations applied to proper names .................. 20
1.3.5 Consolidated taxonomy of lexical procedures, as proposed by
Kwieciski.................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 2: The science fiction genre and Star Wars as its representative ........... 25
2.1 Introduction to science-fiction ................................................................... 25
2.1.1 Key terminology concerned with science fiction................................ 28
2.1.2 Brief historical outline of science-fiction and its best known
representatives.............................................................................................. 31
2.2 Star Wars as a representative of science fiction......................................... 38
2.2.1 Influences on Star Wars ...................................................................... 39
2.3 Science-fiction in Poland ........................................................................... 41
Chapter 3: Source materials and empirical study................................................. 45
3.1 The research ............................................................................................... 45
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3.1.1 Source materials for empirical study .................................................. 46
3.1.2 Applied methodology.......................................................................... 48
3.1.3 Projected results .................................................................................. 49
3.1.4 Abbreviations ...................................................................................... 50
3.1.5 Subcategory Locations: ................................................................... 50
3.1.6 Subcategory Characters ................................................................... 54
3.1.7 Subcategory Vehicles and starships ................................................ 57
3.1.8 Subcategory Organisations.............................................................. 62
3.1.9 Subcategory Other ........................................................................... 65
3.2 Research summary ..................................................................................... 68
3.2.1 Brief survey; comparison of results .................................................... 70
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 72
Bibliography......................................................................................................... 74
Primary sources:............................................................................................... 74
Material sources: .............................................................................................. 75
Streszczenie.......................................................................................................... 77
Appendix A: Campbells Heros Journey and Star Wars ................................ 80
Appendix B: Complete list of researched vocabulary items................................ 81
Appendix C: Details concerning the main research............................................. 83
Appendix D: Details concerning the survey conducted among SF readers......... 84
Appendix E: Interview with Piotr W. Cholewa ................................................... 86
Appendix F: Interview with Agnieszka Sylwanowicz......................................... 88
Appendix G: Interview with Maciej Szymaski.................................................. 91
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Introduction
The focus of the present thesis is to explore the notions of foreignisation and
domestication and their application through different procedures to translations
of contemporary literature. In order to estimate the possible dominance of one of
the above strategies over the other, a study will be made on a body of
contemporary, science fiction literature. George Lucass Star Wars series was
selected as the genres representative, due to its popularity among science fiction
(SF) readers and critics today.
The notions of foreignisation and domestication, though formulated and
defined only recently, have dominated the discipline of translation since its very
beginnings. They are respectively connected with the word-for-word and
sense-for-sense strategies of translation, which have been in use since the times
of ancient Rome. The former term was regarded as means of transferring the
source text literally into the target text, thus preserving the original style and
introducing alien vocabulary. Sense-for-sense renditions, on the other hand,
aim at a fluent and intelligible target text, even at the expense of terminological
precision. As a result, the original passages were transformed into the target
version rather than translated, often through the deletion or substitution of
elements typical for the source culture.
The domesticating sense-for-sense strategy was the dominant approach in
translation until only recently. The 19th century saw a tendency towards the
foreign, expressed mainly through the theories put forward by Friedrich
Schleiermacher, who stated that the audience was to have the feeling that they
are in the presence of the foreign (Fawcett 1997: 116). His views were later
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revised by Venuti, who regarded foreignisation as a means of combating the
dominant, assimilative position of the English-language culture.
The results of the main research will allow, first and foremost, to identify
the dominant translation strategy in Polish renditions of popular literature. They
will also make it possible to measure the degree of tolerance, or resistance, to the
foreign element in Polish SF.
The present thesis is comprised of three chapters. Chapter 1 introduces
relevant theoretical background, essential for further study of the subject matter.
It explores the notions of foreignisation and domestication, provides their
definitions of them and presents them in a historical context, along with
contemporary approaches to the problem. Since the study is to be conducted on
proper names, the chapter will also provide their established definitions and
classifications. The chapter will conclude with the presentation of popular
classifications of translation procedures.
Chapter 2 aims at a concise but informative presentation of the science
fiction genre. After providing its established definitions, the chapter will present
key terminology concerned with SF, as well as its brief historical outline. It will
then move on to Star Wars, defining and enumerating its influences and setting it
against a general background of the SF genre. Finally, the Chapter will conclude
with a brief look on the Polish SF tradition in order to present the rich heritage of
Polish SF literature.
Chapter 3 will present a detailed account of the materials on which the
main study is conducted. It will also provide details concerning the methodology
of the study and projected results, based on theories presented in Chapter 2.
Following the summary of results of the main study, the chapter will provide
details and outcome of the research conducted among a group of SF readers. A
comparison of the results of the two studies will conclude the chapter.
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Chapter 1: Outline of foreignisation and domestication
mechanisms
Chapter 1 aims at providing theoretical background with reference to the subject
matter of the present dissertation. Consequently, it will primarily deal with
foreignisation and domestication mechanisms, providing definitions, brief history
and examples of contemporary approaches to the notions in question. Definition
of proper names will be supplied, followed by their classification by Newmark
and Vermes. The chapter will conclude with a definition of translation strategies
and procedures, and their major categorisations.
1.1 Foreignisation and domestication
The terms foreignisation and domestication have been coined by Venuti as
means of providing general classification for translation procedures (see 1.3). He
defines them in detail in his influential work, titled The Translators Invisibility: A
History of Translation (1995).
1.1.1 Definitions
According to Ventui (1995: 19-20), a foreignising strategy consists in acquiring a
translation method which does not conform to norms and values prevalent within
the target language system. Employing such an approach, which preserves
linguistic and cultural differences between the two systems, requires a translation
style designed to make the intervention of the translator visible (Munday 2001:
147), resulting in a non-fluent, alienating TT (Baker 1998: 243). This effect is
usually achieved through close reconstruction of the ST structure and syntax in
the TT and importation of foreign cultural forms.
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Domesticating translation strategy, as a contrast, entails an appropriation,
or reduction (Venuti 1995: 20), of the foreign text into target-language
conventions and makes use of stylistic devices, which provide for a transparent
and fluent reading, minimizing the foreigness of the TT (Munday 2001: 146).
Domestication is also said to involve selecting texts which adhere to domestic
literary canons, resulting in a conservative and openly assimilationist approach
to the foreign text (Baker 1998: 242), which is to serve domestic publishing
trends and political alignments.
1.1.2 Brief history
Domestication strategies were in common use since ancient Rome, chiefly as
means of conquering the SL (Baker 1998: 241). Latin translators not only deleted
culturally specific markers, but also added allusions to Roman culture and
deleted resistant passages (Kwieciski 2001: 17), that is to say, lexical
elements which required a great deal of study since they could easily by
misinterpreted.
The largest step for the formulation of domesticating translation theory is
considered to be made by St. Jerome, the author of Vulgate Latin translation of
the Bible commissioned in 384 CE. Following remarks offered earlier by Cicero,
he identified the notion of word-for-word translation, a foreignising strategy, and
opposed it with a domesticating alternative, a sense-for-sense strategy, as the
correct method to render SL text, thus introducing an important distinction,
which shed new light on the study of foreignisation and domestication.
The use of exoticisms in translation was advocated by Augustine, due to
concerns about the reaction of the Christian community to the unfamiliar features
of Jeromes Latin text of the Bible. He does, however, oppose the use of Greek
calques should these be incompatible with Latin or resistant.
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Bible translation became a key issue, around which different approaches
to translation surfaced (Bassnett 1991: 47). The domesticating strategy was
employed in the Wycliffite Bible translation, where the sense-for-sense strategy
aimed at rending the text in a common language so that the Holy Scripture be
accessible to a layman, and not loosing scholarly accuracy at the same time.
Renaissance largely contributed to the development of the domesticating
theory. The use of contemporary idiom and style was much advocated; in his
Circular Letter of Translation (1530), Martin Luter emphasised the necessity to
rely on the common language (Kwieciski 2001: 24). He recognised that
exoticisms in certain cases cannot and should not be avoided, provided that the
translator uses them after careful historical and philological study.
