livestock in food security â€“ roles and contributions

Livestock in Food Security – Roles and Contributions

Proceedings of the 9th annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP)

held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 30-31, 2001

Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

P.O. Box 80019, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Conference sponsoring institutions 1. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. 2. Ethiopian Science and technology Commission. 3. Save The Children - USA

Correct citation:

ESAP (Ethiopian Society of Animal Production) 2002. Livestock in Food Security – Roles and Contributions. Proceedings of 9th annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, August 30-31, 2001. ESAP (Ethiopian Society of Animal Production) 433pp.

Cover photo by Dr. Woudyalew Mulatu (ILRI).

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Contents

Preface..................................................................................................... ix

Welcome Address ................................................................................... xi

Opening Address ....................................................................................xv

LIVESTOCK IN FOOD SECURITY: ROLES AND CONTRIBUTIONS

Role of livestock in food security and food self sufficiency in the highland production system

Hadera Gebru .................................................................................. 3

Conservation of livestock biodiversity and its relevance to food security

Enyew Negussie and Workneh Ayalew ........................................ 15

Contribution of animal science research to food security Alemu Yami and Zinash Sileshi .................................................. 31

ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Smallholder livestock production systems and constraints in the highlands of North and West Shewa zones

Agajie Tesfaye, Chilot Yirga, Mengistu Alemayehu, Elias Zerfu and Aster Yohannes ............................................................ 49

Baseline data on chicken population, productivity, husbandry, feeding, breeding, health care, marketing and constraints in four peasant associations in Ambo wereda

Fikre Abera..................................................................................... 73

A survey on cattle management and utilization in Gambella region

Mureja Shiberu.............................................................................. 91

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Effect of wheat bran supplementation at graded levels on changes in physical body composition in teff straw (eragrostis tef) fed zebu (bos indicus) oxen of the Ethiopian highlands

Tesfaye Wolde Michael, P. O. Osuji and Asfaw Yimegnuhal .... 99

Effect of wheat bran supplementation on feed intake, body weight change and retained energy in the carcass of Ethiopian highland zebu (bos indicus) oxen fed teff straw (eragrostis tef) as basal diet

Tesfaye Wolde Michael, P.O. Osuji, Asfaw Yimegnuhal and Alemu Yami.................................................................................. 111

Animal production under threat: Declining pastoral livelihoods and their implications for social organisation among the Ab’ala Afar of North-Eastern Ethiopia

Kelemework Tafere ...................................................................... 125

Introduction of ILCA internal agitator around bako for increasing the efficiency of traditional butter-making

Alganesh Tola, Chernet Asfaw and Mulugeta Kebede ............. 135

Camel production and productivity in eastern lowlands of Ethiopia

Bekele Tafesse and Kebebew Tuffa............................................. 145

FEEDS AND NUTRITION

Effect of plant height at cutting, sources and levels of fertiliser on yield, chemical composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility of Napier grass (pennisetum purpureum schumach)

Tessema zewdu, Robert Baars and Alemu Yami...................... 165

Supplementary values of brewer's dried yeast and rapeseed meal in broiler starter rations

Amsalu Asfaw, Alemu Yami and Solomon Mogus................... 181

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Studies on the level of inclusion of rapeseed meal (b. napus vs `tower') in broiler finisher rations

Amsalu Asfaw, Alemu Yami and Solomon Mogus................... 189

Evaluation of the effect of cutting height on dm forage yield and quality of napier grass (pennisetum purpureum) in northeastern part of Wello

Samuel Menbere and Mesfin Dejene.......................................... 199

Forage yield performance and the residual effect of undersown forage crops on maize grain and residue yields

Diriba Geleti and Lemma Gizachew.......................................... 213

In vivo assessment of the nutritional value of cactus pear (opuntia ficus-indica) as a substitute to grass hay in sheep rations

Firew Tegegne .............................................................................. 225

Determination of optimum nursery soil mixture and pot size for propagation of Leucaena pallida: A promising browse species at Bako

Abebe Yadessa and Diriba Bekere.............................................. 235

Grain and forage yield responses of maize genotypes intercropped with lablab purpureus under bako condition, Western Ethiopia

Diriba Geleti, Lemma Gizachew and Adane Hirpha ............... 247

The effect of improved forages and/or concentrate supplementation on live weight of horro lambs and growing bulls

Melese Abdisa, Diriba Geleti, Lemma Gizachew, Temesgen Diriba and Adane Hirpa............................................................. 259

Herbaceous species composition, dry matter production and condition of the major grazing areas in the mid rift valley of Ethiopia

Amsalu Sisay, Robert Baars and Zinash Sileshi ..................... 267

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Panicum coloratum and stylosanthes guianensis mixed pasture under varying relative seed proportion of the component species: Yield dynamics and intercomponent interaction during the year of establishment

Diriba Geleti................................................................................. 285

Effect of seed rate proportion of panicum coloratum and stylosanthes guianensis on forage dry matter yield, yield components and nutritional quality of the mixture

Diriba Geleti................................................................................. 295

ANIMAL HEALTH AND REPRODUCTION

Testicular growth and its relationship with linear body measurements in borana friesian crossbred bullcalves at different ages

Yohannes Gojjam, Azaage Tegegne, Alemu G/Wold, Mengistu Alemayehu and Zelalem Yilma ................................. 313

Experience on field AI management in Ethiopia Tsegaye Shiferaw, Mureja Shiberu and Tesfaye Cherinet....... 323

The problem of Acaricide resistance for the control of ticks Solomon Gebre ............................................................................. 337

Prevalence of mastitis at Alemaya University dairy farm Girma Tefera................................................................................ 353

Economics of gastrointestinal nematode parasite control: The case of protein supplementation

Aynalem Haile, R.L. Baker and J.E.O. Rege ............................ 359

Milk yield and reproductive performance of Borana cows and growth rate of their calves under partial suckling method

Yohannes Gojjam, Zelalem Yilma, Gizachew Bekele, Alemu G/Wold and Sendros Demeke .................................................... 367

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Rift Valley Fever an emerging threat to livestock trade and food security in the Horn of Africa: A review

P. Bonnet, Markos Tibbo, Assegid Workalemahu and M. Gau................................................................................................ 379

Honorarium ......................................................................................... 405

List of Participants ............................................................................. 407

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Preface This publication is the outcome of the 9th Annual Conference of ESAP, and it is the

9th Proceedings in this series. The theme of the Conference is highly topical and timely as it coincided with the time when there is extensive dialogue on various aspects of the National Poverty Reduction Strategy Document.

In Ethiopia, the contribution of livestock to food security is not limited to direct food production, and goes well beyond. Livestock are a major component of agriculture across the range of agro-climatic zones, from the arid and semi-arid nomadic pastoral areas through mid-altitude mixed crop-livestock production zones to the high altitude afro-alpine climate of dispersed sheep and cattle raising areas. Apart from food, livestock are a source of quick cash through sales of animals and their products, and in so doing they serve as a living bank; in the value embodied in them, livestock provide vital financial security benefits for use at times of difficulty; manure is an important source of fertiliser as well as fuel in the densely populated highlands; animal traction is a critical input to smallholder mixed farmers of the highlands; livestock are also part of the social and cultural values of their owners. It appears that with declining average holdings of cultivated land and worsening standards of living, livestock become more important to support the well being of rural families. The prospects for improved food security and overall well being, therefore, depend on sustainable increases in the contribution of livestock to family income, and through these, to the national economy.

Apart from the three invited plenary papers on the theme of the conference, a total of 27 articles are included in this publication. As before, these are categorised into Animal production, Feeds and Nutrition, and Animal Health and Reproduction. All of these have undergone the essential review process in an attempt to maintain high scientific standards. The reviews were done by a selected set of volunteer researchers, academicians and development practitioners, and the whole process is managed by the elected ESAP Editors. This is important because the ESAP Proceedings happen to be the only source of current research publication for many members of ESAP who work and live far from academic and research institutions.


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This meant that numerous manuscript submissions to the Conference could not be accepted, and the authors were duly informed of the reasons for the specific decisions of the Editors. It is unfortunate that two of the invited papers to the Conference could not be included in the proceedings because the authors could not produce them in time.

Most of the printing costs of this publication were covered by the finances of ESAP, which weigh heavily on the financial status of the society in general. Let us take this opportunity to encourage members of ESAP and other users of the proceedings to help us in soliciting available funds from the institutions and organizations that they work with. We hereby express our gratitude to the reviewers and editors who offered their valuable time for this service of ESAP.

With the support of its members and the respective institutions, which regularly provide financial and administrative support to its activities, ESAP will continue to promote the advancement of animal production in Ethiopia and provide a scientific forum for exchange of ideas and concepts, which enhance the improvement of animal production in the country. It is particularly encouraging to see the growing interest in support of the on-going effort to produce CD-ROMs of all the ESAP publications and related agricultural documents to electronically disseminate them in a more cost-effective and sustainable manner. Comments and ideas of this kind help us move even faster, and these are always welcome.

Workneh Ayalew, Ph.D. President, ESAP

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Welcome Address Alemayehu Reda

President, Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP)

Your Excellency, Dr. Seifu Ketema Director General of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Distinguished Guests, and Conveyance Participants

On behalf of the Executive Committee of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, it gives me a great pleasure and I feel much honored to welcome each and every one of you to the Ninth Annual Conference of ESAP.

Ladies & Gentleman World has the image of us as always being poor. Poverty is an insult and it stinks. It demeans, dehumanises, destroys moral and mind, if not the soul. It is the deadliest form of violence. Worst of all, poverty persists and outlives even the most imaginative strategies to alleviate it. Lack of access to adequate food (food in security) is one of the symptoms of poverty.

The various forms of food insecurity persist in our country: chronic, transitory, food supply (national aggregate) and food consumption (individual insecurities). The prevalence of the different forms of food insecurities, show us the true picture of national and household level situation.

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Achieving food security means ensuring that sufficient food is available, that supplies are relatively stable and that those in need of food can obtain it.

The challenge to achieving food security for all is greater now than it has ever been. The problem is not only the result of insufficient food production and inadequate


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distribution, but also of the financial difficulties of the poor to purchase food of reasonable quality in adequate quantities to satisfy their needs.

Agriculture is a means to an end, not an end in itself. It is simply humanity’s way of meeting its nutritional, economic and socio-cultural needs. It meets some people’s greed but not every one’s need.

Animal agriculture constitutes a very important component of the agrarian economy, a contribution that goes beyond direct food production to include multipurpose uses such as skins, fibre, fertilizer and fuel as well as capital accumulation. Furthermore, livestock are closely linked to the social and cultural lives of several million resource-poor farmers for whom animal ownership ensures varying degree of sustainable farming and economic stability.

Dear Participants! When you come to our situation, in the midst of the huge livestock resources, we have been suffering from shortage of food of animal origin. Standing tenth in the world and first in Africa in the numbers of livestock, it is a paradox that we have been receiving aid and most super markets are stocked with imported foods of animal origin. It is, therefore, high time that we researchers, planners development workers, policy makers, donors and NGOs think of the status of these resources and relate it with their potential contributions to food security.

The theme of the Ninth Annual Conference, “Livestock in Food security: Roles and contribution”, is in recognition of the importance of the issue. Accordingly the conference has attracted professionals outside livestock disciplines, apart from government organizations, people from Non-Governmental Multilateral and Bilateral Organizations and representatives of Professional associations.

Six panel of topics that are directly related to the theme will be presented. The first day of this conference will adequately address issues that are pertinent to the theme.

The second day (probably starting from late in the afternoon) of the workshop will focus on technical issues related to animal sciences. A total of thirty one papers,


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including 10 in Animal Production, 13 in Feeds and Animal Nutrition and 8 in Animal Health and Reproduction, will be presented in three concurrent sessions.

The executive committee of ESAP and Editorial Board of Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production (EJAP) have honored their commitment, a commitment of giving you a new-year offer of the first issue of the Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production (EJAP), our new scientific organ.

Ladies and Gentleman would you join me to congratulate the executive committee and the editorial board!

I am greatly indebted to Addis Ababa University, Research and Publication Office particularly Prof. Endeshaw Bekele, for covering the printing cost of the eight ESAP conference proceedings.

I wish to thank you all participants for scarifying your time and money to attend this conference, your presence indicates a professional commitment for scientific excellence and development in animal production in Ethiopia.

May, I now respectfully invite His Excellency Dr. Seifu Ketema, Director General of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization to officially open the ninth Annual conference of ESAP.

Thank you very much for taking heed of my welcome

I thank you all!

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Opening Address Dr. Seifu Ketema,

Director General, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization

Dear Invited Guests, Conference Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen,

It gives me a great pleasure and feel very much honored, to make this opening speech which marks the beginning of this professional conference. What impresses me most is the theme of this conference, the Role of Livestock to Food Security.

In Ethiopia and some developing countries access by all citizens all year round to food required for them to lead a healthy and productive life is an endemic problem. According to the World Food Program projection, in Africa, about 100 million people do not consume enough food to allow an active working life. The issues of food security and sustainable agriculture nowadays are challenges of 55 low-income countries. This makes the theme a continental as well as international issue.

Recurrent drought, high population growth rate, nutrient depletion and military conflict are some of the factors attributed to low food production in many of the sub-Saharan countries. Ethiopia is one of these countries.

Conceptually seeking food security means minimizing the risk of food production and/or income losses resulting from variations in ecological, economic or social processes. The key elements that determine successful food security are availability, access and use of food items which are the outcome of multiple process of food supply, marketing and demand operating at both household and national level.

The size of Ethiopian Livestock Resources is the largest national figure in Africa accounting for 17% of the cattle, 15% of the small ruminants and 49% of the equines of the continent. But the off-take and the per capita consumption of major products is, however, as you may very well know, is one of the lowest is the world.


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Despite the different natural and inherent challenges that the indigenous livestock face, the resource plays a significant and sometimes decisive role in the provision of food, power and income generation both at the household and at national levels. The role and contribution that livestock play in the Ethiopian highland farming and lowland pastoral communities towards food security is complex.

To the 3 million pastoral population livestock are vital to survival and food security. The share of milk in the diet of pastoralists ranges from 25 to 76% of the total food consumption. This figure varies according to season and ethnic group. Pastoral households derive more than 50% of their income from livestock. It can be generalized that pastoralists generate most of their economic goods and nutritional needs via livestock rather than crops. Small ruminants are kept because of ease of their disposal through sales when cash is required.

