Director Prof. Dr. Harald Siebenmorgen, Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe, Ger-

many

Eurolog Symposium in Tunis 2012

Orientalism – Occidentalism: Intercultural spotlights.

The phenomena of Orientalism, which can be defined as the incorporation of orien-

tal elements in Western culture, is generally well-known and has been given a criti-

cal pejorative character since the book by the sociologist Edward W. Said, as a

flanking and continuous form of colonialism with other cultural means. This exclu-

sively negative image of Orientalism has started to crack recently.

Nevertheless, there was and still is naturally the Orientalism which regarded the

Orient, especially the Osman Empire, as a centuries old enemy who wanted to rule

not only the Balkans, but also Vienna, Venice and Rome – the type of Orientalism

whose exotic nature appealed to Europeans with its harem women, Turkish baths,

bazaars, sultry scents, mosques, muezzin and desert caravans.

Along these lines, the Margrave Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden, the “Turkish Louis”,

victor of the battle of Slankamen in the Balkans in 1693, presented himself in the

great hall of his castle in Rastatt as the “Turk Vanquisher” (pl.1). At the same time,

he displayed himself proudly – shortly before his death in 1707 – in a splendid cos-

tume that he brought back – because he liked to wear such treasures made from ori-

ental materials that were already appreciated for centuries in the West (pl.2). In

those days during the 18th

Century – alongside the “Chinoiserie” - “Turkomania”

was also part of the cultural taste, an example is a Frankenthaler porcelain collection

produced around 1770 showing the Ottoman Sultan in the midst of representatives

from Africa, Japan and China (pl.3). Oriental paintings also emerged in France,

Germany, England and Italy in the 19th

Century, such as “Harem Guard“” by Henri

Regnault, “Moorish Bath” by Jean-Louis Gérome (pl.4), “Dancing Gypsy” (on a

prayer carpet!) by Ardien Moreau (pl.5) and “The Dream of the Muslims” by the

French-Basque painter Achille Zo, in paradise, the houris, palms and fruit, stylized

from the Koran but also a projection of European dreams of the Islamic world, all

painted around 1860-1880 during the second industrial revolution in Europe (pl.6).

But there were also the opposite examples: for example Gustave Guillaumet’s repre-

sentation of the Algerian town Laghonat (pl.7) or the works from Carl Spitzweg,

who renewed the Western concept of the Orient with his image of the vast desert, in

the 20th

Century the works from Klee, Macke und Moillet during their travels

through Tunisia in 1914, paintings by Kandinsky or Jean Dubuffet, Hannsjörg Voth

“City of Orion” in Morocco (pl.8) or in film, “Chott-el-Djerid” by Bill Viola 1979

or “The Sheltering Sky” 1990 by Bernardo Bertolucci based on the novel by the

important poet from Tangier Paul Bowles.

The opposite also exits: “Occidentalism”. I do not wish to consciously deviate

from the coining of the term as it was defined in 2005 by Ian Buruma and Avishai

Margalit. By “Occidentalism” the two authors understood a critical or even ideolo-

gy-critical view of the West and its culture through Islamic authors, including – after

statements from Bernd Thum - especially al-Afghani, Sayyid Qutb und Hassan

Hanafi. We know that this view of the West is used again today by radical Islamic

movements. I would like to a more neutral definition of “Occidentalism” that covers

any form of integration of Western cultural characteristics in Oriental culture. As a

consequence, one must appreciate that not all are positive today.

I am interested in the adaption of Western cultural practices in the culture of the

Orients, which is quite different. The Western-orientated modernisation efforts of

Islamic countries in the 19th

& 20th

Century obviously belongs under this theme,

which began with Kheyreddin Pascha in Tunisia, Massedegh in Iran and of course

Ataturk in Turkey. This is not, however, today’s topic, even though I do not deny

that for me personally a convergence of cultures would be something to strive for in

order to unite us in a Euro-Mediterranean culture. The hate resulting from Günther

Grass’s peace poem and Salafist radicalism, however, do not bode positively. I

would like to highlight three topics from the volumes of topics in the field of “Occi-

dentalism”. I would like to concentrate on the last one, as this brings us a piece of

ancient culture:

1. Christian iconographic typologies

2. Perceptions of paradise

3. Ruler iconography

Several weeks ago a sobering image was published by the world press of a veiled

woman from Yemen holding her wounded revolution fighting son in her arms (pl.9).