The 17th century translation style pushed domestication beyond earlier
limits. Abraham Cowleys comments in his Preface to his Pindarique Odes
(1656), in which he states that he has taken, left out and added what I please
(Bassnett 1991: 56) while translating, are highly symptomatic of the general
atmosphere affected by the Counter-Reformation movement.
The first systematic approach to the issue of translation strategies was
offered in 1791 by A.F. Tyler in his Essay on the Principles of Translation. In it
he points to three laws which should govern translation in general: a) the
rendering is to be carried out sense-for-sense; b) style and register are to remain
invariant; c) the translation should have all the ease of the original composition
(Kwieciski 2001: 35).
The 19th century saw a turn towards the foreign in thinking on translation.
This new tendency, visible in the works of Shelly and Goethe, claimed
translation to be a mechanical function, which consists merely of making
known a given text or author to the reader (Bassnett 1991: 66). This approach is
conveyed in the theories offered by Friedrick Schleiermacher in his lecture ber
die verschiedenen Methoden des bersetzens (1813). The document deals with
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two opposite concepts, the foreginising reader-to-author strategy and the
domesticating author-to-reader strategy with no in-between area (Kwieciski
2001: 39). The former option was favoured, through the use of which
consciously archaic translations were produced, aimed at a minority of learned
readers. Indeed, the audience was to have the feeling that they are in the
presence of the foreign (Fawcett 1997: 116).
1.1.3 Domestication in theories by Eugene Nida
A significant shift in translation theory was brought forth by the influential
theories of Eugene Nida, who addressed the issue of translation correspondence
through the viewpoint of the receptor of the text. It is suggested that audience
design has profound impact on the shape of the target text, and therefore
different translations will be correct for different readerships (Fawcett 1997:
56). Thus, meaning is to have precedence before style, the TT aiming at being an
equivalent of ST rather than its identical representation. This return to
Augustinian principles of sense-for-sense translations is exemplified by Nidas
formulation of notions of formal and dynamic equivalence.
The latter, domesticating strategy was seen as privileged since it aimed at
complete naturalness of expression and finding the closest natural equivalent
to the SL message (Nida 1964: 159). Dynamic equivalence acknowledged
situations where foreign associations can hardly be avoided, in which case the
use of importation combined with intratextual covert glosses was suggested as
the proper way of approaching the foreign. Translations in the formal
equivalence manner on the other hand, were regarded as cases where semantic
accuracy is given priority over naturalness (Kwieciski 2001: 50). Such
renderings were seen as acceptable and for certain types of audiences (the
aforementioned accuracy is of great importance in legal texts, for instance).
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Though Nidas model has been challenged by some theorists, particularly
for its departure from the notion of translation as exchange of information
towards appropriation of a foreign text for domestic purposes (Kwieciski
2001: 50), the idea of function of a given text with respect to its readership was
indeed influential for contemporary theories.
1.1.4 The Skopos and Nords documentary and instrumental translation
A domesticating bias in translation theory was also expressed by German
scholars under the Skopos theory. The Skopos, here understood as the purpose of
translation, is a central notion deciding on the mode of translation a particular
task may require. The domesticating nature of this approach is visible through the
requirement of intelligibility of the TT, which should be acceptable and
consistent first and foremost with the receivers situation. Translation, moreover,
is regarded as inherently involving domestication, since a foreign culture can
only be perceived by means of comparison with our own culture (Nord 1997:
24).
In terms similar to Nidas theories, Nord recognises two general modes of
rendering a text, namely documentary and instrumental translation. Similar to
Nidas notion of formal equivalence, it is regarded as means of creating a TT,
where the SC setting is left unchanged, but where preservation of intelligibility is
essential for the translation to be successful. This is contrasted with the notion of
instrumental translation, which aims at the effect through which readers are not
supposed to be aware that they are reading a translation at all (Nord 1997: 52),
an approach which requires extensive use of normalisation and covert cultural
substitution.
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1.1.5 Hatim and Masons framework
The relevance of a translation to audience design and task is of crucial
importance in the analytical framework put forward by Hatim and Mason. Their
theories concern different text types (e.g. argumentation or instruction) which are
to be adjusted by translators skills to be effective and efficient for a given group
of recipients (Hatim and Mason 1990: 9). These are points similar to those raised
by Nord, what is here unique, however, is that the perspective on domestication
is viewed through the prism of the notion of cultural asymmetry (the relative
strength or weakness of the TC vis--vis the SC, Kwieciski 2001: 72) and
cultural politics:
Whereas textual patterns and conventions are constantly modified when texts in
less dominant languages are translated into English, the reverse is not the case.
It seems that many of the worlds languages are finding English rhetorical
patterns creeping in. The degree of tolerance of foreign structures seems to be
proportional to the relative prestige of a language. (Hatim and Mason 1990:
191)
In the revised, 1997 version of their formulation, Hatim and Mason challenge
Venutis view of foreignisation as a preferred strategy, a resistancy to the
growing tyranny of English language system values occurring worldwide
(Munday 2001: 147). This notion of preservation of linguistic and cultural
differences through the conscious use of foreignising procedures, Hatim and
Mason point out, only holds within a translation situation in which the TL and
not the SL is culturally dominant (Kwieciski 2001: 68).
This comment is highly relevant for the present thesis, for the study
undertaken in Chapter 3 deals indeed with a transfer from a dominant to an
inferior language culture. Since the research is conducted on proper names, it is
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essential to explore their classifications in order to be able to ascribe the items
studied into fixed categories.
1.2 Proper names
Proper names, as defined by Newmark (1988b: 70), refer to persons, objects or
processes peculiar to a single ethnic community. They prototypically have
singular references, with the exception of trademarks, brand-names and
proprietary names (see 2.2.1 below), which refer to categories of objects.
According to common theories, proper names do not require translation,
since they do not carry any connotations or meanings (Vermes 2003: 90).
Considered mere labels, proper names are often recognised as a simple matter of
automatic transference in translation.
There are, however, less restrictive approaches in circulation. Newmark
suggests a given name should not be translated, unless there already is an
accepted translation in circulation or the name is used as a metaphor. Vermes
(2003: 90) is even less restrictive; quoting Searle (1975) and Strawson (1975) he
argues that proper names function not only as mere labels and not only should
one translate them, but also one should be aware that there is delicate decision-
making involved in the process.
Vermess study, moreover, provides valuable insight as far as the typical
application of translation procedures to various proper names sub-classes is
concerned. Vermes claims prototypical proper names, which do not carry a
descriptive content, are associated with empty logical entries (e.g. stock names)
and are typically transferred (Vermes 2003: 92). Less prototypical instances
names which have the logical entry at least partially filled (e.g. pseudonyms)
undergo translation in most cases.
There have been numerous attempts to account for the multiplicity of
disciplines the proper names have come to refer to, by means of classification
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into fixed categories, governed by individual rules as far as translation in
concerned.
1.2.1 Classification of proper names
The problem of classification of proper names was discussed in detail by Peter
Newmark in his A Textbook of Translation (1988a) and Approaches to
Translation (1988b).
1.2.1.1 Peoples first and surnames
This is by far the largest category identified. Transference is suggested (see 1.3)
in most instances as the correct translation procedure, however there are certain
exceptions. Translation is generally encouraged in renditions of Christian names,
as well as names of historical figures, saints, monarchs and popes (Newmark
1988b: 70). Additionally, naturalisation (see 1.3) may be employed, particularly
when translating names of classical writers.
What is more, for names appearing in fiction (in comedies, allegories,
fairy tales, folk tales and children stories) translation is also preferable, unless
nationality expressed in a given item is important, in which case transference is
advisable. Where it is essential to retain not only the nationality, but also the
connotations a given name carries, Newmark suggests to first translate the
word that underlies the SL proper name into the TL, and then to naturalise the
translated word back into a new SL proper name (Newmark 1988a: 215).
Consulting with previous translations of a given title is advisable, in order to
avoid introducing new and possibly unacceptable names.
1.2.1.2 Geographical terms
Geographical terms constitute the second largest category of proper names.