At farm household level in the highlands where crop-livestock production systems prevail, each farmer maintains one or two cows to produce 300 kg milk per cow and to produce two oxen needed for draft. The 6 million oxen that the country has are the main source of draft power for grain production. Much of the cereal grains that the country produces heavily rely on oxen power. Beside this, the oxen are the major source of meat.

At the level of peasantry, livestock and livestock products account for up to 40% of the average farm income. At national level, Ethiopia, of course, has never exported milk and milk products. Yet, livestock and livestock products (except dairy products), are an important source of foreign exchange earnings. In this regard, hides and skins are the most frequently cited livestock products next to coffee. Few years back, export earning from hides and skins accounted for 16% of the total export earnings. This is, of course, very low as compared to the total livestock population.

Livestock do contribute to the current food supply and income generation. Nevertheless, the current product supply does not ensure food security. Rather livestock production and the per capita consumption are declining. Different factors contribute to the shortage of livestock food supply, including the high population


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growth rate, recurrent drought and the low production per head of the livestock population.

There is unmatched growth between the human and the livestock population. Recent reports show that the livestock population growth rate is almost half of that of the human population.

Since the year 253 B.C. we have experienced 40 periods of drought and famine. Drought affects not only affects humans, but also livestock in two principal ways: reduction and even loss in yield, and loss of the livestock themselves.

Causes for the low production per animal of the local livestock are many and varied. Shortage of food supply of animal origin can be overcome by working on these problems and developing technologies to increase production per animal.

Dear Participants, Ladies and gentlemen, Food security and poverty reduction are priority policy issues in the Ethiopian government development plan. Among the mainly resources, one area of focus is the development of the livestock sector. The current government policy attaches great importance to develop the national livestock. Along this line support is provided to various institutions by designing and implementing appropriate policies and strategies, by establishment of essential institutions and by launching of different national projects. The establishment of Livestock Marketing Authority, development of the national livestock research strategy of EARO, the on going National Livestock Development Project, and initiation of the pastoral extension program are part of this national effort. The challenge now is to develop technologies that fit to the smallholder and commercial private sectors of livestock production, which I believe is one of the focus of discussion of this conference.

The present role of livestock to food security can be enhanced through research, extension and training, which all need the input of most participants of this conference. Otherwise, reiterating the country’s livestock resource potential per se does not bring about significant changes to the contribution of the resource to national and individual food security.


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Finally, I wish you all the best in your deliberation and officially declare that the conference is open.

Thank You.

LIVESTOCK IN FOOD SECURITY: ROLES AND CONTRIBUTIONS

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Role of livestock in food security and food self sufficiency in the Highland production system Hadera Gebru

Animal and Fisheries Resources Development and Regulatory Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Box 7066 Addiss Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract

The objective of this paper was to examine the role of livestock in food security and food self-sufficiency in the highland production system. The Highlands: are areas above 1500 m.a.s.l; occupy 44 percent of the total land area of the country; and are populated by 90 of the human population. Almost all crops are produced and about 70 percent of the livestock population is found in the highlands. Until recently, food security has been ill perceived and has been mainly associated with boosting crop production, and among others the role of livestock in food security and food self-sufficiency was not rightly understood. However, perceptions are getting refined and rectified since recently. According to the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Submit Plan of Action, "Food Security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economical access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preference for active and healthy life". Within this perception and Highland Production System context, the role of livestock in food security is significant. In the highland production system, livestock are an integral part of agriculture: are major source of draft power and nutrient cycling to maintain the variability and environmental sustainability of crop production; are living bank, source of cash and empower their owners with purchasing power; they are important producers of food and an avenue of agricultural intensification, contributing to the overall sustainability of agriculture. As such livestock play important role in the efforts to ensure, among others, the physical and economic access to sufficient and nutritious food, and hence food security and food self-sufficiency in the highland production system.


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Introduction The role of livestock in food security and food self-sufficiency in the Highland

Production System is important. The Highlands are: areas above 1500 m.a.s.l.; occupy 44 percent of the total land area of the country; and are populated by 90 of the human population Almost all crops are produced and about 70 percent of the livestock population is found in the highlands (Brannang and Persson, 1990). Food security and food self-sufficiency have not been rightly perceived until recently, and were mainly associated with increasing crop production, without considering other key factors and resources including livestock. Nevertheless, recent understandings and perceptions of food security and food self-sufficiency are getting rectified and broad based. According to the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Submit Plan of Action, "Food Security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economical access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preference for active and healthy life" (Anderson et al., 1999). In line with this the role that livestock play in food security is vital.

In the Highland Production System, hundreds of millions of people depend on animal power for cultivation, planting, weeding, threshing and transporting (Branning and Persson, 1990; Animal Agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999; National Livestock Development Program of Ethiopia, 1997). Draft animals provide the power for the cultivation of nearly 96% of the highlands cultivated land (Brannang and Persson, 1990). For the vast majority of small-holders, nutrient recycling through manure compensate for lack of access to chemical fertilizer, and help to maintain the variability and environmental sustainability of production (National Livestock Development Program, 1997; Steinfeld et al., 1998). In addition forage crops grown for ruminant animals increase soil organic matter, improve soil texture, and increase water retention and reduce run-off, all contributing to increased crop production and productivity (Cheeke, 1993).

Raising livestock is an important, often the main, source of income for millions of small holders farmers in the Asia, Africa and Latin America (Haan et al., 1998). Livestock are cash at hand and empower their owners with purchasing power. In

Livestock in Food Security: Roles and Contributions


the Highland Production System livestock are source of cash for purchase of food as required, and also for purchase of agricultural inputs to increase crop production.

They are important as producers of meat, milk and eggs, which are part of the food chain and, which provide high value of protein food (Cheeke, 1993; Animal Agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999). They have long played a key role in supplying calories, and protein for human food in virtually all parts of the world, both directly (in the form of animal products) and indirectly (from the contribution of manure and draught power to crop production and generation of income to enable purchase of food). The role of livestock in foreign currency earning is also substantial in many developing countries, which are often with limited export items (Cheeke, 1993; Haan et al., 1998). In Ethiopia, Livestock are only second to coffee in foreign exchange earnings (National Livestock Development program, 1997). The foreign exchange earnings from livestock are used among others to import food items and agricultural inputs (fore example fertilizer), which in turn increase crop production.

However, as important component of agriculture and one of the main users of natural resource, livestock can unfavorably react with the environment. In the Highland Production System, negative livestock-environment interaction impacts have been associated mainly with overgrazing and land degradation (Haan et al., 1998). Nevertheless, livestock associated environmental damages have little to do with livestock per se, but with the ever increasing and conflicting interests that people carry for both livestock and the environment. More often ignorance about ecosystems and their links with livestock leads to wrong policy and development decisions. This paper discusses the role of livestock in food security and food self-sufficiency in the highland production system.

Role of Livestock in Food Security and Food Self Sufficiency in the Highland Production System

Highland Production System is the largest production system in Ethiopia in terms of animal numbers, total production and number of people served. Livestock are essential component of agriculture in the Highland Production System and are source of: power, organic fertilizer, income, food and foreign currency. According to the Rome



Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Submit Plan of Action, "Food Security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economical access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preference for active and healthy life" (Anderson et al., 1999). Accordingly the role of livestock in the Highland Production System in food security and food self-sufficiency is significant considering their contribution to the system. Generally to fully understand the positive contribution of livestock to the production system, with regard to food security and food self-sufficiency, issues of livestock need to be addressed in a holistic manner and not in an isolation (Cheeke, 1993).

Source of Power Importance of livestock as major source of power in the Highland Production

System has been well documented (Brannang and Persson, 1990; Cheeke, 1993: Haan et al., 1998; Steinfeld et al., 1998; Animal agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999). Hundreds of millions of people in the Highland Production System depend upon animal power for cultivation, planting, weeding, threshing and transportation. Telein and Murry (1991) cited evidence that draft animals provide the power for the cultivation of nearly 50 % of the world cultivated land and the hauling of 25 % carts. More than 240 million cattle and 60 million buffalo are kept as work animals. In Ethiopia, the vast majority of rural people comprising 85 percent of the total population (90 percent of the total population is in the Highland Production System) depend on animal power for cultivation, weeding, threshing and transportation. As else where in developing countries (Cheeke, 1993), use of tractors is very insignificant in the Highland Production System, for reasons of economy, topography and highly fragmented land holdings. Draft animals provide power for about 96 percent of the cultivated land in the Highland areas. Work animals can be also used to cultivate arable land inaccessible to tractors. They are relatively affordable and do not require inputs, which tractors would require such as fuel, repairs, and spare parts. This is particularly important in view of the shortage of foreign currency earnings, which Ethiopia has.

In Ethiopia Gryseels et. al (1984) observed a positive relationship between the number of oxen owned by farm household and both the area cultivated and



percentage of sown to marketable cereals. There are cases where arable lands are not cropped and/or not timely and efficiently cultivated, due to lack of or emaciated (weak) work animals, which in turn reduces overall crop production, regardless of availability of improved agricultural inputs (seed fertilizer etc.). It can be argued that issues of crop production cannot be efficiently addressed in isolation, without considering livestock, which are the major source of traction power. Therefore as source of power livestock are means of crop production and play role in ensuring availability of food, which is an element of food security. Furthermore, as means of transport for agricultural produce to household and market places, they link supply and demand and hence assist in food distribution.

Nevertheless, until recently recognition of livestock as important source of power has not been well established, and for many years aid programs, and foreign specialists virtually ignored the roles of draft animals in food production (Cheeke, 1993). There was often a tendency to regard animal power as an archaic concept, to be replaced with fossil fuel-power device as soon as possible, which reflects disregard and lack of understanding of the role of livestock in the rural setting of developing countries. Accordingly, efforts to improve availability, accessibility and efficiency of animal power have been negligible in programs to boost crop production. However recently, it is being increasingly recognized that animal power will remain important in many developing countries for years to come, and attitude is changing.

Source of Organic fertilizer Livestock play a significant role in maintaining soil fertility in the Highland

Production System. When spread on cropland, animal manure increases soil organic matter, and improves soil texture (Cheeke, 1993; Haan et al., 1998; Animal Agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999). For the vast majority of small-holders in the highlands, nutrient recycling through manure, compensate for lack of access to chemical fertilizer, and helps to maintain the variability and environmental sustainability of production (Steinfeld et al., 1998). While global fertilizer use increased from 81 to 96 kg/ha of cropland, fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa in 1988 to 1990 was estimated to be only 11 kg/ha of harvested land. A rate projected to



increase to only 21 kg/ha harvested land by 2020 (Food and agricultural Organization of the United Nation, 1993; Animal Agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999). Chemical fertilizer use in Ethiopia was only 17 kg/ha in 199/2000 (personal communication), which is very low, indicating the potential role of animal manure as accessible, cheap and valuable fertilizer.

Crop response to manure varies with plant and soil types, agro-ecological zones, and with manure quality (Animal agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999). Powell (1986) reported a response of 180 kg maize grain per ton of manure applied in the sub-humid zone of Nigeria. An added benefit is the residual positive effect of manure, which may persist for up to three cropping seasons after application (Ikombo, 1989; Powell et.al., 1989). McIntire et.al. (1992), estimated increases in grain ranging from 15 to 86 kg grain per a ton of manure applied to cropland. Therefore efficient use of this valuable resource remains vital, in efforts to attain household food security in a sustainable manner. In addition, forage crops (grasses and legumes) grown for ruminant animals increase soil organic matter, improve soil texture, and increase water retention and reduces run-off (Cheeke, 1993). Deep-rooted legumes such as alfalfa bring up minerals from the sub-soil, and open up sub soil channels to improve water percolation to replenish ground water. While growing forage crops in a larger scale might not be practical in the highlands of Ethiopia, mainly due to shortage of land, the ongoing conservation based forage development interventions in the Highland Production System, require attention and promotion. Generally as source of organic fertilizer livestock play great role in boosting crop production. This is in line with ensuring food availability and preference (the current preference for organic produce), which are elements of food security.

Source of Income and Living Bank Livestock raising, is an important, often the main, source of income in the

Highland Production System. Livestock are important sources of income for at least 200 million small-holder farmers in the Asia, Africa and Latin America (Haan et al., 1998). In the highlands of Ethiopia livestock are indicators of wealth of a family and are used for wealth ranking. Further, they are the main form of investment because of



the absence of financial institutions. Livestock are cash at hand and provide owners with purchasing power. In many countries, access to food is limited not by availability but by purchasing power (Animal Agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999). For example in Ethiopia, crop production has increased and the country has become a net exporter. Yet, some of the export has been purchased by the European Community, for distributing to poor Ethiopians who cannot purchase food regardless of its availability. Livestock are often sold to generate cash, amongst others to purchase food (in times of crop failure) and purchase agricultural inputs, which inturn increase crop production. Therefore livestock as a source of cash ensure economic accessibility to food, hence key role in attaining food security. Inaddition to being source of cash for purchase of improved agricultural inputs, livestock are means of increasing food production.

Source of food In the Highland Production System livestock are important as producers of meat,

milk and eggs, which are parts of the food chain and, which provide high value protein food. They have long played a key role in supplying calories and protein for human food in virtually all parts of the world, both directly (in the form of animal products), and indirectly (from the contribution of manure and draught power to crop production and generation of income to enable purchase of food (Animal Agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999).

The important contribution of livestock into the human dietary protein has been reported by (Ckeeke, 1993; Hann et al., 1998; Animal Agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999). In the first half of the 1990s, residents of developed countries consumed as food 78 kg of meat and 22 kg of fish per capita, with higher amount of meat in the United States and higher amount of fish in Japan. Corresponding figures for Sub Saharan Africa were 12 kg of meat and 8 kg of fish. The significance of livestock in the food chain can be expected to increase over the next decades. While demand for animal products in the developed world will probably plateau or even decline, there will be a strong increase in the developing countries (Haan et al., 1998; Animal Agriculture and Global Food Supply, 1999). Current levels of meat and milk consumption in the developing world are only about one-fifth of those in the industrialized world (Haan et al., 1998). The driving force for the increased



demand for livestock products is a combination of population growth, currently relatively low intake, and rising incomes and urbanization (Cheeke, 1993; Haan et al., 1998). The current demand driven livestock revolution underway is in response to the ever-increasing demand for animal origin food in developing countries. In line with this there are encouraging moves in livestock development in the highlands of Ethiopia to increase animal production and, hence animal origin food of animal origin.