Their iconic effect of the image is like a staged composition. It is largely identical to

the Pietà imagery – Mary’s sorrow for her dead son Jesus on the cross, which was

widespread throughout Europe (especially in Southern Germany) as a devotional

image – particularly in sculptures from the 14th

to 18th

Centuries. The most com-

monly shown example is from the Bavarian monastery in Andechs by Roman Anton

Boos at the end of the 18th

Century (pl.10).

Undoubtedly, the most famous example is Michelangelo's Pietà from the year 1498.

These motives are joined by striking images showing the fallen Persian heroes of the

Iran-Iraq war as martyrs in the streets of Tehran (pl.11). Here it is Hussein, the third

Shiite Imam who, with an unrecognisable face, carries the dead soldiers like a “Ma-

ter dolorosa”. Also historical Shiite iconography, such as the battle of Kerbela in

680 where Hussein is represented with his half-brother Abu Fazl, his wife Zainar

and the child Asgar, is influenced by Western compositions and figurative elements

of Christian art similar to the Christ from Guido Renis, Maria with child and Pietà

(pl.12). The schema of Pietà also appears in a monument in some Iranian town with

a dead soldier in the lap of another; which is of course further embellished with

comrades standing upright with a flag (pl.13). Sorrow and triumph, wretched death

in heroic transformation – which meets with a similar group from the Classic period

in the “Victory Alley” of Berlin dedicated to those who fell fighting Napoleon

(pl.14).

Two curiosities are also added to the topic of adaptation of Christian images. One is

a painting from the Teheran Court School from the first half of the 20th

Century

(pl.15). It shows a dancing Christ, who according to Islamic studies, has been ele-

vated to the fourth heaven and hears the music of Zohre. The heavenly singer is rep-

resented on the left hand side with the harp, while on the right – typically Persian! –

the poet Hafis is also shown. The image composition is derived from the Christian

representation of the “Transformation of Christ” – the “Transfiguration” is flanked

by the prophets Moses and Elias as shown here in the painting by Raffael.

A second curiosity: ten years ago a private person set up an amusement park called

“Chatwack” in the palm oasis of Tozeur in Tunisia. He erected colossal figures de-

picting stories from the Old Testament of the Bible that were common to all three

scripture religions. One group was Adam and Eve under the apple tree in paradise

(pl.16). The group reflects exactly the usual images in paintings from Dürer, Cra-

nach or Hans Baldung Grien: Eva is there, albeit modestly covered in hair like a

holy Maria Magdalena; the tree is there and there oranges were even real; but Adam

is missing. An Egyptian Coptic example from the 19th Century (pl.17), by-the-way,

shows a mirrored image of the same pair with a tree in the middle and Eva from the

side. Now Adam, as a prophet of Islam, is not permitted to be represented. As I

showed the photo to a Maliki Moroccan woman, she said “This Tunisian is crazy.

Eva is also not allowed to be shown!”

2. Notions of Paradise and Mutual Places of Yearning

A topic particularly appreciated for transcultural inter-relationship is the correspond-

ing notion of paradise. That heavenly, eternal paradise is always the wishful think-

ing of what is missing on Earth and is dreamed of. In the west, this could be sub-

tropical biology like in the South Seas or beautiful lush gardens with tropic fruits; in

the Baroque period it was in the rural village church occasionally even with a ba-

roque garden, which is literally identical to the French gardens of noble gentlemen

behind the high walls next door. And in the Orient?

Orhan Pamuk wrote in his novel “Snow” about the East Anatolian city of Kars:

“Everywhere in the teahouses, restaurants and hotel lobbies from Kars hang pictures

not of their own mountains, but pictures of the Swiss Alps”, “pictures of a snowy

Switzerland”. Most probably snow-covered mountains are a notion of paradise in

hot and water scarce regions. I also found such examples:

in the lobby of the Hotel “Harran” in Sanliurfa/ Southern Anatolia (pl.18)

on the facade of a photography shop in Tozeur/ Tunisia (pl.19).