Included within its boundaries are names of villages, towns, cities, also streets
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and squares. The translator should respect official labels established by the
country in question. It is essential, therefore, to stay up-to-date with current
geographical terminology, which also helps avoiding inventing new terms where
unnecessary. On the other hand, Newmark observes that some features are
sufficiently politically uncontested to remain as they were in English: Belgrade
(Beograd), Prague (Praha), Algiers (Al-Djazair), Tunis (Tunus), Tripoli
(Trabulus Libya and Lebanon) (Newmark 1988a: 216).
1.2.1.3 Names of objects
Within this category trademarks, brands and proprietaries (ie. legally restricted
names) are distinguished by the author. Transference is suggested as the
prototypical procedure; if a given name is not likely to be identifiable in the TC,
a classifier may be added in translation to deal away with any ambiguities.
Translation is also acceptable if a given name is used generically (e.g.
refrigerator).
1.2.1.4 Other subcategories
Forms of address including aristocratic and professional titles, are to be
translated if there is a recognised equivalent (Newmark 1988b: 73). Otherwise
they are to be either transferred or deleted, with the professional information
added, if necessary.
Names of firms, private institutions, schools, universities, hospitals etc.
are not to be translated due to their strong link with the SC However, Newmark
acknowledges exceptions from this rule, particularly in informal texts.
Similar approach is suggested for names of newspapers, journals and
periodicals, which are to be transcribed without exception. Works of art are
commonly referred to by established translated titles, however if a given piece of
art is little known transference in suggested.
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1.2.1.5 Vermess classification of proper names
An expansion on the above classification is offered by Vermes (2003: 96). Apart
from categories coined by Newmark, he also distinguishes the following sub-
classes: names of nationalities; events; temporal units and festivals; abstract
ideas; animals and species. He does not, however, provide any individual
guidelines for translating these sub-categories.
Following, is a brief exploration of categorisations of translation
procedures, which are applied to proper names in the study conducted in Chapter
3.
1.3 Major categorizations of translation procedures
With reference to the study conducted in Chapter 3, it is essential to provide the
reader with background information on translation procedures applied to lexical
items, which are at the same time relevant to the present subject matter.
1.3.1 Definition of translation strategies and procedures
For the sake of further study, it is essential to distinguish between translation
strategies and procedures. While both notions are textually manifest, norm-
governed and intersubjectively verifiable (Kwieciski 2001: 120), the former
represents a global tendency represented in the degree of underlining the source-
culture versus target-culture concepts, norms and conventions. The latter term is
applied to individual actions carried out on lexical items undergoing translation.
There are several independent systems of translation procedures
classification. Taking into consideration the current study, the most relevant
theories are presented in the remainder of the chapter.
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1.3.2 Vinay and Darbelnets procedures
The earliest classification of translation procedures, coined in 1958 (translated to
English in 1995), was put forward by Vinay and Darbelnet. By studying the
exchange of lexical items between French and English, they have pinpointed
seven different mechanisms to take place (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995:31) and
subdivided them into direct (literal) and oblique translation procedures.
There are three direct translation procedures. Borrowing is regarded as the
most straightforward option, by means of which translators are able to bridge
gaps (or lacunae) between languages whenever a SL term has no equivalent in
TL. Borrowing entails direct transference of a given SL lexical item into TL;
some borrowings have entrenched themselves deeply into TL, so that they are
currently regarded as part of it (e.g. dj vu, rendez-vous). Calque is similar to
borrowing in that it introduces a SL expression into the TL, however, each
element of the term borrowed is translated literally into TL. The resulting calque
either follows the syntactic structure of the TL and introduces a new mode of
expression (a lexical calque), or introduces a completely new construction into
the TL (a structural calque). As with borrowings, calques also become part of the
target language, up to a point, when they are considered calques no longer.
Finally, literal translation, a direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and
idiomatically appropriate TL text (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995: 33), is regarded
as most commonly used in cases where translation occurs between two languages
of the same family. Ideally, the translated passage is fully reversible, i.e. back
translation reverts the TT to the original message with very high accuracy.
Vinay and Darbelnet provide four oblique translation procedures.
Transposition is a strategy, by means of which the translator changes the
grammatical category of a given element for the TL rendition, without changing
the overall meaning of the message. Vinay and Darbelnet also regard this
procedure as applicable within just one language, since it is possible to re-express
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a message merely by means of grammatical substitution. The authors recognise
two types of transposition: obligatory (employed when the TL does not allow the
use of direct procedures) and optional. Modulation, the second oblique
procedure, involves manipulation of the form of the original message through the
change of perspective in its TL version. The authors distinguish cases of fixed
(i.e. recognised) and free (ad-hoc) modulation and provide its subtypes: abstract
for concrete (an SL item is rendered by its more general TL counterpart),
explicative modulation (involves substitution of effect by cause, result by means,
and the object by substance), the part for the whole (a SL object is represented by
its single feature in the TL), one part for another (a SL item is translated by a
related term in TL), reversal of terms, negation of the opposite (a SL passage is
rendered by its opposite in TL in terms of positiveness/negativeness), active to
passive and vice versa, space for time, exchange of intervals for limits (SL time
and space expressions are translated into fixed points in TL) and change of
symbol (exchange of images in translating fixed metaphors).
Of the remaining oblique procedures, equivalence entails rendering a
given text through different stylistic and structural means in the TL. Equivalence
is best represented by idioms, clichs and proverbs, the literal translation of
which is often impossible. To retain the original sense, the translator must
significantly alter the form in accordance with TL conventions, since most
equivalences are already established within the TC. Finally, adaptation is
reserved for cases, where a given SC concept, represented by a SL item is
unknown within the TC/TL; it falls on the translator to create a new message
which is as close to an equivalent of the original meaning as possible; the
procedure is therefore regarded as a special kind of equivalence, a situational
equivalence. The authors strongly advocate the use of adaptations as opposed to
calques, which often render the text ambiguous.
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1.3.3 Newmarks procedures
A much expanded classification of translation procedures was put forward by
Peter Newmark in his A Textbook of Translation (1988a). Literal translation is
defined as the most important procedure and a basic means of translation, its
application ranging from single words to whole sentences. Since it is regarded to
be mechanical, unnatural and not clever (Newmark 1998a: 75), literal
translation is often abandoned for other procedures, even if they are not required
and justified. Transference, the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as
a translation procedure, corresponds to Vinay and Darbelnets borrowing. This
procedure is applicable in translation of a wide variety of names and terms, e.g.
brand names, geographical and topological names, names of periodicals and
newspaper, and so forth. Related to transference is naturalisation, by its means,
however, a given word is not only borrowed, but also adapted (both in terms of
pronunciation and morphology) into the TL. The use of cultural equivalent
procedure involves rendering a given cultural SL item by its TL cultural
counterpart. Though such equivalents are often not accurate, they are nonetheless
useful as means of disambiguation, where text receivers are ignorant of relevant
SC items. Functional equivalent is regarded as a common procedure, applied
chiefly to cultural words, involving the use of TL lexical items free of cultural
bias. As a result, the SL word is neutralised and generalised. By means of
descriptive equivalent procedure, a given SL word is translated through its
function and description in the TL. Synonymy is used chiefly where a precise
equivalent to a SL word in a context does not exist; the use of synonymy is
sanctioned if literal translation is not possible and the word in question is not
important enough to be subjected to other, more time consuming procedures.
Through-translation refers closely to Vinay and Dabelnets calque; it concerns
mostly the literal translation of common collocations, names of organisations and
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some popular phrases. Ideally, through-translation should not be initiated by the
translator and should be used only if they are already accepted into the TL.
Shifts or transpositions, as defined earlier by Vinay and Darbelnet,
involve a change of SL grammar while translating to the TL. The change can
concern the number of a given lexical item, the grammatical structure (when the
SL structure does not exist in TL) or the natural usage of a given item within
the TL (transposition is necessary when literal translation produces an
unnatural passage). Under the term modulation Newmark recognises a
collection of sub-procedures, as put forward by Vinay and Darbelnet. Rather than
a definition, Newmark offers a discussion on validity of terminology used by
aforementioned authors, quoting their complete classification of modulations.
Recognised translation is a common translation procedure, by means of which
mainly SL institutional terms are rendered by their official and generally
accepted TL counterparts, possibly accompanied by an explanatory gloss.