Through their evolutionary history, humans have consumed foods of animal origin, obtained originally by hunting and fishing, then for several millennia from domestic animals. Thus a desire for such high quality food in the diet is quite literal and natural (Cheeke, 1993), which clearly indicates the deep-rooted significant role of livestock in the food chain. This needs to be rightly recognized in the efforts to attain food security of many poor developing nations, including Ethiopia. Considering the significance of livestock in the food chain (which is also expected to increase over the next decades) and the increasing demand (preference) for animal origin food, the role of livestock in food security and food self-sufficiency is and will be important. Both supply of food and meeting preference are elements of food security and livestock contribution to the availability of food is important in the efforts to ensure food self-sufficiency.

Source of Foreign currency The role of livestock in foreign currency earnings is substantial in Ethiopia, a

country, which have very limited export items (Cheeke, 1993; Haan et al. 1998). In Ethiopia, a country with huge, yet untapped livestock potential, livestock are only second to coffee (the major export crop) in foreign currency earning. Foreign currency earning generated from livestock, are used for, amongst others, to import different goods and services for the development of the country. Among others chemical fertilizer and other agricultural inputs are imported. As such livestock are playing important role in increasing crop production (through purchase of agricultural inputs) and in ensuring purchasing power. Their significance in this regard is vital and need to be clearly understood, and efficient use made of the opportunity they offer. Given that 70 percent of livestock population in the highlands of Ethiopia, a wise use of the



resource needs to be made in the efforts to ensure food security and food self sufficiency.

Contemporary Issues (hot spots) of Livestock-Environment interaction impacts

One of today’s crucial agricultural dilemmas is how to find a balance between a fast growing global demand for food and the need to sustain the natural resource base of land, water, air and bio-diversity (Cheeke, 1993; Steinfeld, et al., 1998). As important component of agriculture, livestock are one of the main users of natural resource and can favorably and unfavorably react with the environment. Sere and Steifeld (1996) reported that about 34 million km2 or about 21 percent of the world’s land area is used for grazing livestock, and 3 million km2 or about 21 percent of the world’s arable land is used for cereal production for livestock feed. Haan, et al (1989) and Steinfeld et al (1998) have made a comprehensive review and have critically analyzed livestock-environment interaction impacts across the livestock production systems. In the Ethiopian Highlands negative livestock-environment interaction impacts are associated with overgrazing and land degradation. (Haan, et al., 1998; Steinfeld et al., 1998). But how do they happen?

While grazing animals can improve soil cover by dispersing seeds with their hoofs; through manure; while controlling shrub growth; breaking up soil crust and removing bio-mass (which otherwise might provide fuel for bush fires), on the other hand heavy grazing or overgrazing causes chemical and physical soil degradation (Cheeke, 1993; Steinfeld, 1998). Overgrazing reduces plant cover, causes soil compaction and hence reduces infiltration and increases run-off, decreases soil fertility, organic matter content, all contributing to physical and chemical land degradation.

Grazing per se, does not destroy or degrade grasslands and ranges. The major threat to grassland ecosystems today is their potential for conversion to farmlands, which has often been favored by development programs and policies (Cheeke, 1993). Across the world the most productive pasture lands are being turned into crop lands as demands for arable lands continues to increase with the rapid increase of human population, with livestock being marginalized into limited and increasingly poorer



and fragile grazing area. The situation is the same in the Highland Production System of Ethiopia.

Therefore, livestock associated environmental damages have a lot to do but with the ever increasing and conflicting interests that people carry for both livestock and the environment. More often ignorance about ecosystems and their links with livestock leads to wrong policy and development decisions. The challenge is to critically identify and enhance positive contributions of livestock in agricultural development that will satisfy current and future human needs, while preserving the natural resource base. With government support and willingness and commitment by all stakeholders, there are sufficient mechanisms to keep adverse effects of livestock production within acceptable limits. Thereby enhance the net contribution of livestock to sustainable agriculture; such a move contributes significantly towards the efforts to ensure food security and food self-sufficiency.

Conclusion Livestock will remain exceedingly important in sustaining the overall farming

system, and hence will have significant role in the efforts to ensure food security and food self-sufficiency in the Highland Production System. They are major sources of traction power (renewable energy); organic fertilizer; cash; are living bank that provide owners with purchasing power; and are important food producers. As such livestock are important in ensuring physical and economic access to nutritious food, which are elements of food security and food self sufficiency.

Whereas the positive contributions of livestock to agricultural development is substantial, as one of the major users of natural resource, they can cause environmental damage associated with overgrazing and land degradation in the Highland Production System.

In essence the root causes of the livestock associated environmental damages are the ever increasing and conflicting interests that people carry for both livestock and environment. Population pressure, poverty and the growing demand for livestock and livestock products are often translated into environmental damage and disruption of sustainable natural resource base. Moreover, ignorance about



ecosystems and their links with livestock leads to wrong policy and development decisions.

The Challenge is therefore, to fully capture the contribution of livestock in development that will satisfy current and future human needs while conseving the natural resource base. Ample opportunities exist not only to mitigate environmental damage, but also to tap the immense development potential that livestock offer, and hence their role in the efforts to ensure food security and food self sufficiency in the Highland production System.

References Anderson, P.P, Pandya-Lorch, R, and Rosegrant, M.W, (1999). World food prospects:

critical issues for the early twenty—first century. Food policy report. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington. D.C., U.S.A.

Animal agriculture and global food supply. (1999). Task force report. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology No. 135. The United States of America.

Brannang, E. and Person, S. (1990). Ethiopian Animal Husbandry. South Eastern Agricultural Zone. Assella, Ethiopia.

Cheeke, P. R. (1993). Contemporary issues in animal agriculture. Second edition. Interstate Publishers, Danville, IL.

FAO (1990). The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries. FAO animal production and Health paper No.85. Rome.

Gryseels, G. A., Astateke, A., Anderson F.M. and Assemenow, G. (1984). The use of single oxen for crop cultivation in Ethiopia. International livestock Center of Africa. Bulletine 18: 20-25.

Hann, C.de, Steinfeld, H. and Blackburn, H. (1998). Livestock-environment interaction: issues and options. Report of a study. WRENmedia, Fressingfield, EYE, Suffolk, IP21 5SAUnited Kingdom.

Ikombo, B.M. (1989). Effects of manure and fertilizers on maize in Semi-arid areas of Kenya. E.African Agric. Forestry. J.44: 266-274.

McIntire, J., Bourzat, D. and Pingali, P. (1992). Crop-livestock interaction in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

National ruminant livestock development strategy of Ethiopia. (1996). Addiss Ababa, Ethiopia.



National livestock development program of Ethiopia. (1997). Addiss Ababa, Ethiopia.

Powell, J.M., Pearson R.A., and Hopkins, J.C. (1998). Impacts of livestock on crop production. In: M.Gill, T.Smith, G.G. Pollott, E. Owen, and T.L.J. Lawrence (eds.). Food, lands and livelihoods: setting research agendas for animal science. Occasional publication No.21. British Society of Animal Science, Edinburgh, Scotland.

Powell, J.M. (1986). Manure for cropping. A case study from central Nigeria. Exper. Agr. 22(1): 15-24.

Sere, C. and Steinfeld, H. (1996). World livestock production systems: Current status, issues and trends. Animal production and health paper. No. 127. FAO, Rome.

Steinfeld, H., Hann, c.de and Blackburn, H. (1998). Livestock-environment interaction: issues and options. Report of a study. WRENmedia, Fressingfield, EYE, Suffolk, IP21 5SAUnited Kingdom.

Teleni, E, and Murray (1991). Nutrient requirements of draft cattle and buffaloes. Pp.1131-119. In: Ho, Y.W., H.K. Wong, N. Abdullah, and Z.A. Tajuddin (eds.). Recent advances on the nutrition of herbivors. Malaysian Soc. Anim. Prod., Serdang, Malaysia.


Conservation of livestock biodiversity and its relevance to food security Enyew Negussie and Workneh Ayalew

International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract

The genetic diversity in livestock is manifested in the population numbers, varieties of sub-populations and variabilities within populations of livestock The rising demand on the earth’s natural and cultivated resources to feed and sustain human life has led to a serious depletion in the diversity of plant and animal life forms in both developed and developing countries. The future of sustainable agriculture depends on the availability of a sufficiently large gene pool from which useful genes can be selected. Since demands of the future are largely unknown agro-biodiversity also provides the reservoir of genes to respond to changes in production circumstances, market needs or disease challenges. Genetic diversity is highly relevant in Africa where specific adaptive attributes of indigenous animal genetic resources are vital, and where the production systems depend not on external inputs, but rather on the capacity of genetic resources to thrive under unfavourable environment, like the extremes of climate, disease challenge, and poor plane of nutrition. Many of the existing breeds are, however, declining in numbers due to indiscriminate crossbreeding and gradual replacement by a few exotic and supposedly more productive breeds. Moreover, it is not only these genetic resources and the production systems that they support that are under threat but also the accompanying local knowledge, skills and culture of the communities. Biodiversity is essential to food security not only in the provision of the means to food production in time and space, but also in improving access to the food as well as its effective utilization.



Introduction Biodiversity is a term used to describe the number, variety and variability of living

organisms. For evaluation purposes, biodiversity is divided into its constituent elements of genes, species and ecosystems, which correspond to three fundamental and hierarchically related levels of biological organization. As such, biodiversity represents the entire range of evolutionary and ecological adaptations of species to particular environments (Williams, 1999).

The genetic diversity between and within organisms provides not only alternative ways of resource use, but also the opportunity of modifying the organisms for use in a wide range of environments. The genetic diversity in domestic plants and animals is essential to sustain agricultural production at present and in the future.

Agricultural biodiversity of all food species is a vital sub-set of general biodiversity. It provides the basis of food security and livelihood of billions of people and is the first link in the food chain. This resource base is not unlimited. The rising demand on the earth’s natural and cultivated resources to feed and sustain human life has led to a serious depletion in the diversity of plant and animal life forms in both developed and developing countries. Many natural and semi-natural habitats have either been significantly altered or in some cases destroyed due to intensive and unsustainable cultivation practices. Allied to this, market forces in the developed world have been favouring an increasingly smaller sub-set of highly productive breeds of livestock and varieties of crops, which is an alarming trend for the future of particularly agricultural production.

This paper attempts to give a working definition of biodiversity, highlights the issues related to conservation of agricultural biodiversity and discusses its relevance to food security.

What is biodiversity? Biodiversity is a short term for biological diversity, or the rich variety of life on

Earth. It can also be defined as the millions of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain, and the intricate ecosystems they help build into the living environment (Dobson 1998). By this definition biological diversity must be considered on three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity, and community diversity (Obara



and Hotta, 1998). All these levels of biological diversity are necessary for the continued survival of species and natural communities, and hence man (Long 1998).

Agricultural biodiversity Although the term ‘agricultural biodiversity’ is relatively new, the concept itself is

quite old. Agricultural biodiversity, also known as agro-biodiversity, is a vital sub-set of biodiversity, and constitutes in the main the genetic resources for food and general agriculture. To the extent that agricultural biodiversity has been managed, modified and sustained by man over millennia, it is considered a creation of humankind whose food and livelihood security depend on its continued existence in one or another form. In broader terms agro-biodiversity includes:

1. Harvested crop varieties, livestock breeds, fish and non-domesticated ('wild') resources in crop fields, forests, rangelands and aquatic ecosystems;

2. Non-harvested species within production ecosystems that support food provision, including soil micro-biota, pollinators and so on; and

3. Non-harvested species in the wider environment that support food production ecosystems (agricultural, pastoral, forest and aquatic ecosystems).

This diversity partly results from the interaction between the environment, genetic resources and the influence of humankind. It thus encompasses the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms of the agro-ecosystem, its structure and processes for, and in support of, food production and food security (FAO, 1999).

Agricultural biodiversity has spatial, temporal and scale dimensions especially at the level of agro-ecosystems. There are virtually no ecosystems in the world that are ‘natural’, in the sense of having escaped human influence. The interaction between the environment, genetic resources and management practices determines the evolutionary processes, which may involve, for instance, genetic introgression from wild relatives, hybridization between cultivars, mutations and genetic selection (by both natural and man). These result in genetic materials (crop varieties or animal breeds) that are well adapted to local abiotic and biotic environmental variations.



Advantages of agro-biodiversity The future of sustainable agriculture depends on the availability of a sufficiently

large gene pool from which useful genes can be selected. Since demands of the future are largely unknown agro-biodiversity also provides the reservoir of genes to respond to changes in production circumstances, market needs or disease challenges. Specifically, a broad base of agro-biodiversity can:

1. diversify products and income opportunities, and reduce risks (including those to diseases) to individuals and nations;

2. help maximise effective use of resources and the environment, thereby reduce dependency on external inputs;

3. increase productivity, economic returns, food security and human nutrition; 4. conserve ecosystem structure, reduce pressure of agriculture on the

environment, and make ecosystems more stable, robust and sustainable.

Domestic Animal Diversity Domestic animal diversity refers to the genetic variation existing among the

species, breeds, strains and individuals for all domesticated animal species and their immediate wild relatives, which have been exploited by man to meet the needs for food and agricultural production (Rege 1998). The diversity is manifested in the population numbers, varieties of sub-populations and variabilities within populations. World wide, there are more than 40 species of animals that have been domesticated (or semi-domesticated) during the past 10,000 to 12,000 years and used for agriculture. Out of these 25 are known to contribute to agricultural production in Africa (Table 1). The commonest of species are cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, horses and buffalo, but others like the camel, donkey, elephant, reindeer, yak and rabbits are important to different cultures and regions of the world.

The contribution of livestock to food security Food security refers to access by all people at all times to the food required for a

healthy life; it entails adequate food production, adequate access to food (that could be economic or physical), and adequate food utilization, to ensure that the food consumed contributes to good physical and cognitive development (von Braun et al., 1992). Biodiversity is essential to food security, i.e. to support human welfare, not only in the



provision of the means to food production in time and space, but also in improving access to the food as well as its effective utilization.