Finally, a particularly striking example: a representation of a mountainous winter

landscape with fir trees, snow and a charming Swiss mountain church – found in a

shop that was almost exclusively for local visitors of a historical park near Kashan

in Iran (pl.20). The idyll has a cosy effect – one could think of the novels from

Ludwig Ganghofer, Peter Rosegger or the German homeland films of the 1950’s.

The drier the region and its climate, the more the people of the Orient seem to long

for landscapes with abundant water, green vegetation, lust forest and even ice and

snow. These images suggest cool, moisture and the associated perceptions of fertili-

ty. Paradise is always the other side.

3. There is a tradition of the European ruler iconography: the historical image, the

full-body portrait (half-portrait or bust were considered far less representative),

viewed with representative clothing, a ruler’s mantel und the architecture in the

background further emphasised the dignity and authority of the person: the pose of

an absolutist ruler. Louis the XIV allowed himself to be represented as the epitome

of “L 'état c' est moi” (pl.21). The representation of Napoleon or of the Margraves of

Baden displayed here shows the same ruler pose: the full-body sculpture, orientated

towards the viewer – in this case, his subjects – with a pathetically draped coat and

also often with a motif of architecture as an excessive form of dignity.

In exactly the same way, Ben Ali presented himself some years ago on a huge poster

that was erected next to the Roman site “Temple des Eaux” near Zaghonan! (pl.22)

Of course, an antique ruler pose was the inspiration. A ruler statue of a magistrate

from the National Archaeological Museum in Algiers was used as an example. The

main type of ancient Roman emperor image is the Adlocutio, the most formal ad-

dress of the ruler / emperor to his people or his troops. The prime example is the

August statue “Primaporta” (pl.23), but other emperor statues such as the Trojan or

Constantine could also be mentioned.

Countless variations have been used by different dictators and authoritarian leaders,

whose propaganda images appear often rather affable in that the ruler not only

greets, but also waves to his people. Mao Tse-Tung (pl.24) and Stalin presented

themselves in this way. In this way we also see Bashar-el-Assad (pl.25) or Ayatollah

Khomeini (pl.26), slightly looking from below, which further emphasises their

height above the masses. This type of antique “adlocutio” is particularly vivid in the

poster from Ben Ali that I saw at the Place de l’Independence in front of the city

walls of Kairouan (pl.27).

It shows him – in a manipulated collage – in the corresponding pose in from of a

crowd of people at the National Monument near the Kasbah in Tunisia. This form of

representation and glorification is particularly obvious due to the round disc that is

coincidently behind him. The Ayatollah Khomeini (pl.28) and Ahmadineshad

(pl.29) also like to distribute portraits of themselves in this way with a large circular

form in the background, whichever way this can be arranged. The nimbus represen-

tation of holy people in Christian imagery immediately comes to mind as a compari-

son, or also the mosaic of the “Dame of Carthage” (pl.30) from 500 AD from the

National Museum of Carthage. In this case the nimbus gives a sacred aura – a trans-

formation to a near god-like character.

A further variation is the “adventus” type. The ruler rides or steps forward to be

greeted by enthusiastic admirers. That is what I found at the gate-keeper’s house in

an ancient excavation site in Kyrrhus in Syria – an old, faded placard of Hafis-al-

Assad (pl.31). It showed the ruler on arrival surrounded by enthusiastic supports

from his people, who are of course representatively selected. Women and children –

on the right – should not be excluded, just like in votive images by the European

painters such as Hans Holbein’s “Madonna des Bürgermeisters Meyer” from the

renaissance (pl.32), which was purchased last year by businessman and art collector

Reinhold Würth for €60 million. An allegorical figure approaches Assad from the

left offering flowers and fruit, on the right a person carrying a sheaf of wheat kneels.