Translation label is used chiefly with new institutional terms, this procedure
allows for introduction of provisional translation, possibly in inverted commas.
By means of compensation, the loss of meaning which occurred during
translation is compensated elsewhere in the same, or neighbouring sentence.
Componential analysis is a rather time-consuming procedure, reserved for
vocabulary items of much importance in the text and which do not have a clear
one-to-one equivalent in the TL. Componential analysis involves the study of a
given word by breaking it down to its sense components which make it possible
to identify and produce a valid counterpart. The use of this procedure entails in
most cases significant expansion of a given term, thus sacrificing economy for
accuracy. Reduction and expansion are common and largely intuitive procedures
providing means for rendering a SL term by a greater or lesser amount of TL
lexical items. Finally, the use of paraphrase involves extrapolation and
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expansion of an SL passage, the minimal recasting of an ambiguous or obscure
sentence, in order to clarify it (Newmark 1998a: 91).
Moreover, under the term other procedures Newmark discusses, and
ultimately dismisses, two procedures coined by Vinay and Darbelnet, namely
equivalence and adaptation. Newmark also recognises that combinations of the
above procedures, the so-called couplets, triplets, and quadruplets
(involving respectively two, three and four procedures), can be brought down to
deal with a single problem. Finally, notes, additions and glosses are discussed
briefly and defined as translation extensions frequently accompanying other
procedures, used for disambiguation.
1.3.4 Vermess translation operations applied to proper names
A separate classification, designed specifically to account for operations on
proper names is offered by Albert Pter Vermes in his Proper Names in
Translation: An Explanatory Attempt (in Across Languages and Cultures,
Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad 2003).
Vermes recognises four procedures (translation operations) to take place
in translations of proper names. Ttransference refers closely to Newmarks
classification; by means of this operation, a given SL proper name is to be
borrowed into TL without change of form. Substitution is viewed as applicable to
instances of proper names which have a conventional counterpart in the TL,
representing a translators first and natural choice (Vermes 2003: 93). It refers
to the notion of literal translation, present in classifications offered by Vinay and
Darbelnet, and Newmark. Additionally, cases of transliteration are also included
under this sub-category. Translation, bearing close resemblance to Newmarks
procedure of synonymy, involves rendering a given proper name by a TL
expression which gives rise to the same, or approximately the same, analytic
implications in the target text as the original name did in the source text
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(Vermes 2003: 94). Modification entails the use of a significantly altered TL
counterpart to a SL proper name; it is possible to draw comparison between
Vermess modification and Vinay and Darbelnets collection of procedures under
the modulation sub-category.
1.3.5 Consolidated taxonomy of lexical procedures, as proposed by Kwieciski
In his Disturbing Strangeness (2001) Kwieciski attempted at a consolidated
classification of translation procedures based on insights from several
acknowledged theoretical frameworks. The procedures are arranged from the
most foreignising to the most domesticating.
Foreignising procedures include seven operations. Transference of images
or sound refers to cases where a given SC-specific sound or image is transferred
without change in the target version. It is, consequently, reserved for research
concerning modern media such as television or radio. Borrowing refers closely to
Vinay and Darbelnets notion of borrowing, as well as Newmarks category of
transference. It concerns cases where both free (ad hoc) and recently established
borrowings are introduced into the TT. Distancing devices may be employed,
including the use of inverted commas and qualifiers (the so-called); moreover,
the borrowings may be morphologically, phonologically and orthographically
adapted into the TT. The definition of calque, coinage or semantic extension (or
rather a collection of procedures) is consistent with Vinay and Darbelnets notion
of calque, as well as Newmarks through-translation. In a fashion similar to that
of the above category, the procedures are clearly subdivided to involve both the
cases of ad hoc and recent renderings. This subcategory deals with lexical items
formed either on the basis of SL (e.g. Native Americans Rdzenni Amerykanie) or TL structures (e.g. registered partnership spka jawna). The remaining foreignising procedures are combinations of operations.
The borrowing + calque/coinage or semantic extension category is consistent
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with Newmarks notion of couplets: it represents two foreignising procedures,
borrowing and calque, brought down to deal with a single problem. By means of
the borrowing + normalisation (gloss) combination, a borrowed SL item is
accompanied by a normalising, explanatory gloss. In the case of
calque/coinage/extension + normalisation (gloss) couplet, the normalising,
explanatory gloss accompanies an item calqued into the TT. Other combinations:
couplets, triplets, quadruplets, as per Newmarks definition, deal with
combinations of two, three of four procedures, including, but not limited to, cases
of borrowing, calque and normalisation, borrowing, calque, substitution, and
borrowing or calque, normalisation and substitution.
The recognised exoticism procedure, which is a borderline case within the
spectrum of foreignisation and domestication, entails rendering of a given
source-culture (SC) item through the use of already existing and established
official target-culture (TC) counterpart. As a result, the rendered item is clearly
recognised by TC members as an SC-specific concept, but is nevertheless
intelligible as such (e.g. House of Commons Izba Gmin). The category also includes instances of limited normalisation, by means of which a given item is
translated by another SC item which is more likely to be recoverable by the TC
member. Such items are often considerably expanded when compared to the
original passage (e.g. Super Bowl finay futbolu amerykaskiego). Domesticating procedures are chiefly represented by the normalisation
category, which is a collection of operations similar to the modulation subclass
suggested by Vinay and Darbelnet, dealing with shifts in style and semantics.
Normalisation is subdivided into the following sub-procedures: repackaging
(diffusion or condensation), which involves rendering a SL item by a
significantly expanded (diffusion) or compressed (condensation) TL equivalent,
generalisation (a SL term is translated by a relevant, but more general TL term),
specification (a SL term is translated by a relevant, but more detailed TL term),
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23
modification (concerning cases of shifts in style, semantics or syntax an item
undergoes during translation) and mutation, by means of which the SL item is
rendered in such a way that its original form and meaning is irrecoverable.
Deletion is regarded as a domesticating procedure involving complete
omission of the SL item or items. Covert cultural substitution or covert
acculturation entail rendering of SC culture-specific concepts by their TC-
specific equivalents in such a way that the translational manipulation is not
visible to the TC receiver; covert acculturation, moreover, involves the use of a
TC-specific item to substitute a more generalised, transcultural structure
belonging to SL. Overt cultural substitution or overt acculturation, on the other
hand, introduce TC-specific items recognised as clearly not representatives of the
SC, hence the transparency of translation is compromised. A similarly TC-
manifest item is introduced through overt acculturation in substitution of a more
generalised, transcultural SL structure.
Having provided the necessary theoretical background, the present
dissertation, with reference to the subject matter, will offer a brief outline of the
science fiction literary genre, along with its definitions and best-known
representatives. Chapter 2 will, moreover, present in detail George Lucass Star
Wars and conclude with an overview of the Polish science fiction tradition.
Since the present thesis aims at the identification of the dominant
translation strategy within contemporary literature, it is essential for the study to
concentrate on popular and recent titles available. There is little doubt to the fact
that science fiction novels are currently among most eagerly read books. The
genre itself is relatively young and, therefore, one can expect translations of SF
to be characterised by a certain degree of fluency, since conventions governing
its renditions are not yet set. Therefore, SF represents an ideal research object in
general; through the results of the study on its most popular representative, one
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could potentially provide data applicable globally to current trends in
translations.
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25
Chapter 2: The science fiction genre and Star Wars as its
representative
This chapter aims at presenting the Star Wars novels as enclosed within
theoretical boundaries of the science fiction genre. In order to set up a relevant
literary background, the chapter will primarily concentrate on the history of
science fiction and provide information on most influential writers of the genre.
Subsequent subchapters will focus on the science fantasy subgenre and Star Wars
as its best known representative. The concluding subchapter will deal with the
Polish science fiction literary tradition and the appearance of foreign SF titles on
the Polish market.
2.1 Introduction to science-fiction
Science fiction is generally regarded as largely successful as a literary genre
during the second half of the twentieth century. It is commonly considered to be
an American art form, though its origins lie outside the United States (Aldiss
1988: 14). Its rise to prominence was prompted by the marvels of the Industrial
Revolution, and thus science fiction has been termed the fiction of a
technological age.