Table 1: Some domestic animal species used for food and agriculture and their variations

Species Number of known breeds worldwide

Sheep 850

Cattle 815

Pig 350

Horse 350

Goat 320

Chicken Over 300

Buffalo 70

Donkey/ass 70

Dromedary 50

Duck 65

Turkey 30

Guinea fowl 10

Pigeon 150

Domestic goose 60

Llama 2

Alpaca 2

Source: Rege (1998)

In the broader sense, for many farming communities diversity means security, be it social, cultural or economic. Farmers have managed and utilised genetic resources for as long as they have cultivated crops and raised livestock. Genetic diversity provides security to farmers against pests, disease and unexpected climatic conditions. It is particularly relevant to smallholder farmers in sustaining agricultural production in the highly variable environments. The low input and risk averse production strategies of poor farming communities means that higher yields are obtained from a mixture of species, breeds etc, each specifically adapted to the specific needs, rather than by using modern technology. The genetic wealth is an important reservoir of diversity for agriculture; it provides valuable characteristics for disease resistance and product quality; the diversity also provides viable options to meet both predictable and unforeseen ecological and economic circumstances. Future improvements will have to depend on exploiting the specific adaptive abilities of indigenous animals, because modifying the production environment



appears to continue to be more expensive and less feasible. Communities have developed multiple strategies for their farming systems, almost all of which tend to maintain genetic diversity.

The broad contributions of livestock to food security in poor farming communities are explained not just by their products, but also by their various functions. Product refers to the output of meat, milk, fibre, traction, manure and offspring (as constituents of reproduction and growth). The functions, which are essentially tied to products, are output (products), input (resource use and integration), socio-economic (asset and security) and socio-cultural. The reasons for raising livestock, or the breeding objectives, go beyond the output functions and include benefits in resource use, socio-economic relevance and socio-cultural roles (Jahnke, 1982; Devendra, 1992).

The need for conservation of domestic animal diversity Biodiversity in domestic livestock used for food and agriculture ensures the

production of diverse range of animal products and functions essential to meet the wide range of societal needs under different agro-ecological conditions and cultural settings (Rege, 1998). Conservation of existing livestock genetic resources is, therefore, vital to making agriculture sustainable, because the future of livestock production (breeding) depends on the continued existence of livestock biodiversity at the gene, breed and species level. Sustained improvement of animal production requires maintenance of the diversity in all the constituent parts.

Genetic conservation should be aimed at all existing breeds, regardless of their usefulness under present conditions, because present utility alone cannot be a sufficient criterion for conservation. Developed countries can afford to maintain stocks of rare breeds, but firm measures are still needed in the developing world, especially where indigenous breeds are threatened by the import of exotic strains. Because genetic erosion can be accentuated through well meant poverty alleviation and genetic improvement programmes, genetic impact analysis should be routine where exotics are used (Hall, 1996).



The concept of breeds as a unit of analysis The basis for studying the diversity and utility of farm animal genetic resources is

the concept of breeds. There is no simple, universal definition of a breed as it is more socio-cultural than technical. There are at least two contrasting contexts – the western commercial breeds context and the context of traditional societies (Rege, 2001). In the western context, a breed is defined as a distinct intra-specific group, the members of which share particular characteristics, which distinguish them from other such groups within and outside the species. Formal organisations/societies usually exist for setting breed standards and recording of performance as well as pedigree. The breed population is usually a closed or partially closed population, but it is dynamic because of the selective breeding and occasional, deliberate incorporation of selected bloodlinesIn the context of the traditional societies, a breed can be defined as a distinct intra-specific group, which have common distinguishing characteristics in their geographic area of distribution. The term is not traditionally used, but equivalent concepts do exist. In this context breeds owe their identity to a combination of socio-cultural and geographic separation. Formal breed societies do not exist, but communities identify their own ‘breeds’ or strains. There is no pedigree or performance recording. Reproductive isolation is often due to trait/function preferences and geography.

Rege (2001) suggests two alternative unifying definitions:

1. a homogeneous sub-specific group of domestic livestock with definable and identifiable external characteristics that enable it to be separated by visual appraisal from other similarly defined groups within the same species; or

2. a homogeneous group for which geographical separation from phenotypically similar groups has led to general acceptance of its separate identity. A population of livestock can be accorded a breed identity when groups of farmers in an area can be identified who claim to be raising animals of a distinct type, can reliably recognise that type, exchange germplasm only with other breeders dedicated to holding animals of the type and indicate that such breeding programmes have been going on for many generations.It is assumed that in

the western context the level of genetic diversity within breeds is less than that



between breeds; however, the case of traditional breeds is open to debate, making it difficult to decide on the focus for conservation of animal genetic resources. Nevertheless, breed is taken as the unit of analysis of animal genetic diversity in traditional societies as well, which continue to maintain the majority of indigenous animal genetic resources. For instance, in Africa, 80 to 85 % of the cattle and sheep population and 98% of the goat population are indigenous maintained under traditional management (Scholtz and Hofmeyr, 1992).

Despite, their disproportionate concentration in the eastern part of the continent, which is also home to a larger proportion of the human population, African ruminant livestock are found distributed throughout the continent, across all agro-ecological and production systems (Table 2). The contribution that animal genetic resources make to support human livelihood varies depending on the type of agro-ecology, and hence agricultural production system. However, the dependency on livestock tends to be higher in stressful environments, where crop agriculture is constrained by extremes of climate and soil characteristics.

Table 2: Regional distribution of Africa’s ruminant livestock in Tropical Ruminant Livestock Units in per cent (from livestock population figures in 1995)

Regions of Africa Species

Eastern Western Southern Northern Central Total (%)

Cattle 35.50 14.00 11.30 3.10 4.80 68.70

Sheep 4.60 2.60 2.10 3.50 0.50 13.30

Goats 4.50 3.60 1.10 1.00 0.80 11.00

Camel 5.50 0.30 0.00 0.90 0.30 7.00

Total (%) 50.10 20.50 14.50 8.50 6.40 100.00

Total TRLU (millions)

100.10 41.00 29.00 16.90 12.90 199.90

TRLU/caput 0.48 0.20 0.27 0.13 0.18 0.27

Area (km2)/TRLU

0.07 0.12 0.21 0.42 0.42 0.15

Source: Hofmeyer, et al., (1998).

Current status of existing livestock genetic resources About 30% of the 4500 known breeds that contribute to food production are known

to be at risk of extinction, and it is estimated that currently breeds are being lost at a rate of about six breeds per month. In industrialised countries, the strong market drive for better profitability has favoured the reproduction and expansion of currently



high producer breeds and strains at the expense of indigenous breeds. Similarly, in the developing world current extension trends that favour uniform intensification of agriculture do not go in line with conservation of existing genetic diversity. Low external input agriculture predominantly depends on the existing sophisticated biological chains of nutrient cycling, and the disruption of these systems can make agricultural activities unsustainable. Traditional communities have limited resources to acquire external inputs, and they increasingly use natural resources even to meet subsistence needs. To these communities, losses in agro-biodiversity mean less options in their production systems and hence reduced overall welfare and food security.

Genetic diversity is more relevant in Africa where specific adaptive attributes of indigenous animal genetic resources are vital the production systems depend not on external inputs, but rather on the capacity of genetic resources to thrive under unfavourable environment, like the extremes of climate, disease challenge, and poor plane of nutrition. Many of the existing breeds of Africa are, however, declining in numbers due to indiscriminate crossbreeding and gradual replacement by a few exotic and supposedly more productive breeds which, to be successful, require high inputs, skilled management and comparatively benign environments. Moreover, it is not only these genetic resources and the production systems that they support that are under threat but also the accompanying local knowledge, skills and culture of the communities.

The genetic erosion of agricultural biodiversity is also exacerbated by the loss of forest cover, coastal wetlands, 'wild' uncultivated areas and the destruction of the aquatic environment. This leads to losses of 'wild' relatives, important for the development of biodiversity, and losses of 'wild' foods essential for provision of food and food security, especially at times of crisis (FAO 1996).

Causes of loss of agro-biodiversity The decline in agro-biodiversity has been accelerating throughout the 20th century

in parallel with the demands of an increasing population and associated greater competition for natural resources. In general the principal underlying causes include:

1. The rapid expansion of industrial and Green Revolution agriculture, intensive livestock production, industrial fisheries and aquaculture (some production



systems using genetically modified varieties and breeds) that cultivate relatively fewer crop varieties in monocultures, rear a limited number of domestic animal breeds, or fish; and

2. Globalisation and the extension of industrial patenting and other intellectual property systems to living organisms, which have led to the widespread cultivation and rearing of fewer varieties and breeds for a more competitive global market.

As a consequence of these there have been:

1. Marginalisation of small-scale, diverse food production systems that naturally tend to conserve indigenous varieties of crops and breeds of domestic animals;

2. Reduced integration of crop and livestock production, which lead to less sustainable modes of agricultural production; and

3. Reduced use of 'nurture' fisheries techniques that conserve and develop aquatic biodiversity.

In addition to these, in most of the developing countries of Africa, factors like disease epidemic, drought, war and civil unrest, genetic introgression (uncontrolled and controlled), indiscriminate crossbreeding as well as interbreeding, and neglect of indigenous animal genetic resources in development programs have contributed to the erosion of the genetic resource base.

What should be done? The only sustainable strategy for the conservation of animal genetic resources is

that which ensures they remain a functioning part of the current production systems (Hall, 1992). If agriculture of the future is to be flexible enough to respond to changing market requirements, it is essential to institute effective programmes of genetic conservation (Hall, 1996). However, there is often lack of even the most rudimentary information on many indigenous animal genetic resources in developing countries. The available information regarding many of the indigenous breeds is inadequate, or when available, unreliable. Even at the global level, basic phenotypic data, including approximate figures for population sizes, are currently available on only 50% of the world’s animal genetic resources (Hammond 1998). Therefore, there is also an urgent



need for proper documentation of these resources before they disappear without ever being adequately studied and characterised.

Current extension trends in Ethiopia that favour uniform intensification of agriculture do not go in line with conservation of genetic diversity, mainly because they can disrupt the sophisticated biological chains that form the basis of any sustainable agriculture. Traditional communities secure their subsistence with often limited means at their disposal. Aggressive interventions towards intensive agriculture run the risk of loss of indigenous genetic resources, and with it, reduced farmers’ control over their own production system and genetic resources.

As it is properly described by Ruane (1999) there are three main areas of livestock breed conservation activities in order to ensure sustainable agriculture and food security. These are:

1. promotion of the merit of indigenous genetic resources among all stakeholders, particularly academic and research institutions, policy makers, extension services and farmers;

2. documentation of existing genetic resources, which includes the description of the population sizes, phenotypic characteristics of breeds, their economic performance, any of their special traits or their cultural importance, as well as their genetic uniqueness;

3. establishment and promotion of breed conservation programs directed toward specific breeds, which could include in situ or ex situ programs for endangered breeds; supporting farmers maintaining breeds of lower productivity in today’s economic situation or supporting genetic improvement programmes and managing inbreeding for breeds not currently endangered but which may become so in the near future.

Sustainable programs for conservation of animal genetic resources could be instituted through one or more of the following options depending on available infrastructure and technical capacity:

1. government stations working mainly on conservation, evaluation and multiplication of selected animal genetic resources;

2. other government institutions (research stations, academic establishments)



that take up certain activities contributing to conservation; 3. private interest groups; 4. breed societies; 5. legal or financial inducement or restriction aimed at supporting indigenous

breeds; 6. protected feral populations in the wild, and 7. cryogenic preservation of threatened breeds.

The role of ILRI and national stakeholders Apart from the on-going research activities in the phenotypic, genetic and

molecular characterisation as well as economic valuation of indigenous animal genetic resources, ILRI is developing an electronic database of indigenous animal genetic resources, initially for Africa and later for Asia and Latin America, as a tool for characterisation, evaluation, improvement and conservation of these resources. The database, referred to as Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System (DAGRIS), is designed to be a public domain source of structured information on any of nationally recognised indigenous breeds on their origin, distribution, status, performance and unique features. Potential users of the database are researchers, academicians, extension services, policy makers and farmers. The database will be published on the internet early next year, and its test version was already released. For those users who have no access to the internet, the database will be made available later in the form of a CD-ROM.

Table 3: Regional distribution of known cattle breeds in Sub-Saharan Africa

Regions of Sub-Saharan Africa Breed group

East West South Central Total

Zebu 57 6 5 7 75

Sanga 10 - 18 2 30

Zenga 6 - 1 1 8

Humpless Shorthorn 1 6 - 6 13

Humpless Longhorn 1 - - 1 2

Recent derivatives - 6 3 - 9

Synthetic/composite 1 - 4 1 6

Total 76 18 31 18 143



Currently the database contains information on 143 breeds of cattle, 62 breeds of sheep and 40 breeds of goats in Africa, the regional distribution of which is summarized in tables 3 to 5.

Table 4: Regional distribution of known sheep breeds in Sub-Saharan Africa



Thin-tailed Hair sheep 2 6 2 3 13

Fat-tailed Hair sheep 8 - 8 - 16

Fat-rumped hair sheep 1 - - - 1

Fat-tailed Fur sheep - - 1 - 1

Thin-tailed wool sheep 2 3 - 1 6

Fat-tailed coarse wool sheep

2 - 1 - 3

Fine wool sheep - - 3 - 3

Composite 2 2 13 2 19

Total 17 11 28 6 62

The rationale for institutional collaboration Accurate information is needed on the potential and status of existing biodiversity

to decide on conservation options and priorities. However, numerous stakeholders are involved, in one way or another, in the broader effort of conservation. These include research institutions, academic institutions, biodiversity institutes, extension services, private conservation groups, policy makers and communities (as producers and consumers of animal genetic resources). Owing to lack of national co-ordination, there are duplications of effort by various stakeholders, which provide the rationale for institutional collaboration with the view of co-ordination of effort, efficient use of available resources, capitalise on comparative advantages, and sharing of information.

Table 5: Regional distribution of known goat breeds in Sub-Saharan Africa



Short-eared twisted-horn - 3 - - 3

Short-eared Short-horned 19 2 1 1 23

Lop-eared 5 1 4 1 11

Mohair - - 1 - 1

Composite - - 2 - 2

Total 24 6 8 2 40



Conclusion Loss of biodiversity constitutes a serious threat to sustainable agriculture and

specifically food security in low external input production systems of developing countries. Apart from the immediate objective of increasing agricultural production, concerted action is required for conservation of existing genetic diversity not only to guarantee food security in the short- and long-term, but also to conserve ecosystems. The existing genetic resources provide the basis for agricultural production to meet the needs of the present as well as future generations. Any loss of biodiversity restricts available options of resource utilisation and improvement, both now and in the future.