The type of homage is inspired by Baroque allegories such as this in a Flemish tap-

estry (in the Art Institute of Chicago/ pl.33): the “Abundantia” or abundance is

flanked on the left hand side by a figure working with fruit and flowers, representing

“Asia”, and behind this a figure carrying grains represents “Africa”. Assad steps, so

to speak, into the role of the allegory of “Abundantia”, bringing prosperity and

wealth.

One can assume that rider statues of rulers are generally inspired by the antique

bronze statue of the Roman emperor Marc Aurel from the 2nd

Century on the Capitol

in Rome (pl.34). These represent an especially monumental elevation of the ruler,

particularly when the ruler can also ride, which I do not know. I am familiar with the

rider statue of Ataturk in Ankara, from Emir Abdelkader in Algeria and Habib

Bourguiba in La Goulette (pl.35): there are also others of Garibaldi, Vittorio

Emanuele in Rome, Franco or Salazar. The transformation of antique imagery into

the rhetoric of other historical constellations and divergent cultures is particularly

obvious in these cases.

The view of our western culture from outside and its adaption in foreign cultures –

Germans know how to deal with these themes with humour and light heartedness.

Let me start by saying that I believe Europe needs to open its intercultural view fur-

ther. Because there are also clichés about the West and entrenched opinions, and

even though the Swiss publicist Jean Ziegler with his book “Hatred of the West”

(analogue the Occidental arguments of Burumas and Margolits) can name many

good reasons for the derogatory views of many people of the world against the

West, including also Muslims, it should not stay like this! Especially if Europe falls

further behind in the global economy and needs to recover by opening itself as a

tourism world once a year – an archaeological theme park called “Old Europe”, so

to speak – for tourists and tour groups from Asia, Arabia, Africa or America; the

Chinese already enjoy traveling the most. The Karlsruhe artist Axel Heil has already

shown how full of clichés this situation could be in his caricature sculpture “Catas-

trophe Tourism to see Venice” (pl.36). An African woman, embodied as a “primi-

tive” statue, with a camera containing ready-made pictures of the main tourist attrac-

tions of Venice. Venice, which is today as beautiful as Rothenburg o.d. Tauber and

Heidelberg in Germany, and many archaeological sites such as Pompeii or Knossos

who live from swarms of foreign tourists.

We deliver, of course, our own material for clichés, such as the souvenirs that are

especially offered to Japanese tourists in Heidelberg. “Germany” – represented by

the Berlin bear in a German forest, with Black Forest “Bollenhut” hats, Bavarian

neckerchiefs and North Friesian collars – that would be the same as an Indian

Brahman wearing a kimono, Persian turban and a Tibetan necklace in a Chinese

Pagoda (pl.37). Or an American Santa Claus climbing a bust of the Egyptian Tutan-

khamen – in Agadir Morocco – that really exists! (pl.38) Probably misunderstood

multiculturalism.

Perhaps the situation will reverse itself with an increase in multicultural knowledge.

Instead of the European visiting the backwardly exotic “natives” in South Africa

(and to display at home the corresponding figure in the lounge room, pl.39), others

will visit us. A caricature from the magazine “Stern” shows some Germans on one

of the popular nudist beaches on the North Sea or the Baltic Sea (pl.40). A richly

dress black African family on a sightseeing tour of Europe comes along. The woman

says to her husband and child: “You really have to take a photo!! The natives are

performing their original rituals and customs!”

Translation: Scott Hemphill

Abb.1 Abb.2 Abb.3

Abb.4 Abb.5 Abb.6

Abb.7 Abb.8

Abb.9 Abb.10

Abb.11 Abb.12 Abb.13

Abb.14 Abb.15

Abb.16 Abb.17

Abb.18 Abb.19

Abb.20

Abb.21 Abb.22 Abb.23

Abb.24 Abb.25 Abb.26

Abb.27

Abb.28 Abb. 29 Abb.30

Abb.31 Abb.32 Abb.33

Abb.34 Abb.35

Abb.36 Abb.37 Abb.38

Abb.39 Abb.40

List of plates:

pl. 1: Chained Turk. Stucco in the great hall of Rastatt Castle, Germany, 1703-1705

pl.2: Margrave Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden in a Turkish costume, early 18th century

pl.3: The Ottoman Sultan in the midst of representatives from Africa, Japan and China,