All attempts at setting the boundaries of science fiction involve
generalisations. As Aldiss (1988: 15) puts it, the time never existed when
science fiction was a homogeneous commodity. The difficulty in providing a
fixed definition of science fiction lies in the uncanny flexibility of the genre,
which continuously spawns new designs, therefore making it possible for SF
(see 2.1.1.1) literature to be conventional and innovative at one and the same
time.
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It is important to first look at the definitions provided by acknowledged experts
in the study of science fiction. James Gunn (1985, 1 [1977, 1]), an established
scholar on the subject of SF, offers the following definition:
Science fiction jest gazi literatury, ktra zajmuje si opisem wpywu zmian
na ludzi mieszkajcych w wiecie realnym, obserwowanym na tle przeszoci,
przyszoci lub te z odlegoci. Czsto opowiada o zmianach zachodzcych w
wiecie nauki lub techniki, a zazwyczaj dotyczy spraw, ktrych znaczenie
wzgldne jest wiksze ni znaczenie jednostki czy spoeczestwa;
niebezpieczestwo czsto tu zagraa cywilizacji lub caej rasie. [Science fiction
is a branch of literature, which deals with describing the influence of changes
on people living in the real world, observed against a past or future background,
or from a distance. It often speaks about changes taking place in the world of
science and technology, and it frequently concerns itself with issues, the relative
meaning of which is greater than the meaning of an individual or of a society;
the danger here befalls often the whole civilization or race.] (Gunn 1985, 1: 9;
transl. M)
Brian Aldiss, a science fiction novelist himself, puts forward a well-known
definition, stating that science fiction is the search for a definition of mankind
and his status in the universe which will stand in our advanced but confused state
of knowledge (science), and is characteristically cast in the Gothic or post-Gothic
mode. It is essential to note that Aldiss recognises science fiction as a mode of
writing, rather than a genre, to account for its wide potential, flexibility and
complexity. He also stresses the roots of SF are found in the Gothic (1988: 21), a
viewpoint which has only recently received appreciation.
Common definitions of science fiction, though varied to a degree, give
similar characteristics of the genre. It is agreed that SF explores possible
consequences of changes (improbable or even impossible) in basic conditions of
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27
human existence. The presence of a technological invention, acting as a trigger
for the transformation, is not necessary, however, the reality (biological or
physical) is altered profoundly. Hence the popular SF themes of time travel,
extraterrestrial invasion, or ecological catastrophe (Baldick 1991: 200). It is the
effect of such phenomena on human (or intelligent non-human) beings that is of
key importance in SF literature. The influence of changes may be based on
scientific facts that exist within the contemporary world or may involve
farfetched notions which contradict the principles of science (Britannica Volume
10: 552).
The rendition found in A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary
Theory dwells heavily upon the multitude of themes science fiction can
undertake:
A science fiction story is a narrative (usually in prose) of short story, novella, or
novel length. As to what it is about, this is not easily classifiable. Such stories
are about an amazing variety of things, topics, ideas. The include trips to other
worlds, quests, the exploration of space, visits to other planets and
interplanetary warfare. Some SF stories are concerned with utopia and utopist
visions, and also with dystopia. Others are set in the future but are not utopian.
Still others are set in the past. Many have a contemporary setting which is
somehow influenced by the arrival or invasion of alien beings or by some
invention which profoundly alters normality. They are also concerned with
technological change and development, with scientific experiment, with social,
climatic, geological and ecological change. Some are concerned with
supernatural forces and agencies. They are often fantastic, though they may be
rooted in reality. They stretch the imagination.(Cuddon 1998: 790-800)
The above definition raises the issue of the fantastic within science fiction.
Indeed, there have been equally many attempts at drawing a fixed line between
fantasy and SF; unfortunately, such separation is impossible in most cases, since
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it is agreed that both notions are part of fantasy in a general sense (Aldiss 1988:
30). Generally however, it is accepted, for the sake of easier classification, that
fantasy as a genre leans more towards the mythical element than towards an
assumed realism (Aldiss 1988: 31), whereas SF emphasises the scientific quality
as essential for the plot:
Plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the
genre as Mary Shelleys Gothic novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus
(1818) and Robert Louis Stevensons Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde
(1886) are science fiction, whereas Bram Strokers Dracula (1897) based as it is
purely on the supernatural, is not. (Britannica Volume 10: 552)
Prior to the presentation of a brief historical background of science fiction,
the present chapter will provide definitions of key concepts concerned with SF,
which are essential for the present thesis.
2.1.1 Key terminology concerned with science fiction
2.1.1.1 Science fiction, SF, sci-fi, speculative fiction, scientifiction, scientific
romance
The term science fiction, popularised in the 1930s in Hugo Gernsbacks
magazine Science Wonder Stories, sought to replace scientific romance, an
already existing name, which originated in the UK and was used to describe
mainly the works of H.G. Wells (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1076). This shift in
terminology also marked a transition in style: typical scientific romance works
are characterized by long evolutionary perspectives; by an absence of much
sense of the frontier and a scarcity of the kind of pulp-magazine-derived hero
who is designed to penetrate any frontier available; and in general by a tone
moderately less hopeful about the future than that typical of genre sf until recent
decades (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1076). In the late 1940s, the US SF style
became dominant, displacing the preceding term and mode of writing, which
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sparked accusations of transforming, vulgarising and changing beyond
recognition the European SF heritage (Aldiss 1988: 252).
What is interesting, prior to coining science fiction, Gernsback used the
term scientifiction, a contraction of scientific fiction (Clute & Nicholls 1999:
1076). The term never gained popularity and has since achieved a rather
derogatory colouring to describe mainly the awkward and technology-oriented
stories published by Gernsback.
Science fiction adopted the acronym SF which is largely accepted as the
only correct abbreviation. An alternative form, sci-fi is generally regarded as a
down-market appellation (Aldiss 1988: 23) and is frowned upon by science
fiction devotees (Baldick 1999: 200). SF can equally well be said to represent
the speculative fiction and science fantasy subgenres (see 1.1.2.4), which
acknowledges the fact that many SF titles have much in common with fantasy.
2.1.1.2 Pulp SF
Pulp SF is a somewhat derogatory name for the SF published in pulp
magazines. Called so because of the poor quality of the paper, the pulps
appeared thanks to the magazine-publishing revolution of the 1880s which made
it possible to print cheap magazines on low quality paper manufactured from
chemically treated wood pulp. The period of the greatest popularity of pulps, and
SF pulps in particular, is attributed to the late 1930s (Clute and Nicholls 1999:
979). Magazines such as Amazing Stories quickly attracted devoted readers, who
shared opinions and addresses in the letters column, which in turn sparked the
beginnings of the fandom movement.
2.1.1.3 Fandom, fanzine and conventions
Clute (1999: 403) defines fandom as a collection of people with a common
background in sf and a common interest in communication, whether through
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30
discussion, chatter, correspondence, or fanzine publishing. Formed, by readers
and, later, writers of SF, fandom counted no more than 500 people between the
1920s and 1950s, whereas a decade later, the figure increased to over 10,000
(Clute and Nicholls 1999: 403).
Fanzines, amateur magazines produced by SF fans and readers of
contemporary professional SF magazines, vary greatly in form and content.
Usually photocopied or printed, fanzines contain reviews, discussions, fandom-
specific topics, and even amateur fiction (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 414).
Established in the early 1930s (The Planet, The Comet), they have since became
increasingly popular and contributed largely to cementing the SF community.
Gatherings of SF fans, so-called conventions (or cons), are a principle
feature of SF fandom. The first formally planned SF convention took place in
Leeds, UK, in 1937. A typical SF convention programme features discussions,
presentations, even masquerades and banquets (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 261).
Of great interest are meetings with established writers and critics, contests, and
sessions of storytelling games. The oldest Polish convention, Polcon, has been
organised annually since 1985.