Since many of the threatened breeds, especially those in developing countries, have not even been properly characterised, the short-term strategy should be to quickly and cost-effectively document these genetic resources. A sustainable and cost-effective way of conservation of existing genetic resources is their present utilisation, which also serves the short-term objective of ensuring food security.

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Hall, S J G, 1992. Conservation of livestock breeds: In: Rege, J.E.O and Lipner, M E. (eds.). 1992. African animal genetic resources: their characterisation, conservation and utilization: Proceedings of the Research Planning Workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 19-21 February 1992. ILCA (International Livestock Centre for Africa), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 172pp.

Hall, S.J.G. 1996. Conservation and utilisation of livestock biodiversity. Outlook on Agriculture 25:115-118.

Hammond, K. 1998. Animal Genetic Resources for the 21st Century. Acta Agric. Scand. Suppl. 28:11-18.



Hofmeyer, J.H.; Bester, J.; Fourie, H.J.; Scholtz, M.M.; Rege, J.E.O. 1998. In: Proceedings of the 8th World Conference on Animal Production. Volume 1. Symposium series. 28 June- 4 July 1998. Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea. pp 245-255.

Jahnke, H E. 1982. Livestock Production Systems and Livestock Development in Tropical Africa. Kieler Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk. Kiel, Germany.

Obara, H. and T. Hotta, 1998. Paradise of Life. Newton. 18:26-41.

Long, M. 1998. The vanishing prairie dog, Nat. Geogr. 193: 116-130.

Rege, J.O.E. 1998. Biological diversity and animal agriculture. In: Proceedings of the 8th World Conference on Animal Production. Special symposium and Plenary sessions. 28 June – 4 July 1998. Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea. pp 523-535

Rege, J O E. 2001. Defining livestock breeds in the context of community-based management of farm animal genetic resources. In: Proc. Community-Based Management of Animal Genetic Rresources – a tool for Rural Development and Food Security. 7 – 11 May, 2001. Mbabane, Swaziland, Department of Veterinary and Livestock Services (In Press).

Ruane, J. 1999. A critical review of the value of genetic distance studies in conservation of animal genetic resources. J. Anim. Breed and Genet. 116(5): 317-323.

von Braun, J, H Bouis, S Kumar and P Pandya-Lorch. 1992. Improving Food Security for the Poor: Concept, Policy and Programs. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.

Williams, T. 1999. Management by majority. Auddubon.101:40-49.


Contribution of animal science research to food security Alemu Yami and Zinash Sileshi

Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), P.O.Box 32 Debre Zeit Ethiopia.

Food production and Nutrition issues Improvement of the living standards in poor developing countries is one of the

most important tasks facing humanity. Agriculture and food play a very important role in carrying out this task. This is because the agricultural sector provides or has provided, the basis for economic development in the majority of developing countries. However, most of the poverty in these countries is found in the agricultural sector itself, leading to insufficient food production. Decline in self-sufficiency is worsening due to environmental dangers to the productive base.

Malnutrition and starvation are caused partly by shortage of food and partly by uneven distribution of available foods. Skewed income distribution and absolute poverty are the primary reasons for the existing uneven food distribution among population groups. In many developing countries skewed income distribution causes food consumption levels far above nutritional needs among high-income groups, while malnutrition and starvation are widespread among the poor.

In market-oriented societies, family food consumption is determined by a number of factors including the needs of the family, incomes, preferences, food prices and prices of other goods. The purchasing power possessed by the individual family, i.e. incomes in relation to prices, is the most important constraint on market demands for food in developing countries. If the purchasing power is very limited, nutritional needs may not be translated to market demand and consumption falls short of requirements. Consequently, while malnutrition may also be caused by other factors, e.g. lack of knowledge among consumers regarding nutrition and food, increasing purchasing power among poor people is the key to nutritional improvements in developing countries. Even though nutritional needs may remain



unsatisfied, the market demand for food is constrained by low consumer incomes. The purchasing power among malnourished families may be increased in two ways. First, incomes may be expanded either through economic growth or income redistribution. Secondly, food prices may be lowered through technological change that causes expanded food supplies and lower production costs. Reduction of the price of other goods consumed by those with low incomes could, of course, also contribute to increase purchasing power. The second is the main entry point for agricultural research.

Agricultural research and economic development There is projected shortages of food and imply deterioration in nutritional situation

in many developing countries unless special efforts are made to counter it. However there is reason to believe that attempts to improve, or at least avoid, a worsening of the food and nutritional situation in developing countries can be successful. Results from international and national research on wheat and rice have shown that modern science-based agricultural technology can assist in obtaining large increases in food production in developing countries. Similarly, evaluation of a series of research projects on other crops and livestock has demonstrated that public investment in agricultural research and diffusion of the results are capable of contributing to very large gains to society in terms of food production, economic growth and improved living standards. Success of the green revolution does suggest that agricultural research and modern technology are extremely powerful tools for expanding food production in such countries. Efforts can certainly not be limited to research only but must also be directed at complementary services and at the overall policy framework. Research doesn’t always imply the search for the miracle breakthrough; more often than not, it seems to be the adaptation of known principles and existing technology to local conditions. This is especially true to our situations.

In addition to its impact on food production and nutrition, technological change in agriculture may have strong influence on other factors which contribute to economic growth, patterns of income distribution and well-being of people. The critical issue then becomes one of the best possible utilization of agricultural research and technology within the overall development strategy. Interaction between research



and technology on the one hand and public policy (existing, as well as potential) on the other is an important element frequently overlooked in discussion and analyses of the socio-economic effects of research. Assessment of agricultural research and technology in isolation ignores the potential benefits from optimal combination of research technology and policy. Conclusions drawn from such isolated assessments are frequently misleading and, if used in research decision-making, would in many cases lead to wrong research priorities and the forgoing of large potential socio-economic benefits.

The nature and characteristics of research Agricultural research produces knowledge and materials, which may be used as

technology in agricultural production to contribute to economic growth and improved standard of living. Therefore, research results and the derived technology may be viewed as being a productive resource like land, labor and capital. However, it is more useful to perceive modern technology as a factor that facilitates improved utilization of these resources. Research results and modern technology differ significantly from traditional production resource in a number of aspects. Five of these aspects are: (1) the uncertainty associated with agricultural research and technology diffusion; (2) time requirements; (3) interaction with other factors of production; (4) the importance of the production environment for the effectiveness of modern technology; (5) external benefits associated with research results and technology.

Agricultural research is both a complex and long term process; its benefits are not as visible as those resulting from other forms of agricultural investment eg. Irrigation. Research is only one factor in the national attempt to change the unfavorable socio-economic environment and promote development. The on-farm adoption of new technologies is restricted due to the lack of inputs, infrastructure, incentives, extension system etc. Available technology is often poorly suited to existing production environments including the physical, biological, socio-economic and institutional limitations found by farmers. The result is low level of technology adoption.

Agricultural research and diffusion of the resulting technology is frequently very time consuming. Total time requirements may be divided in to three phases: (1)



from the initiation to the completion of the agricultural research activities; (2) from the time research results are available until they are tested, combined and transformed to usable technology; (3) from the time the technology is available until it is adopted by farmers and introduced in to the production process.

Reasons for low technology adoption It is generally agreed that farmers. Irrespective of farm size, make production

decision on the basis of a rational assessment of economic and social consequences for the purpose of maximizing the well being of the farm family. Low levels of technology adoption cannot be explained by irrational farmer behavior. Rather, it is a consequence of conflicts between the particular technology available and the limitation within which the farmer must – or does- operate. Such limitations may be caused by series of factors including: (1) risk and uncertainty due to climatic or price variations; (2) lack of ability to cope with large variation in income; (3) lack of knowledge, resources and capital; (4) Agro-ecological conditions unsuited to the particular technology or production system. The need to develop adapt modern agricultural technology to fit the needs, resource endowments and desires of the farmers and the particular production environments cannot be overemphasized. This is a key issue in the discussion on the value of agricultural research. Solutions to many of these socio-economic challenges to development will demand research. However, the number of researchers in animal agriculture remains extremely low.

What can research contribute to food security? Challenges, opportunities and role of research Challenges

The great challenge facing the country is maintenance of food self-sufficiency and food security for the rapidly increasing population and deterioration of the natural resource base. It is roughly estimated that three out of every five people in the developing world do not receive balanced diet. Within the pattern of hunger and malnutrition, the greatest problem is that which results from inadequate protein in the diets of a large proportion of population. Ethiopia is no exception where the problem is critical among vulnerable groups, pregnant and nursing mothers. An



adequate quantity of balanced nutritious food is primary indicator of quality of life, human welfare and development.

The increased pressure on the natural resource base of land and natural vegetation is another one of the major challenges facing the country. The growing demand for cereals and animal products has resulted in the cultivation of more and more marginal land every year resulting in major degradation from increased grazing pressure. At present the productivity of livestock depends on grazing of natural pasture that is characterized as low productivity both in yield and quality.

Opportunities and role of research There are opportunities to improve productivity. This opportunity takes different

forms according to agro-ecological zone (AEZ) and region. Winrock international (1992), reported that Sub-Sahara African countries have great opportunities in maintaining food security in animal products provided they use appropriate strategic actions.

An important corollary of exploiting the opportunity is technological intervention to improve the traditional pattern of production and arrest degradation of natural resources through a better balance of agro-animal-forestry base. Research has a crucial role in generating technologies which can increase productivity, and maintain food security, providing efficient method of production, processing, marketing and generates technologies that increases employment opportunities. Increased animal production can add to food security by direct access to more food of animal origin, increase income of resource poor farmers and increased domestic production which will reduce imports and save foreign exchange. The country has potential to cater to the substantial market demand of animal products of East and North and West Africa, provided illegal export is controlled and health standard is maintained to meet international market demand. Appropriate marketing policy and improvement of the quality of the meat has a big role for such actions.

Economic returns to Agricultural research and modern technology

There is often no clear picture of the financial benefits emanating from research that accrues to producers and consumers. Moreover, little attention is given to the



indirect consequences of agricultural research, such as its effects on the environment. The estimation of the value of agricultural research and technology is difficult and associated with large uncertainties. In spite of these disadvantages, some information is available regarding the economic returns from a series of research programs.

Owing to lack of information, it has been implicitly or explicitly assumed that the return of public investment in agricultural research is low. However, a number of analyses carried out have shown that it has in fact been extremely high in many cases. The estimated rates of return from some research programs in different countries are shown in Table 1. Average annual rates of return for these programs are slightly less than 50%. Expected rates of return from investment of public funds in other activities are typically 10-20%. Thus public investment in agricultural research appears to be a very profitable undertaking. If more farmers have access to the research results, total benefits would increase, while costs remain unchanged.

Major constraints and problems of NARS FAO and UNDP (1984) summarize the major constraints and problems for NARS

in developing countries as follows:-

• Despite its high economic and social benefits, developing countries still do not devote enough funds to research.

• The advantages of agricultural research are still not fully grasped by the farming community and perhaps least valued by the general public.

• The planning of research programs remains weak. The major problems are the lack of balance between short and long-term needs, unclear objectives that fail to provide guidance for resource allocation, and the lack of commitment to solve the problem of poor farmers.

• Research programs continue to suffer from shortage of funds and their timely provision and from lack of identifying the real technical and biological research.

• There is a strong tendency to produce improved technology suited for areas most favored by climate and geography. The development of technology for marginal areas, where complex environmental, technical and socio-economic



factors are at play.

• In most cases, research institutions are not structured to facilitate smooth flow of information.

• The absence of a professional research environment (intellectual stimulation, recognition of success, and group interaction) is a constraint.

• Trained and experienced manpower is in short supply. Retention of manpower in research constitutes a major difficulty. The major factors responsible are inadequate career structures, low salaries and poor conditions of work.

Liaison between research (generation of knowledge) and extension (dissemination of tested technology) is very poor.

Table 1. Estimated rates of return from investment in agricultural research

Commodity Country Period Annual rate of return

Aggregate India 1953-71 40

Maize Chile 1940-77 32-34

Maize Peru 1954-67 35-40

Wheat Mexico 1943-64 69-104

Rice Japan 1930-61 73-75

Rice Tropics 1966-75 46-71

Pastures Australia 1948-69 65-80

Poultry USA 1969 37

Sheep Bolivia 1966-75 44

Dairy India 1963-75 29

Dairy USA 1969 43

Livestock USA 1969 47 Source: Pinstrup-Andersen (1982)

The Ethiopian case Livestock research in Ethiopia has a long history. It has produced notable results

that can improve productivity. However, the productivity of the sector is far lower than expectations. This may partly be due to the sub-optimal utilization of existing technologies or due to technical inefficiencies. On per capita basis, the magnitude of expenditure on livestock services is rather small; 0.06 US per TLU and 10.8% of all agricultural services. On a similar scale of contribution of livestock to GDP (33%), Kenya spent recurrent expenditure on livestock services 2.0 US per TLU and 34% of expenditure of agricultural services (ILCA, 1993).



Current Livestock productivity Livestock production systems in Ethiopia are generally subsistence oriented and

productivity is very low. 8 kg of beef is produced annually per head of cattle compared with 10.7 kg in the Sudan, 14 kg in Kenya, 51 kg in Australia and Argentina and 79 kg in the USA. An estimated 1.7 million head of cattle are slaughtered annually representing an off-take rate of approximately 7 per cent (Lakew, 1991). In terms of beef production, the level of productivity in Ethiopia (110 kg/head) is about 25-30 per cent lower than East Africa (143 kg/head) or the continental average of 156 kg/head (FAO, 1995).

Per capita consumption of milk and meat is estimated to be about 16 kg and 0 kg respectively. Reproductive performance of livestock is low as evidenced in delayed ages at first parturition and long calving interval. Age at first parturition of cattle is above four years; calving interval on the average is 2 years. Milk production from indigenous cows range from 200-250 kg in a lactation period of 150-200 days. Annual lambing and kidding rates are only 1.2 and 1.5 respectively. Off take rates are 19% for sheep and 25 % for goats. Mean carcass weight of small ruminants is 10 kg/animal.

The reason for low productivity of the sector cannot be easily enumerated, as the livestock production system by itself is complex involving many aspects of political, environmental, social, technological and ecological issues. Productivity is low partly due to the use of breeds that are less productive such as milk production, but the major limiting factors affecting productivity are both poor animal health and nutrition.