Frankentaler porcelain, ca.1770. Reiss Engelhorn Museum, Mannheim, Germany

pl.4: Jean Léon Gérome, Moorish Bath, 1870. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, USA

pl.5: Adrien Moreau, Dancing Gypsy, 1877. Art trade

pl.6: Achille Zo, The Dream of the Moslem, ca. 1870, Musée Bonnet, Bayonne, France

pl.7: Gustave Guillaumet, Laghouat (Algerian Sahara), 1879. Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France

pl.8: Hannsjörg Voth, City of Orion/Marokko 2003. Photo: Ingrid Amslinger

pl.9: Worldpress-photo: Woman holds her wounded son during protests against president Saleh, Yemen,

2011(Photo of the year)

pl.10: Pietà, Roman Anton Boos, End of 18th cent., Klosterkirche Andechs (minster), Germany

pl.11: Poster on a street in Tehran, photo by Thomas Goldschmidt

pl.12: Poster with the saints Hussein, Abul Fazl, Zainats, Asgav

pl.13: Monument in a provicial town in Iran

pl.14: Monument for the fallen enemies of Napoleon, 19th cent., Berlin, Germany, Siegesallee

pl.15: Tehran Palace school, Dancing Christ, 1. Half of 20th cent.

pl.16: (Adam and) Eve, „Chak-Wak“- Theme Park, Tozeur/Tunesia, 2006

pl.17: Adam and Eve, egypt.-coptic, 19th cent.

pl.18: Oil painting with snowy mountains, wall decoration in the Hotel Harran in Şanlıurfa, Turkey. Photo

taken 2005

pl.19: Alpine landscape, wallpainting at the facade of a photo-shop in Gafsa, Tunesia. Photo taken 2004

pl.20: Alpine mountains with chapell and snow covered fir trees. Shop articel in the historic park of Fin near

Kashan, Iran. Purchased 2007. Private

pl.21: Ludwig IV. based on a painting of Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1701

pl.22: Poster on a streer in Zaghonan, Tunesia, 21st cent.

pl.23: Statue of Augustus of Prima Porta. Vatikan Museums, Rome, Italy

pl.24: Propaganda poster of Mao Tse – Tung, China

pl.25: Propaganda poster of Baschar-el-Assad, Syria

pl.26: Propaganda poster of Ayatollah Khomeini, Iran

pl.27: Propaganda poster of Ben Ali, photographed at Place de l’Independence, Kairouan, Tunesia 2009

pl.28: Portrait of Ayatollah Khomeini, Iran

pl.29: Portrait of Ahmadineshad, Iran

pl.30: Mosaic, Dame of Carthage, 500 AD., National Museum Carthage, Tunesia

pl.31: Poster of Hafis-al-Assad. Photographed in Kyrrhus, Syria

pl.32: Hans Hohlbein, Darmstadt Madonna, 1525/26. Sammlung Würth, Künzelsau, Germany

pl.33: „Abundantia“, Tapestry from Flanders, Art Institute Chicago, USA

pl.34: Equestrian statue of Marc Aurel on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, 2nd cent. A.D.

pl.35: Equestrian statue of Habib Bourguiba in La Goulette/Tunesia

pl.36: John Isaacs and Axel Heil, To See Venice. Wooden figure, plastic camera with pictures of Venice

1999. reference: ONUK, Karlsruhe, Germany.

pl.37: Souvenir of Germany. Private purchase 2007 in a Souvenirshop for japanese tourists in Heidelberg,

Germany.

pl.38: Bust of Tut Anch Amun Büste in Agadir, Morocco

pl.39: Knickknackery Germany, 1950-ies, Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe, Germany

Abb.40: „Liebling das musst du unbedingt fotografieren; die Eingeborenen bei ihren ursprünglichen Sitten und

Gebräuchen“ (You really have to take a photo!! The natives are performing their original rituals and

customs!). Caricature of „MARKUS“ in the german magazin ‚Stern‘. Seen in catalogue of the

exhibition: Exotische Welten, Stuttgart 1987, p.33.