The Star Wars fandom developed very rapidly. It quickly spread beyond
the US borders; Star Wars fan clubs are present in all major countries, including
Poland. The Polish Star Wars fandom proper was established in 1997 and its
numbers and prominence have been growing ever since. The first Polish
convention devoted exclusively to Star Wars (Konkret 98) was organised in
1998 in Warsaw.
2.1.1.4 Subgenres
What is most characteristic of science fiction, being at the same time perhaps
testament to the statement that SF is more a mode of writing than a genre (Aldiss
1988: 571), is the fact that it can spawn a startling number of themes. The works
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31
of classics, such as Poe, Verne, and Wells, established tendencies in writing SF
that later developed into subgenres.
Speculative fiction was first defined by R.A. Heinlein, who sought to
describe a mode of writing SF that would extrapolate from known science and
technology to produce a new situation, a new framework for human action
(Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1144). The term was later developed by Judith Merril,
who applied it to denote a kind of sociological SF which dwells upon the theme
of social change without putting any great emphasis on science or technology.
Since no generic borderlines have been provided, the term is generally accepted
as including fantasy writing as well. Moreover, it is often used as a substitute for
science fiction in general, since it is believed to be more respectable-
sounding and lacking the pulp associations (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1145).
The science fantasy subgenre, first coined in the New Worlds magazine,
appeared as a direct response to the new wave in science fiction which was
developed by Moorcock in UK and Herbert and Zelazny in the US. Typical
science fantasy is regarded as a blend of SF and fantasy themes, usually
colourful and often bizarre, sometimes with elements of horror although never
centrally in the horror genre (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1061). Science fantasy
may contain quasirationalised elements of mythology or magic, though these are
not essential for the story, as opposed to the sword and sorcery and heroic
fantasy subgenres, which are believed to overlap with science fantasy. Mental
(psionic) powers and interplanetary travel and adventure are among the most
common science fantasy themes.
2.1.2 Brief historical outline of science-fiction and its best known
representatives
Science fiction, as defined above, came into existence largely through the
influence of the revolutions in science and technology of the eighteenth and
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32
nineteenth centuries. The Industrial Revolution, along with research on the laws
of nature, made it possible for early SF to surface (Gunn 1985, 1: 11), evolving
from the Gothic fantasy, the fiction of the age of industry, somewhere between
romance and realism, as it was between science and myth (Aldiss 1988: 17).
Originally meant as pure entertainment, the Gothic succeeded in
establishing itself as a genre, dwelling upon current fears, hopes and obsessions
(Aldiss 1988: 17). The Gothic, recognised as an artistic form of reaction to
human cognition of changes, explored the theme of mans quest for his own
identity, fuelled by a new comprehension of the natural world expressed in
Darwins theory of evolution (Gunn 1985, 1: 12). The questions on mankind in
general sparked the creation of the key work in the history of science fiction,
Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818).
Frankenstein is regarded as if not the first science fiction novel, then
certainly the first novel to show what science fiction will become (Gunn 1985,
1: 183). Conveying Lockes philosophical arguments and scientific ideas of
Darwin, Humphry Davy, Joseph Priestley, and others (Aldiss 1988: 45), Mary
Shelley succeeded in creating an innovative and completely original work
(Cuddon 1998: 793), dwelling upon the theme of wildness lurking beneath the
veneer of civilization (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 511). The horrible experiment,
the nearly ritualistic creation of the nameless monster is only made possible
through research and science surpassing old knowledge of the pre-scientific age.
Frankenstein thus represents a successful introduction of the scientific into
fiction, a trend which certainly had repercussions in sf which have by no means
died away (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 511).
The works of Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne are also regarded
as influential in the development of science fiction through their attempts at
assimilating science and fiction in a manner similar to Shelleys influential novel.
Identified by some as the father of SF (Aldiss 1988: 73; Gunn 1985, 1: 221), Poe
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33
wrote Mellonta Tauta (1848), which is believed to be the first true tale of the
future (Gunn 1985, 1: 223). This story, set a thousand years forward in time,
conveys an important message; that the future will be different to such a degree
that what is currently present will be forgotten, and that which is not forgotten
will be twisted and blurred. Hawthornes The Blithedale Romance (1852), on the
other hand, touches upon the notion of evils permanent existence in a society
dedicated to the idea of infinite progress (Aldiss 1988: 72), a theme clearly
relevant for SF today.
It was Poes writings, translated into French by Baudelaire, which had a
stimulating effect on the works of Jules Verne, which are considered to have
marked the beginning of true modern science fiction (Baldick 1991: 200). Even
though Verne was influenced profoundly by preceding writers, and, in
consequence, the majority of his works were not truly original, the manner in
which he wrote, as well as the subject matter itself, were essential to the
evolution and public acceptance of the new literature, devoted to science and
technology (Gunn 1985, 1: 257). Combining adventure, exploration and the
popularisation of science (Cuddon 1998: 794), Verne became immensely popular
through such works as Voyage au centre de la terre [Journey to the Centre of the
Earth; Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1276] (1864) and Vingt mille lieues sous les
mers [Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea; ibid] (1869). His les voyages
extraordinaires (extraordinary voyages) established what is now recognised as
classic science fiction themes and he himself has been coined the first true SF
writer (Gunn 1985, 1: 259). Aldiss (1988: 130) comments that even if Verne did
not invent science fiction, he was the first to succeed at it commercially.
Mans progress, celebrated so vividly by Verne, spurred further
development of SF. By the end of the 1890s science fiction was flourishing, a
success attributed chiefly to the works of Herbert George Wells. He was termed
the great originator of science fictional ideas (Aldiss 1988: 149), his writings
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34
were largely prophetic of the future shape of SF and uncovered many new
themes the genre could explore (Cuddon 1998: 795). He is believed to be the first
writer to look to the past and to the future through the prism of new theories on
evolution. His first book, The Time Machine (1895), an immediate success,
speaks of journeys in time on a scale never considered before. His tales, titled
The Grisly Folk (1896) and A Story of the Stone Age (1897) are regarded as
precursors of the sub-genre of science fantasy (see 1.1.2.4) (Aldiss 1988: 149).
His War of the Worlds (1898) introduced the now popular theme of alien
invaders, who are exceedingly more powerful than their victims.
The novel has set what is now recognised as a classic ground plan for an
SF novel (Aldiss 1988: 152). Wells initially presents the reader with a
recognisable image of his own times and makes use of modern advances in
science (in War of the Worlds, theory on evolution and micro-organisms) as a
background for his story. What is more, however, he encourages criticism of the
society to emerge from the narrative (Aldiss 1988: 152), raising questions and
sparking debates.
Wellss scientific romances (a collective name Wells coined for his
works) were often set on a par with Vernes works, a tendency which Wells
rejected, stating that his tales do not aim at speaking about possible scenarios, but
are rather means of exercising the imagination in a completely different field
(Gunn 1985, 1: 374). Having surpassed his predecessors, including Verne, Wells
was termed the Shakespeare of science fiction (Aldiss 1988: 166) and his works
brought popularity and distinctness from other genres to the SF. He witnessed the
dropping of an atomic bomb, an event which he had predicted many years earlier.
The turn of the century, a time of breakthroughs in science and
technology, is marked by a change in human thought. Belief in the necessity of
technological development began to shake, affected by the horrors of the First
World War (Gunn 1985, 1: 12, Cuddon 1998: 795). The anxieties of these
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35
stressful times found reflection in science fiction; themes of Armageddon and the
establishment of a new race of human beings appeared and achieved great
popularity.
Yet it was through the developments in technology that cheap pulp
magazines could appear (see 2.1.2.2). Quickly gaining readership, the new
periodicals offered affordable literary entertainment and it was not long before
they turned their attention to science fiction.