Demand for animal products and services The country is not self-sufficient in animal products. The consumption of meat and

milk is very low even compared with other African countries. In order to meet the increased local demand, Ethiopia imported large volume of milk and milk products in the form of food aid and commercial imports. Between 1980-1988, Ethiopia imported 139 thousand tones of milk at USD 161 million (Belachew, 1990). The increase in human population has raised the demand for meat, milk and cereals. Beef consumption in Ethiopia is low, 6-7 kg/person/year; and it has been estimated that



meat provides only 10 % of the protein for human needs (CADU, 1970). Recent estimate showed that beef production of the country declined from 245,000 tones in 1991 to 231,000 tones in 1995, and this was unable to keep pace with population growth observed in the same year (55,053,000). Hence, the consumption declined further to 4.2 kg/person/year.

The demand on animal products is influenced by population, urbanization and income growth. Taking all these factors into considerations, the 4 per cent set goal of food production in sub-Saharan African countries needs increases in meat production from ruminants from the current rate of production 1.1 to 1.9 per cent to 3.4 per cent. Poultry production has to increase by 5.2% to cover this deficit. Such an increase needs substantial progress in the use of improved technologies, expanded use of inputs with favorable economic polices and institutions.

Generation and Adoption of Technology Technologies generated by the different national research institutes are shown in

the strategy document of each research program.

Research achievements The following provides highlights of research achievements by various

organizations.

Cattle Milk /meat Production • Limited evaluation of indigenous cattle

• Crossbreeding

• Calf management and rearing systems tested were

– Suckling methods (partial or bucket feeding)

– Determination of weaning age under varying feeding systems

– Determination of milk requirements for a unit of live weight gain

– Milk-replacer studies

– Restricted whole milk feeding

• Post weaning management of crossbred heifers

• Productive and reproductive performance



• Feeding and management studies

Small Ruminant production • Identification and characterization of types

• Introduction of exotics and cross breeding

• Growth and feeding studies

• Productive and reproductive performance

• Wool / hair production and quality studies

• Milk production of local, cross and exotic goats

• Husbandry and management of lambs and kids

• Mating systems

• Health, disease/parasite-nutrition interactions

Fisheries and other aquatic living species • Limnology of Rift Valley lakes (mainly Lakes Awassa and Ziway) and Lake

Alemaya

• Studies on breeding and feeding habits, age and growth rates and nutrient composition of gut content of commercially important fish species of some rift valley lakes.

• Description of the major stocks, their distribution, stock dynamics and the taxonomy, re- description of the Barbus species in lake Tana.

• Species identification in most of the river basins of the country since 1984 by the Joint Ethio-Russian Biological Expedition (JERBE)

Poultry Production • Preliminary evaluation of indigenous birds under farmers’ management

• Cross breeding of local birds with Exotics

• Performance evaluation of different exotic birds

• Rations for starters, growers, layers and broilers based on local ingredients developed.

• Low cost houses of different sizes designed from local materials



• Studies on vaccine development, epidemiology etc.

Feed Resource Development • Evaluation and selection of various introduced and indigenous forage and

fodder crops for different agro-ecological zones

• Agronomic and management studies

• Grazing studies

• Feeding and supplementation studies

Animal Nutrition and Physiology • Identification and characterization of feed resource and feeding system:

• Major feed resources including different classes of feeds were collected from different parts of the country and characterized for their chemical composition and in vitro digestibility.

• Appropriate time for hay making in the highlands of Ethiopia and critical time of supplementing animals fed on native pasture are identified.

• Genotype and environmental differences in nutritional quality investigated for tef and barley straws, faba bean and field pea

• Different methods of feed evaluation (in vitro gas production, Dacron bag method) were tested for their capabilities in ranking the fermentation pattern of Ethiopian forages.

• Supplementation, growth and fattening studies

Animal Health • Epidemiological studies

• Drug efficacy and resistance development

• Health management studies

• Reproductive problems and physiology

• Studies on economically important diseases in different agro-ecological zones (tsetse)



Apiculture • Physical and chemical properties of local honeys and bees wax determined.

• Quality control and grading system were developed.

• Atlas of honey plant pollen grain and spectrum were made and a book was published on Honeybee flora of Ethiopia.

• Geographical races of honeybees found in the country identified.

• Major diseases investigated and control measures for common and serious predators developed.

• Different honeybee queen rearing techniques evaluated and splitting and Muller techniques of rearing found to be suitable to local condition.

• Different hive types tested and it was found out that the zander hive is most efficient.

• Different design of beekeeping equipments developed and distributed to farmers

Animal Power • Appreciable amount of research on animal-drawn tillage implements.

• Design modifications of the maresha which allow it to be drawn by a single ox, BBM

• Studies on the effect of diet restriction on working crossbred and local single oxen. It was found that all animals lost weight.

• Studies on the draught capacity of crossbred and local oxen including their physiological response to work stress.

• Cow traction technology introduced as a strategy to reduce the ever increasing grazing pressure in the highland regions

The up-take of these research results by the large number of farmers is low and in fact research did not bring results as expected. Insufficient supporting infrastructure has contributed to a great extent in the adoption of improved technologies by the large number of livestock farmers. There are insufficient supply of already developed



technologies because of the limited capacity for technology multiplication and distribution, and inadequate supply of credit, particularly to small-scale farmers.

Establishment of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) reorganized the research system. In due course, EARO has tried to develop a national livestock research strategy within a more comprehensive and coherent framework. Past efforts and constraints in the earlier organizational structure and research approach were evaluated and strategies developed through interactions and participation of stake holders including the Ministry of Agriculture, Regional Research Centers, Science and Technology commission, Higher learning Institutions, the International Livestock Research Institute and farmers.

EARO and the new approach (direction) The Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) is now mandated to

generate technologies in collaboration with national and international institutions.

In the past the national agricultural research has generated a number of technologies that were based on perceived needs of farmers, yet the up take of these technologies was limited. The lack of research impact, in the past, requires us to evaluate the research direction, methods and priorities. There were conceptual deficiencies that need to be fine-tuned to the technology needs of the subsistence farmers. Setting new directions for research is the needed that take into consideration on specific agro-ecological zones and resources profile of small scale farmers.

EARO has, in the past few years, tried to do the following to correct past deficiencies and improve efficiency of technology generation and appropriateness:-

Goal of Livestock Research • alleviate poverty, attain food security

• increase income and opportunities for employment through enhanced production and productivity

Research Programs The present strategy recognizes different programs based on a mix of species and

disciplines. These programs are Milk, Meat, Aviary, Apiculture, Fish, other animals



for industrial use, Genetic Resource Conservation and Utilization, Ecosystem Management, Animal Power, Animal Health, animal biotechnology and Feeds and Nutrition.

Modes of operation

Farmers participation The strategy acknowledges participation as a device for consulting with farmers to

assess their needs, their knowledge set priorities and make farmers partners in the conduct of research.

Choice of Agro-ecological zone Approach based on agro-ecology provides new dimension and opportunities for

livestock research.

Target Population Small holder farmers given the highest priority.

Collaboration and share of responsibilities In general, work and responsibility is shared among partners according to

comparative advantages of each partner. Types of collaboration include:

• Inter-institutional collaboration

• Inter-disciplinary and intra-center collaboration

• Collaboration with national and International Organizations

References Belachew Hurrissa. 1998. Milk Sales Outlet Options in Addis Ababa and the

Surrounding Peri-urban Areas. Proceeding Fifth National Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, 15-17 May 1997, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 72-81.

Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit. 1970. Animal husbandry activities 1968-1970. CADU publ. No. 56.

FAO 1991. Food Balance Sheets: 1984-1986 average. Food and Agriculture Organization,FAO Rome.

FAO 1995. FAO Production yearbook. 1994. FAO, Rome.

FAO/UNDP.1984. National agricultural research, report of an evaluation stud, Rome.



ILCA.1993. ILCA’s Long-term strategy, 1993-2010. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 102 pp.

Jahnke, H.E. 1987. The impact of agricultural research in tropical Africa. CGIAR study paper No. 21.

Lakew, B. 1991. A keynote address to the meeting of the Ethiopian society of Animal production, 16 Nov., 1991, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, ESAP, Addis Ababa.

Pinstrup-Anderesen.1982. Agricultural research and technology in Economic development. Longman. 261pp.

Winrock International, 1992. Assessment of Animal Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Morrilton, Arkansas, USA, 162 pp.

ANIMAL PRODUCTION


Smallholder livestock production systems and constraints in the Highlands of North and West Shewa zones Agajie Tesfaye, Chilot Yirga, Mengistu Alemayehu, Elias Zerfu and Aster Yohannes

EARO, Holetta Research Center, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa

Abstract

Efforts to the productivity of livestock need to be integrated with the assessment and characterization of smallholder farmers’ production practices and decision-making strategies. A study was conducted in north and west Shewa zones of Oromya Region with the objectives of describing smallholder livestock production practices; identifying and prioritizing constraints, and farmers' control strategies. Participatory rural appraisal and formal survey techniques were employed to collect qualitative and quantitative data, respectively.

The results of the study indicated that 98% of the sample respondents in west Shewa zone owned a total herd size of about 9.0 livestock units (LU). This was significantly higher (P<0.001) than the total LU in north Shewa zone (5.4). 40% of the sample farmers in the study areas either owned one ox or had none. These groups of farmers depended wholly or partially on 60% of the farmers, who owned two or more oxen to get their land plowed.

Land allocated for grazing and pasture composed 24% and 15 % of the total land owned in west Shewa and north Shewa zones. There is evidence of decline in grazing due to human population pressure and the need for re-distribution of land to initiated families. Economic losses due to livestock diseases have become severe. Blackleg and Pasteurelosis were the most prevalent while Anthrax and Rabies were the most severe animal diseases in the study areas.

Smallholder farmers practicing integrated crop-livestock production in the highlands derived more income than those households practicing only crop production. Livestock served as sources of draft power and manure for crop



production and also served as sources of cash that can be used to buy agricultural inputs for crop production.. Crops were source of feed and shelter for the livestock.

The causes, effects and farmers' control strategies of some of the important livestock production constraints have been described in this paper. Possible research, extension, development and policy intervention options are also suggested.

Introduction Demand for animal products in Sub-Saharan Africa and generally in the

developing countries is likely to rise significantly as a result of population growth, urbanization and rising income in the face of relatively low levels of consumption at present. This increase in demand for livestock products raises profound implications for food security, poverty alleviation and the environment (Ehui, 2000). In Ethiopia, the contribution of livestock and livestock products to the agricultural economy is about 30% and to export earnings about 19% (Azage and Alemu, 1998). This figure could even be higher if the non-monetary contributions are taken into account. Hence, livestock production constitutes a very important component of the agricultural economy of the country, a contribution that goes beyond direct food production to include other uses such as skins, fiber, fertilizer and fuel. Furthermore, livestock are closely linked to the social and cultural life of several million-smallholder farmers for whom animal ownership ensures varying degrees of sustainable farming and economic viability. Considerable evidence from field studies of rural households in Africa shows that the rural poor farmers and the landless presently get a higher share of their income from livestock than do better-off rural people (Delgado et al., 1999). Hence, the contribution of livestock is expressible at household level in its role of enhancing income, food security and social status.

A hard reality with respect to livestock development in Ethiopia is the fact that many formal livestock projects have failed to meet their objectives (Beyene, 1998). Many of the problems are the result of inability to identify appropriate technologies and define the livestock production practices and constraints.

Animal Production


Hence, from the livestock development perspective, a careful planning is required for the generation of appropriate and demand driven technologies in order to attain sustainable livestock development. This needs to be followed by a creative phase in which programs and policy options are formulated and designed to address identified constraints and exploit the available potentials. This paper, therefore, assesses and describes smallholder farmers’ livestock production practices, identifies and prioritizes the constraints that, and suggests appropriate intervention options.

Methodology The study areas

The survey focused on the high altitude areas (above 2200 masl) of West and North Shewa zones of Oromya Region. Ambo and Tikur Enchini woredas were selected from west Shewa zone while Grar Jarso and Degem woredas were selected from North Shewa zone. Ambo and Tikur Enchini woredas are located along the highway from Addis to Nekemt at a distance of 125 and 165 km west of Addis, respectively. Grar Jarso and Degem woredas are located along the highway from Addis to Gojam at a distance of 115 and 125 km Northwest of Addis, respectively.

About 92% of Degem and Grar Jarso Woredas, and 97% of Ambo woreda is characterized by M2-5 (Tepid to cool moist mountains and plateau) sub-agroecological zone. The rainfall pattern in north Shewa zone is bi-modal. The short rains, locally known as arfasa, begins sometimes in January or February and usually lasts for two and half months. In line with the two rainy seasons, two cropping seasons are identified: the belg season from January to June or early July and the Meher season from June to December.

Sampling procedures, data collection and analytical techniques Judgement sampling technique was used to select woredas for this study. Multi-

stage sampling procedure was used to select woredas of the highlands, peasant associations (PAs) and households. Samples of peasant associations were selected using simple random sampling technique from the lists of all PAs located in the highlands. The required sample size of farmers was selected using systematic sampling.



Three types of survey procedures were employed to collect the required data. Secondary data was collected to acquire a general understanding of the farming systems. PRA techniques such as, matrix rankings and semi-structured interviews (individual, group, and key-informant interviews), were used to collect wide ranges of qualitative data. Focused formal survey was conducted to quantify some of the important parameters (such as family size, land ownership, livestock holdings, etc.) using a structured and pre-tested questionnaire. Enumerators administered the survey questionnaire under close supervision of researchers and the staffs of Woreda Office of Agriculture. A total sample size of 281 farmers was selected from the study areas, of which 104 was selected from west Shewa zone (51 from Ambo and 53 from Tikur Enchini woreda) and 177 from north Shewa zone (99 from Degem and 78 from Grar Jarso woreda).

The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS statistical package. Descriptive statistics, Mean comparisons, Correlation analysis and Pearson's Chi-Square were used to analyze the data.

Results and discussion Socio-economic characteristics Household characteristics

The average family size of west Shewa zone was 8 people ranging from 2-17 and found to be significantly (P<0.001) higher than that of north Shewa zone which is on average 6 people per household ranging from 2 - 14 (Table 1). Of these, the average number of children per household who attended formal education was about 3.0 in west and 2.0 in north Shewa zones. The main source of labor to the farming community is the family. Hence, having many members of family in rural areas seem to be considered as an asset and a security in times of retirement. The sample farmers of west Shewa zone had 28 years of farming experience while it was 24 years for the sample farmers of north Shewa zone.