Contrary to the scientific romances of H.G. Wells, early American pulp
science fiction appealed to simpler audiences (Aldiss 1988: 217). The period
between the mid-1920s and the late 1930s was dominated by Hugo Gernsbacks
(1894-1967) vision of SF. He is popularly believed (Gunn 1985, 1: 17) to be the
founder of the first SF magazine, Amazing Stories (1926), later continued as
Science Wonder Stories (1929). Whether this is the case is open to debate; there
are examples of European SF magazines published as early as 1886 and
continuing to 1921 (Aldiss 1988: 251). Undoubtedly however, Gernsback had a
profound influence on the shape of science fiction. It is commonly agreed that
Gernsback gave shape to the whole SF magazine industry, introducing the figure
of a demanding editor and enforcing fixed criteria for SF stories that were to be
published. He was also the first to use the name science fiction (Science
Wonder Stories, 1929) to specify the literature he intends to publish (Gunn 1986,
2: 19 [1977, 2]). Aldiss (1988: 791), however, argues that the term itself was first
used in 1851, in William Wilsons A Little Earnest Book upon a Great Old
Subject.
Gernsbacks magazine attracted new writers, but it was not until the late
1930s that pulp SF gradually became more intellectual and sophisticated
(Cuddon 1998: 797). This tendency is attributed to John W. Campbell, who first
edited and later took over, in 1937, the magazine Astounding. A proficient and
ambitious editor, Campbell encouraged and supported his writers, suggesting
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36
they should develop their ideas where necessary and give them much more
thought (Aldiss 1988: 268). A fairly successful writer himself, Campbell is said
to have influenced many young writers, Arthur C. Clarke among them. His best
known short story, Twilight (1934), imitating to a degree Wellss The Time
Machine, brought a refreshing new alternative to SF trash stories published in
the pulps (Aldiss 1988: 267; see 1.1.2.2). This experience later enabled him to
create a thought-provoking and imagination-stirring (Aldiss 1988: 275)
atmosphere and the much needed intellectual revival to magazine SF (Gunn
1986, 2: 22). Campbells influence, and the influence of the writers to whom he
passed his ideas, have spurred the coming about of what we today call the
Golden Age of science fiction (Gunn 1986, 2: 22).
Campbells Astounding, renamed during 1960s to Analog (Aldiss 1988:
282), recruited writers, whose works are now considered unquestionable classics
of the genre, Isaac Asimov and Robert A. Heinlein among them. Asimov, the
most popular figure within the world of science fiction for nearly fifty years, is
best known for his Foundation trilogy, first published in Astounding between
May 1942 and January 1950 (Aldiss 1988: 330). Asimovs novels The Caves of
Steel (1954) and The Naked Sun (1957) were the first to set ground for future SF
detective stories. Famous for quoting his three laws of robotics, Asimov did
away with the stereotype of slavering metallic hordes which had been a
boringly predominant feature of the magazines (Aldiss 1988: 270) and
introduced the new ideas in his stories, later collected in I, Robot (1950):
(1) a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm; (2) a robot must obey the orders given it by human
beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law; (3) a robot
must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with
the First or Second Law. (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1018)
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37
For his novel The Gods Themselves (1972), he received the Science Fiction
Achievement Award (the Hugo) (Gunn 1986, 2: 438).
Both Asimov and Heinlein brought literary law and order into science
fiction magazines (Aldiss 1988: 270). Heinleins intelligent and educated stories
were published in Astounding as early as 1941, forming the basis for what he
later called Future History stories. His novels were among the first SF titles to
be published by the more established publishing houses (Gunn 1986, 2: 472). A
fragment of his Rocketship Gallileo (1947), published originally by Scribners,
was filmed under the title Destination Moon (1950), a venture which is believed
to have sparked the new wave of SF movies of the 1950s (Gunn 1986, 2: 472).
His Stranger in a Strange Land (1961) is commonly recognised to be the first SF
bestseller, almost immediately achieving popularity far beyond the established
circle of SF readers (Gunn 1986, 2: 472). Along with Frank Herberts Dune
(1965), Stranger in a Strange Land marked a new turn in American SF literature,
which started to evolve beyond the magazine format to achieve recognition and
commercial success.
This so-called new wave in science fiction was nourished by the influence
of Michael Moorcock and the UK SF New Worlds magazine, which Moorcock
took over in 1964 (Cuddon 1998: 799). Moorcocks works (The Final
Programme, 1965-1966), introducing fantasy and heroism to the SF formula
were regarded as a welcome breadth to the genre (Clute & Nicholls 1999:
1195). This tendency is seen developed in the works of Roger Zelazny, whose
tales (He Who Shapes, 1965) are a blend of science fiction and fantasy (Gunn
1987, 3: 541 [1979, 3]). The fantastic element within SF was further reinforced
in the already mentioned Dune by Herbert, who added elements of mythology
(sacred religious practices of the Fremen, the coming of Muad'Dib, the Prophet)
and provided detailed social and historical background for the plot (Gunn 1988,
4: 145 [1982, 4]). Through the use of such devices, Herbert fostered the creation
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38
of what would later be known as the science fantasy and sword and sorcery (see
1.1.2.4) subgenres of the science fiction.
Dune inspired George Lucas to create Star Wars (1977), the space opera
in the grand manner (Aldiss 1988: 339), one of the most influential and
commercially successful titles spawned by the new wave, and the best-known
representative of science fantasy.
2.2 Star Wars as a representative of science fiction
Luke Skywalker lives and works on his uncle's farm on the remote planet of
Tatooine. Bored beyond belief, he yearns for adventures out among the stars,
adventures that would take him beyond the farthest galaxies to distant and alien
worlds. But Luke gets more than he bargains for when he intercepts a cryptic
message from a beautiful princess held captive by a dark and powerful warlord.
Luke doesn't know who she is, but he knows he has to save her - and soon,
because time is running out. Armed only with courage and the lightsaber that
was his father's, Luke is catapulted into the middle of the most savage space war
ever... and heads straight for a desperate encounter on the enemy battle station
known as the Death Star. (George Lucas Star Wars, 1976 Sphere Books)
Without a doubt, Star Wars remains one of the most influential and most
financially successful SF titles to date. Star Wars is a representative of the new
wave in science fiction, which started with Moorecocks New Worlds magazine,
and the works of Herbert and Zelazny in the US and the advent of science
fantasy. The late 1960s and early 1970s were a period of significant development
in SF; SF novels reached the bestseller lists, SF conventions became big
business [and] everyone went to SF movies (Aldiss 1988: 339). It was
largely the success of 2001 (1968), a movie directed by Stanley Kubrick and
based on Arthur C. Clarkes novel, which paved the way for the future SF
cinema.
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Star Wars presents a conflict between the forces of Good and Evil, much
in the tradition of pulp SF magazines:
Young Luke Skywalker becomes involved in a mission to rescue a princess
from the evil head of a decadent Galactic Empire. The Empires military
headquarters is the Death Star, the size of a small moon and capable of
destroying whole planets. With the help of an old man who possesses
supernatural powers a human mercenary and his alien sidekick Luke
rescues the princess and secures information that enables a group of rebel
fighters to destroy the Death Star (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1160)
The movie script was the basis for the book adaptation of Star Wars. Clute
(1999: 1160) argues that the novel version attributed officially to George Lucas,
was actually written by Alan Dean Foster. Aldiss agrees on the subject (1988:
468), adding that Fosters name is found on the covers of adaptations of other SF
movies of that time (Dark Star, 1974; Alien, 1979; The Black Hole, 1979).
Sequels to Star Wars (retitled A New Hope in 1981), are The Empire Strikes Back
(1980) and Return of the Jedi (1984), adopted for the book format by Donald F.
Glut and James Kahn respectively. George Lucas has also written and directed
the so-called prequels to the original trilogy, which describe events prior to the
plot of A New Hope: The Phantom Menace (1999), Attack of the Clones (2002),
and Revenge of the Sith (2005).