Land ownership Land was re-distributed to the farmers of the study areas mainly on the basis of

family size following the 1975 land reform. The study also confirms that there is a positive (r = 0.33) and significant (P=0.01) correlation between family size and farm

Animal Production


size. The present practice to a newly married son is literally sharing a piece of land from his parents' share. Hence, farm size per household is decreasing from time to time due to population increases. The average farm size per household in west Shewa zone was about 4.1 hectares, which is significantly higher (P<0.001) than the average farm size of north Shewa zone (3.3 hectares) (Table 2). Farm size allocation to crop production was in the order of 78 and 76% in west and north Shewa zones, respectively. The proportion of land allocated to grazing was 24% of the total farm size in west Shewa zone and 15% in north Shewa zone. This implies that a large proportion of farm size was allocated to crop production. The reports of CSA (1995) also confirm that the largest proportion of the land holding by peasant farmers is used for food crop production. Even the proportion of land allocated for grazing is declining from year to year, as cropping is expanding into marginal lands that used to be for grazing in earlier times. Decline in grazing land, in general, has become one of the most important causes of feed shortage and drop in livestock holding.

When farm sizes are related with family sizes, a large proportion of sample farmers (65%) with family sizes ranging from 6 - 10 owned farm sizes ranging from 4 - 6 hectares (Table 3). Pearson's Chi-Square test indicates that the proportions of family sizes are significantly different across the different farm size categories (X2= 20.720 with df= 6 and P=0.02).

Table 1: Household characteristics of sample farmers in west and north Shewa zones

West Shewa zone (N=104) North Shewa zone (N=177) t-test

Particulars n Mean S

D n Mean SD

Family size (number)

104 8.0

(2-17)

2.9 177 6.0

(2-14)

2.03 4.45***

Children at school (number)

72 3.0

(1-8)

1.8 57 2.0

(1-5)

1.10 3.63***

Age of household head (Years)

104 49.2

(20-78)

12.5 177 45.4

(23-76)

11.90 2.58***

Experience of household head in farming (Years)

104 28.0

(1-60)

14.2 177 24.0

(2-60)

12.46 2.66***

N = Total sample size, n = sub-sample size, SD = Standard deviation, *** = highly significant (P<0.001)



Table 2: Farm sizes (ha) of the sample farmers in west and north Shewa zones

West Shewa zone (N=104) North Shewa zone (N=177) Particulars

n Mean SD n Mean SD t-test

Total farm size 104 4.1 2.29 177 3.3 1.30 3.33***

Cultivated area 104 3.2 1.65 177 2.5 1.11 3.86***

Grazing area 34 1.0 0.63 159 0.5 0.25 4.62***

Other area 43 0.4 0.55 14 0.4 0.32 0.16NS NS = Non-significant

Table 3: Farm sizes as related with family sizes in the study areas

< 2 ha 2 - 4 ha 4.01 - 6.0 ha > 6 ha Total Family size

n % n % n % n % n %

<=5 20 44.4 52 30.8 8 15.4 3 20 83 29.5

6 - 10 23 51.1 108 63.9 34 65.4 9 60 174 61.9

>10 2 4.5 9 5.3 10 19.2 3 20 24 8.6

Total 45 100.0 169 100.0 52 100.0 15 100 281 100.0

Livestock production systems Livestock ownership

In the study areas, livestock are kept for multi-uses as sources of draft power, milk, meat, skin and hides. Livestock are also the main sources of income and are closely linked to the social and cultural lives of the community. The number of livestock owned varies from location to location depending on factors, like feed availability, disease condition and resource status of the farmers. About 98% of the sample respondents in west Shewa zone owned a total herd size of about 9.0 livestock units1 ranging from 0.2 - 46.3 (Table 4). This was significantly higher (P<0.001) than the total livestock units owned in north Shewa zone which is 5.4 ranging from 0.2- 19.4. The results also indicate that the average number of cattle owned in west Shewa zone was significantly higher than north Shewa zone. In general, households of west Shewa seem to own higher herd size than those of north Shewa zone.

1 Conversion factors of animals to livestock units (LSU) based on FAO (1956) standards:

Horses and mules = 1.0, Cattle=0.8, sheep and goats=0.1

Animal Production


Table 4: Ownership of livestock units in west and north Shewa zones

West Shewa zone (N=104) North Shewa zone (N=177) Livestock

n % Mean SD n % Mean SD

t-test

Cattle 99 97 7.2

(0.8-36.8)

5.51 169 98 4.1

(0.8-12.0)

2.10 5.489***

Small ruminants

79 77 0.5

(0.1-2.7)

0.42 142 82 0.5

(0.1-1.6)

0.26 0.925NS

Equines 79 77 2.0

(1.0-7.0)

1.25 117 68 1.6

(1.0-9.0)

0.98 2.718***

Total livestock 102 98 9.0

(0.2-46.3)

6.69 173 98 5.4

(0.2-19.4)

2.98 5.101***

Figures in parentheses represent ranges

A correlation analysis indicates that there is a positive correlation (r = 0.39) between farm size and herd size of livestock units owned. This is especially true for the relationship between numbers of oxen owned and farm size (r = 0.35). This might imply that cultivation of more land requires ownership of more oxen. When farm size is related with livestock units owned, a large proportion of sample farmers who owned less than 2 hectares of land owned less than or equal to 5 livestock units while 46% of those sample farmers with 2 - 4 hectares of land owned 5.01 - 10.0 livestock units (Table 5).

Table 5: Ownership of livestock units when viewed across the different categories of farm sizes

Livestock units owned

<2.0 ha 2 - 4 ha 4.01 - 6.0 ha > 6.0 ha Total

n % n % n % n % n %

<=5.0 23 53.5 71 43.0 11 21.6 3 20.0 108 39.4

5.01 - 10.0 20 46.5 75 45.5 24 47.0 4 26.7 123 44.9

>10.0 0 0 19 11.5 16 31.4 8 53.3 43 15.7

Total 43 100.0 165 100.0 51 100.0 15 100.0 274 100.0

The results also indicate that there is a positive correlation (r = 0.37) between the number of livestock units owned and family size. As family size increases, a need arises to own more livestock units and build more assets so as to maintain and



secure the livelihoods of increasing numbers of family members. Pearson's Chi-Square test also indicates that there is significant difference in livestock units owned across the different family size categories (X2=31.66, df=4 and P<0.001). This implies that as family size increases, households owned significantly higher livestock numbers.

Draft power source In the study areas, livestock are mainly kept for draught power. The principal

power animals are oxen, donkeys and horses. Oxen are the sole sources of power for plowing while donkeys are important animals for transportation of agricultural and non-agricultural products. Horses are dominantly used for human transport purpose.

About 41% of the sample farmers in west Shewa zone and 56% in north Shewa zone owned a pair of oxen while 32% in west Shewa zone and 24% in north Shewa zone owned only one ox on average. Only 14% of the households in west Shewa zone and 10% in north Shewa zone owned more than a pair of oxen. On the other hand, about 14% of sample households in west Shewa zone and 11% in north Shewa zone did not own ox. In general, about 40% of the farmers (non-oxen owners and those who own only one ox) in both study areas depended wholly or partially on 60% of the farmers who owned two and more than two oxen to plow their crop lands using different local arrangement practices. One of the arrangement mechanisms was through exchanging human labor for the use of someone's oxen and this is locally known as Engni. In this arrangement, the non-oxen owners plow the land of the oxen owner for three days and in-turn they plow their own land for two days. The second practice is a contractual agreement in which the non-oxen owner uses an ox for one cropping season and pays for the services in kind (about 2 - 3 quintals of grain) after harvest (Chilot and Elias, 1998; Chilot et al., 1998). This practice is locally known as Chimada (minda). The third practice is getting oxen by assistance from relatives and friends. There is also a one-to-one arrangement mechanism locally known as Mekenajo where two farmers pool their ox to form a pair and plow in turns. Even then, especially the non-oxen owners and those who own only one ox faced a problem of inadequate land preparation and delayed planting. The last option for

Animal Production


the non-oxen owners who are unable to get oxen by the above means was leasing-out all or part of their land to farmers who owned sufficient oxen.

Donkeys are the vital beasts of burden and they protect the farmers from drudgery by serving as pack animal to transport different items. In on-farm activities, they are mainly used to transport crop harvests from farms to threshing ground. They are also used for conducting off-farm activities (such as petty trading and assembling) so as to generate additional income for the households.

Feed resources and feeding practices The major sources of livestock feed in the study areas were grazing, hay and crop

residues. The study conducted by Tuomo (1993) in Selale areas of north Shewa zone also reported that grazing, natural pasture hay and crop residues make the basal diet of livestock. Some palatable weed species from the crop fields were also important sources of livestock feed. However, feed availability is becoming a critical factor determining livestock production. Farmers reported that more pasture and grazing lands are being cropped leaving unproductive marginal and waterlogged areas for grazing. This forced farmers to shift to crop residues to minimize the problem of feed shortages. The study conducted in Hararghe (Fekadu and Alemu, 2000) also reported that farmers utilized more crop by-products to feed their cattle to overcome the shortage of feed resources. Seasonal fallowing of croplands has also served as sources of feed for animals. The study conducted by Chilot and Elias (1998) in west Shewa zone indicated that about 71% of the sample farmers in Ambo and 34% in Tikur Enchini woredas practiced annual fallowing. Results of study in north Shewa zone also reported that about 43.4% of the sample farmers in Degem and 61.5% in Grar Jarso woredas practiced annual fallowing (Chilot et al. 1998). Critical months of feed shortages occurred especially in June and July. This was because crop lands are cultivated during this period and available grazing lands become too wet and hence the fields get muddy.

To overcome the feed shortage problem, farmers used different measures. In north Shewa zone, a large proportion of sample farmers (83%) conserved crop residues to feed their animals during the months of acute feed shortages. A large proportion of



sample farmers (72%) also fed weeds from croplands. Hay was mainly fed in the dry season (81%) and few farmers (18%) fed in the wet season.

Feeding calendar of livestock differed from season to season. Green feed was mainly fed in the late rainy season (August - November). Farmers practiced late weeding of their crops so as to feed some palatable weeds for their animals during the wet season. Hay and crop residues were mainly fed during the dry seasons when green feeds are limited. Oat is also the most important crop grown in the short rainy season (belg) and fed during the main rainy season (June - August) especially in north Shewa zone.

Farmers prioritized different feed types in their orders of preference using direct matrix ranking techniques. According to farmer perceptions, green feed was the most preferred feed type followed by grass hay. Wheat straw was the least preferred crop residue as compared to tef, barley, pulses and oat straws.

Animal disease and traditional control strategies In the highlands of north and west Shewa zones, animal disease was identified to

be one of the major causes of low livestock productivity. Economic losses due to livestock diseases have become severe especially with interaction of different factors such as feed shortage, poor management practices and environmental factors. In the highlands of north and west Shewa zones, Blakcleg, Pasteurelosis, Anthrax, Foot Mouth Disease (FMD), Rabies and New Castle Disease (NCD) were recognized by the farmers to be the most important diseases of animals (Table 6). Some diseases affect all the animals while others are specific to some species. The farmers can identify the types of diseases occurring on their animals by recognizing the common symptoms through experience. External and internal parasites also affected cattle and sheep in these areas becoming more critical during the dry season. To minimize the economic losses due to diseases, farmers used different traditional control and prevention measures for most of the diseases as summarized in Table 6. Eventhough the prevalence and severity of each of the diseases varies from location to location, farmers perceived that blackleg and pasteurelosis were the most prevalent diseases while rabies and anthrax were the most severe diseases causing high mortality. The study conducted by Mekonnen et. al. (2000) also indicates that the overall disease

Animal Production


prevalence in the dairy herds among the urban and pri-urban production sub-systems is considerably high, approaching almost 50%.

Table 6: Common livestock diseases and traditional control strategies as reported by the farmers in the study areas

Disease type Common

name Local name

Animals Attacked

Typical Symptoms as stated by the farmers

Traditional control strategies

Black leg Abagorba Cattle, sheep

Edema, crepitate swellings in the hips and back, loss of appetite, stiff and painful movement

Cutting skin at the back and let the frothy air move out

Pasteurelosis Lolli Cattle, sheep, goats, poultry

Dullness Reluctance to move Salivation Swelling in the throat regions, neck and brisket Tongue protrude & dark red

Cutting protrude tongue with blade and let the blood flow out Cutting the dewlap and let the content flow out and put drug inside the wounded place

Anthrax Abasenga All Anorexia (loss of appetite) Bloating Mostly sudden death and zoonotic

Burning around the neck and shoulder using hot iron metal or sickle

FMD Hokolchissa Cattle, small ruminants

Salivation, lesion followed by erosion of the epithelium from mouth, muzzle, feet, teats and udder

Allowing sick animals to stand in cold water early in the morning Locally dressing honey on wounded areas

Rabies Dukubasaree All Animals are aggressive at the beginning Excessive hydrophobia Salivation Biting other animals Become weak at last stage and die from payalsysis

Give holly water (Tebel) and drung from leaves or roots of plants to the sick animals to drink

NCD Fungli Poultry Sudden death characterized by massive death of flock

Feed local alcohol (Areke) and pepper (berbere) with injera

Dynamism in livestock production Growth in livestock population was affected by many factors. When the overall

sample was considered, about 73% of the overall sample farmers reported that the livestock population has decreased in the past two decades (Table 7). The major factors responsible for the declining of livestock population were feed shortage and disease as reported by about 50% and 22% of the overall sample farmers, respectively (Table 8). Moreover, declining of pasture and grazing lands was also observed due to the need to expand croplands. Occurrence of some animal diseases such as cowpox has



decreased while some low land diseases such as Thrypanosomiasis are expanding towards the high land areas. Veterinary services are also expanding to the woreda level as compared to the last two to three decades.

Crop-livestock integration The benefits of crop-livestock integration are numerous and well documented

(Ehui and Nega, 1999; Sutcliffe, 1999; Chilot et al. 1998; Gryseels, 1988). In the study areas, crop production is carried out by draft power. Livestock are a living bank for many farmers and play a critical role in agricultural intensification process by providing draft power and manure used for land preparation and improving soil fertility as well as for fuel (Figure 1).