2.2.1 Influences on Star Wars
Witold Jaboski, novelist and critic, commented on the subject of George
Lucass Star Wars in an interview with Dawid Brykalski:
[George Lucas] Uczyni rzecz bez precedensu: posugujc si stylistyk SF
przesyci j klasycznymi, archetypicznymi motywami, takimi jak dzielny
prostaczek, uwiziona ksiniczka, czarny rycerz, tajemniczy pustelnik, czy te
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rozbjnik o zotym sercu. Stworzy ponadczasow ba, w ktrej nie brak
cakiem aktualnych odniesie...[What George Lucas did was without
precedence: making use of SF stylistics, he enriched it with classical, archetypal
motifs, such as a brave, straightforward youngster, a princess held prisoner, a
black knight, a mysterious hermit, or the kind-hearted rogue. He created a
timeless fairy-tale, which is not without up-to-date references...](Jestem z
natury poganinem; http://www.ksiazka.net.pl; transl. M)
Similarly, Clute (1999: 1160) points out that Lucas draws upon comics strips,
old serials, Westerns, James Bond stories, The Wizard of Oz, Snow White, Errol
Flynn swashbucklers and movies about WWII. Lucas is believed to have been
inspired by E.E. Smiths Gray Lensman, Harry Harrisons Deathworld and Frank
Herberts Dune, works which influenced heavily the shape of Star Wars (Aldiss
1988: 341). Moreover, Oliver Denken in his Gwiezdne wojny jak powstawaa
kosmiczna trylogia (1997: 50 [Star Wars Die Film 1996]) observes that Alex
Raymonds Flash Gordon stories and Edgar Rice Burroughs SF novels (John
Carter of Mars) had a profound impact on Lucass vision of Star Wars.
In an interview for the DVD edition (2004) of the classic Star Wars
trilogy, Lucas sheds new light on the subject of inspirations for his work. Beside
acknowledging some of the aforementioned works, he also points to an early SF
movie Metropolis (1926) as influential in creating his humanoid robot C3PO.
More importantly, however, he quotes Joseph Campbells analysis of archetypes
(The Hero with a Thousand Faces) as critical in the development of character
and plot elements of Star Wars.
Campbell made use of the idea of archetypes, coined by Carl Jung, as the
basis for analysing the underlying structure behind religion and myth. In his The
Hero of a Thousand Faces, he argues that common stories from cultures all over
the world share the same pattern, which he called the Hero's Journey. In the
aforementioned interview, Lucas agreed that the Hero's Journey heavily
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influenced his Star Wars script and in turn the novel adaptation by Alan Dean
Foster (see Appendix A for a table comparing Heros Journey with Star Wars).
Therefore, Star Wars is said to have developed from what was an already
established genre on paper (Aldiss 1988: 342). Though some critics claim that
the various elements do not interact together as seamlessly as they should,
Lucass creation does provide an enjoyable, even nostalgic entertainment (Clute
and Nicholls 1999: 1160). Successful and influential, Star Wars has been
translated into over 30 languages, including Polish.
2.3 Science-fiction in Poland
Although critics (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990) point to Micha Dymitri
Krajewski and his Wojciech Zdarzyski ycie i przypadki swoje opisujcy
[Wojciech Zdarzyski Describing his Life and Adventures; Clute & Nicholls
1999: 944] (1785) as the earliest example of Polish literature conveying science
and the fantastic, it is in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century that the
real roots for Polish science fiction are found (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz
1990: 17). Early examples include the novels by Wadysaw Umiski (Balonem
do bieguna [To the pole by baloon], 1894; Samolotem dookoa wiata [Around
the world by airplane], 1911), inspired largely by Vernes voyages
extraordinaires, and popularizing current scientific achievements.
However, it is Umiskis contemporary, Jerzy uawski, who is believed
to be the father of Polish science fiction. His lunar trilogy (Na srebrnym globie
[On Silver Globe; Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1370], 1903; Zwycizca [The Victor;
ibid], 1910; Stara Ziemia [Old Earth; ibid], 1911) was immensely popular and
profoundly influenced the shape of future Polish SF works (Niewiadomski &
Smuszkiewicz 1990). uawski, poet and essayist, touched upon the most crucial
theme for twentieth century science fiction (Niewiadomski 1987: 11). He shows
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that knowledge can be destructive if gained for its own sake, and that science is
ultimately powerless against the forces of nature.
Written in the tradition of Wellss scientific romances (Niewiadomski
1987: 12), uawskis lunar trilogy spurred a further expansion of Polish SF. The
inter-war period, dominated by themes of wonderful invention and catastrophe,
saw the appearance of popular and influential novels, such as Mieczysaw
Smolarskis Miasto wiatoci [The city of light] (1924), Jan Karczewskis Rok
przestpny [Leap year] (1931) and Antoni Sonimskis Dwa koce wiata [Two
ends of the world] (1937) (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990: 21). Moreover,
at that time there also appeared first pulp stories (Kapitan Mors [Captain Mors]),
the satirical SF works by Bruno Winawer (Promienie FF [FF rays], 1921), and
Stefan Grabiskis weird fiction, influenced largely by Poe (Niewiadomski
1987: 14).
The post-war period in Polish SF is without doubt dominated by Stanisaw
Lem, who debuted as a SF novelist with his Astronauci [The Astronauts; Clute &
Nicholls 1999: 711] (1951). Lems works remain to this day among the most
eagerly translated novels in modern Polish literature (Niewiadomski 1987: 15).
One of the most significant SF writers of our century and a distinctive voice in
world literature (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711), Lem wrote a wide range of
fiction. His early works (Obok Magellana [The Magellan Nebula; ibid], 1955)
deal with themes of global destruction brought about by military action, whereas
his Solaris (1961) or Opowieci o pilocie Pirxie [Tales of Pirx the Pilot; ibid]
(1968) dwell upon the subject of humanitys limitations and strengths (Clute &
Nicholls 1999: 711). Lems other works include Doskonaa prnia [Perfect
Vacuum; ibid] (1971), Kongres futorologiczny [The Futurological Congress;
ibid] (1971), and Fiasko [Fiasco; ibid] (1986), the awkward but ferocious
assault upon human cognitive pretensions (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711).
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The mid 1950s was also when some of Lems peers made their debuts,
most notably Krzysztof Boru and Andrzej Trzepka, authors of a popular SF
trilogy Zagubiona przyszo [The Lost Future; Clute & Nicholls 1999: 944]
(1954), Proxima (1956) and Kosmiczni bracia [Space brothers] (1959), and
Adam Hollanek with his SF detective novel Zbrodnia wielkiego czowieka [Big
mans crime] (1960).
A great breakthrough in Polish SF is attributed to Zbigniew Przyrowski,
who introduced SF stories to a poplar youth magazine Mody Technik [Young
technician]. On the pages of Mody Technik appeared the first stories by Janusz
A. Zajdel, who achieved popularity as a political SF writer (Niewiadomski 1987:
16). The mid 1970s, a significant period in the history of Polish SF, saw
increased interest in SF themes, resulting in the creation of the first clubs and
fanzines (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990: 26). By far the most influential
SF magazine, Fantastyka, was founded in 1982 and was edited by Hollanek.
Piotr Krywak, in his article on SF and fantasy Fantasy i science fiction,
czyli znw o materii mieszaniu [Fantasy and science fiction, or the mixing of
the subject matter yet again] published in Konspekt (2005), observes a crisis in
Polish SF literature, which started in the late 1970s. Science-fiction, in his
opinion, has since then been slowly superseded by the fantasy genre. Similarly,
Wojciech Kajtoch, in his introduction to Solaris (ycie Literackie 1983), points
out that Polish SF lacks ambition and is likely to fall into second place to its
rival. This tendency is largely attributed to fantasy being more marketable (Clute
and Nicholls 1999: 944), but also stresses the fact that gradual disappearance of
censorship caused political SF writing (a dominating mode since the 1960s) to
dissolve.
The resulting gaping hole in the Polish SF is currently being filled by
means of mass importation of science fiction literature (Clute & Nicholls 1999:
944). The Polish market is open mainly to western popular fiction (W krainie
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dreszczowcw; in: Konspekt 2/2005), which achieved great popularity chiefly
through the efforts of private publishers. Star Wars is found among these titles,
initially being published by InterArt, and later by Amber, an independent
publishing house.
The present thesis has thus far explored the theoretical and historical
background of the foreignisation and domestication phenomena, as well as
provided classifications of translation procedures and proper names, with respect
to the subject of the empirical study. Chapter 2 provided a brief outline of science
fiction, including recognised definitions, key terminology and history of the
genre. Following background information on George Lucass Star Wars, novel
adaptations of which serving as the object of empirical study, Chapter 2
concluded with brief outline of the Polish science fiction tradition. Having
provided theoretical background for all components of the empirical study, the