Table 7: Trend of livestock ownership per household since the past ten years in west and north Shewa zones (Proportion of sample farmers)

Trend of livestock population West Shewa zone North Shewa zone Overall sample

Decreasing 82.7 66.7 72.6

Increasing 12.5 30.0 23.5

No change 4.8 3.3 3.9

Table 8: Reasons for decreasing livestock population as perceived by farmers in west and north Shewa zones (Proportion of sample farmers)

Reasons West Shewa zone North Shewa zone Overall sample

Disease 26.9 19.8 22.4

Feed shortage 54.8 47.5 50.2

Population pressure 13.5 9.0 10.7

Animal Production


Crops

Livestock

Feed, shelter, income

Draft power, manure, income

Figure 1: Crop-livestock integration and the challenge

Need to expand cropland at the expense of: o grazing and pasture lands o Marginal lands o Forest lands

Inadequate and low quality feed

I N T E R F E R E N C E

Low productivity of livestock Draft power output Manure Low income

Low productivity of crops Low grain yield Low straw yield Low yield of green matter

Increased demand for food

But still no adequate food!!!

Human population



It has been empirically demonstrated that smallholder farmers practicing integrated crop - livestock production in the highlands derived more income than those households practicing only crop production (Omiti, 1995). Livestock have served as cash sources that can be used to buy agricultural inputs for crop production including fertilizer, improved seeds and herbicide particularly when these inputs are not supplied through credit. Even if supplied on credit, farmers in some cases particularly during crop failure, sale their animal to repay their debts. Gryseels (1988) showed that in the Ethiopian highlands, sale of livestock and livestock products contributed 83% of cash income per year. About 52% of cash income was from sale of live animals and 31% from sale of livestock products. Manure alone accounted for 25% of the sale of livestock products and dairy products for just over 50%.

Gryseels et al (1986) have investigated the impact of draught power availability on crop production in some areas of north Shewa zone. It was reported that in some areas of north Shewa, farmers owning two or more oxen cutivated 32% more land than those owning none, while their net cereal yield per hectare was 48% higher. Moreover, farmers with two oxen produced on average 63% more grain than farmers with no oxen, and 19% more than farmers with one ox.

Livestock produce a range of intermediate and final products. Even though regional differences exist in the relative importance of these products, in all cases the presence of livestock on smallholders' farms enables them to be more productive and stable over time than would have been otherwise (Rodriguez and Anderson 1985).

Although integrated crop-livestock production is an ancient tradition in the highlands of Ethiopia, changes are taking place in the production systems in many parts of the highlands challenging the ability of subsistence farmers to sustain the integration. As human population increases, the demand for food has increased which in turn led to the interference of man on the system through expansion of croplands at the expense of grazing and pasture lands, and forest covers. This led to changes occurring in the system including progressively declining of soil fertility, and inadequate and low quality feed which ultimately led to low productivity of both crop and livestock sectors. However, access to adequate food is still becoming a

Animal Production


critical problem. Hence, production of adequate food and maintaining food security is going to be the challenge of the new millennium.

Livestock production constraints Livestock productivity (in terms of draft power output, milk and meat yield, etc.) is

affected by a number of constraints. The most important livestock production constraints prioritized by the sample farmers of the study areas are feed shortage, animal disease, inadequate veterinary services, shortage of cash, and shortage of water supplies. The interaction of these constraints affects the performance of the genetic potential of animals leading to subsistence level of livestock production. Each of these constraints are caused by different natural and man-made factors interrelated with each other (Table 9).

Suggested intervention options Due to some of the deep-rooted problems, the productivity of livestock remains low

as far as these constraints continue to exist. Hence, suggesting possible intervention to overcome the constraints is the next step to define a path which calls for research, development, policy and extension intervention options. Under each constraint, possible intervention options and list of stakeholders as well as the opportunities developed with farmeres participation are outlined (Table 10).

Some of the important suggestions for feed shortage included increasing productivity of various feed resources through research, developing improved feed conservation and treatment systems and strengthening extension systems to disseminate existing feed technologies. There are opportunities and stakeholders available to undertake implementation of these solutions. Promoting effective control measures to reduce disease risks, strengthening research efforts in etheno-veterinary medicines and development of disease tolerant genotypes are some of the options suggested to tackle livestock disease problems.

In general, the intervention options suggested were of short-term, medium term or long-term plans. The list of intervention options is by no means complet, and there could be other intervention options that could go into the list.



Conclusion and recommendation The livestock sector was found to make a substantial contribution to the economy

of the smallholder farmers particularly as source of draft power, milk, meat and other products. One of the principal contributions of livestock is also its use for security and investment that can easily be converted into cash in times of risks.

Livestock and crops also play complementary roles in the mixed farming systems of the study areas. A positive and significant correlation existed between livestock ownership and farm size. Especially, the draft power availability has a positive and significant relationship with crop production. Livestock provide draft power and manure for crop production while crops provide feed and shelter for livestock. The livestock sub-sector also contributes as an important source of income to purchase inputs for crop production.

The principal constraints that limited the productivity of the livestock sector were shortage of feed in quality and quantity, animal diseases, inadequate veterinary services, shortage of cash and shortage of water. The inter-related causes and effects of these constraints have been investigated in this study. Moreover, some of the possible intervention options have been suggested based on analysis of the study, opportunities available and farmers' suggestions. Hence, sustainable intervention options that help improve the productivity of livestock sector need to be based on and start from the characterization of the livestock production systems, and identification and prioritization of the constraints with the participation of the beneficiaries themselves. In a successful livestock development strategy, what is treated is the cause of problems not the symptoms. Developing technologies that require low external inputs is also required for sustainable smallholder livestock production systems.

Table 9: The causes, effects and farmers' control strategies of the most important livestock production constraints

No. Constraint Cause Effect Farmers' control strategy

1 Feed shortage Reduced grazing and pasture lands

Expansion of crop land

Overstocking

Drought

Inefficient utilization of feed resources

Use of crop residue for other purposes

Low yield of crop residues

Poor economic status of the farmers to purchase supplementary feeds

Overgrazing

Land degradation

Low livestock productivity

Death of animals due to feed shortages

Low price of animals at the market

Strategic supplementation of available feed resources for specific types of animals

Feed conservation for use in critical period

Feed purchases

2 Livestock diseases Waterlogged pasturelands favoring prevalence of some parasites and diseases

Poor management practices (inadequate feeding, housing, watering, health care, etc.)

Environmental factors that favor dissemination of disease causing microbial agents

Poor veterinary services

Un-affordability of drugs for use by farmers

Morbidity and mortality of animals

Low productivity of animals

Use traditional disease control and prevention measures

Keep mixed species of livestock to minimize the risk

Take sick animals to neighboring veterinary clinics (those who have access)

Purchase livestock medicine from un-notified sources

3 Inadequate veterinary services

Lack of capital for investment on veterinary clinics

Lack of adequate trained veterinarians

Transportation problem

Inaccessibility of most of the peasant associations

Poor economic status of farmer to purchase proper livestock medicines

Morbidity and mortality of animals

Low in productivity of animals

Farmers depend on traditional disease control and prevention mechanisms

Take credit and purchase livestock medicine from un-notified sources

Table 9: Continued.

No. Constraint Cause Effect Farmers' control strategy

4 Shortage of money

Low on-farm incomes due to low agricultural productivity

Inadequate off-farm employment opportunities

Low opportunity to intensify agricultural production

Inability to get adequate veterinary services for their animals

Inability to purchase supplementary feeds

Poor living condition

Out-migration in search of work

Engaged in different off-farm activities

Take credit from village money lenders

Borrow money or grain from friends or relatives

5 Shortage of water supply

Drying-up of streams and rivers during dry season

Unavailability of water sources in the near-by locality

Spending more time and energy in taking animals to source of water

Animals affected with water shortage

Take the animals to long distances in search of water

Let animals drink only once a day

Table 10: Suggested intervention options, opportunities available and stakeholders involved in mitigating the identified livestock production constraints

No Constraint Suggested intervention options Available opportunities Stakeholders2

1 Feed shortage Bring animal densities in line with the carrying capacity of grazing and pasture lands

Increase efficiency in feed conversion through enhancing genetic potential

Increasing feed digestibility using additives that are cost effective and environmental friendly

Increase productivity of various feed resources

Strengthen extension system to disseminate existing feed technologies

Develop improved feed conservation and treatment systems

Presence of EARO to generate appropriate feed technologies

Presence of SDDP to introduce improved feed technologies

Involvement of WOA staff for dissemination of improved feed technologies and create awareness to the farmers

Farmers

WOA

SDDP

EARO

NGOs

2 Livestock diseases Strengthen the capacity to render extensive veterinary services

Conduct epidemiological studies of determinants of livestock health and their productivity

Promote effective control measures to reduce disease risks

Strengthening research efforts in etheno-veterinary medicines

Support and validate indigenous knowledge of farmers about disease control measures

Development of disease tolerant genotypes

Availability of moderate veterinary medicines laboratory

Presence of veterinarians at woreda and zonal levels

Presence of SDDP working closely with farmers

Presence of veterinary research center at national level and division levels in EARO

Presence of farmers' indigenous disease control and treatment measures

Farmers

WOA

ZADD

SDDP

EARO

NGOs

2 WOA=Woreda Office of Agriculture; ZADD= Zonal Agricultural Development Department; SDDP=Smallholder Dairy Development Project; EARO=Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization; NGOs=Non-governmental

Organizations

Table 10: Continued.


3 Inadequate veterinary services

Establish veterinary clinics at development station level

Train adequate man-power in veterinary science

Construct rural roads that connect PAs with woreda towns

Provide adequate transportation services for the veterinarians

There is strong demand of veterinary services by the farmers

Presence of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine at National level

Presence of resource persons to give adequate training for the trainees in Veterinary Medicine

Farmers

Local government

Veterinary College

EARO veterinary staff

NGOs

4 Shortage of money Strengthen on-farm activities by use of improved agricultural technologies

Provide access to off-farm income generating activities particularly for women by giving credit, training and required equipment

Generating employment opportunities in rural areas such as cottage industries.

Improve infrastructure facilities, such as roads,

Presence of industrious population that can be engaged in any sort of employment opportunities

Awareness of farmers about improved agricultural technologies

Availability of improved agricultural technologies

Availability of credit sources

Farmers

BOA4

EARO

CPAR

SDDP

ODA

ESRDF

DBE

CBE


Organizations

4 BOA=Bureau of Agriculture; CPAR=Canadian Physicians for Aid and Relief; ODA=Oromya Development Association; ESRDF=Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation Development Fund; DBE=Development Bank of Ethiopia;

CBE=Commercial Bank of Ethiopia

Table 10: Continued.


5 Water shortage Dig bore well

Divert perennial rivers

Make studies to introduce water harvesting technology

Availability of perennial rivers

Availability of zonal water development authority

Presence of convenient topography for low cost water harvesting

Presence of industrious population to meet labor requirements

Farmers

WOA

CPAR

Zonal Water Development Authority

ODA


Organizations



References Azage Tegegne and Alemu Gebre Wold. 1998. Prospects for peri-urban dairy

development in Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of fifth national conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 15 - 17 May 1997. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Beyene Kebede. 1998. Looking ahead for sustainable livestock development. In: Proceedings of fifth national conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 15 - 17 May 1997. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.

Chilot Yirga and Elias Zerfu. 1998. The barley-enset based farming systems of Ambo and Tikur Enchini highlands, west Shewa. In: Chilot Yirga, Fekadu Alemayehu and Woldeyesus Sinebo (eds.). 1998. Barley-based farming systems in the highlands of Ethiopia. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.

Chilot Yirga, Agajie Tesfaye and Elias Zerfu. 1998. The barley-oat farming systems of Degem and Grar Jarso woredas, northwest Shewa. In: Chilot Yirga, Fekadu Alemayehu and Woldeyesus Sinebo (eds.). 1998. Barley-based farming systems in the highlands of Ethiopia. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.

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Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S. and Courbois, C. 1999. Livestock to 2020: The next food revolution. Food, Agriculture and the Environment Discussion paper 28: IFPRI, FAO, and ILRI, IFPRI Washington D.C.

Ehui Simeon K. and Nega Gebreselassie. 1999. The Contribution of Livestock to the Sustainability of Agricultural Income in Ethiopia: Review of Technology and Plicy Issues. pp. 37-55. In: Mulat Demeke and Wolday Amha (Eds). Economics of Integrated Crop and Livestock Systems in Ethiopia. Proceedings of the 3rd Conference of the Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia, 2-3 October 1997, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: AESE.

Ehui, S. 2000. A review of the contribution of livestock to food security, poverty alleviation and environmental sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa. In: Livestock production and the envirnment-implications for sustainable livelihoods. Proceedings of 7th annual conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-27 May 1999. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

FAO (1956). Production year book. FAO. Rome.

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Fekadu Abate and Alemu Yami. 2000. The feed resource base and feeding management of the traditional draught oxen fattening practice by smallholder farmers in the eastern Hararghe highlands. In: Livestock production and the environment-implications for sustainable livelihoods. Proceedings of 7th annual conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-27 May 1999. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Gryseels.1988.The Role of Livestock in the Generation of Smallholder Income in Two Vertisol Areas of the Centeral Ethiopian Highland; In: S.C.Jutzi, I. Haque, J. MacIntire, J.E.S. Stares (eds). Management of vertisols in sub-saharn Africa. ILCA, Addis Ababa.

Gryseels G., Anderson F. M., Durkin J. and Getachew Asamenew. 1986. Draught power and smallholder grain production in the Ethiopian highlands. ILCA Newsletter 5(4):5-7.

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Baseline data on chicken population, productivity, husbandry, feeding, breeding, health care, marketing and constraints in four peasant associations in Ambo Wereda. Fikre Abera

Department of Animal Sciences, Ambo College of Agriculture, P.O. Box 19 Ambo (Hagre Hiwot) Ethiopia.

Abstract

Field survey covering 396 randomly sampled households in four peasant associations was carried to generate baseline information on the chicken population, production goal, consumption pattern of chicken meat and egg, productivity, feeding, health care, breeds and breeding, marketing and to identify and prioritize the major production constraints in the peasant associations. The four peasant associations are Degafille, Kilinto Awaro and Birbirssa and Chirecha.(BCBA).

The survey result showed that home consumption and sales are the main objectives for rearing chickens except in the BCPA where 74.5% of the respondents raise chickens for triple purpose (home consumption, sales and breeding). The per capita consumption of egg and chicken meat were found to be 19 eggs and 0.54 Kg. for Awaro, 19 eggs and 0.53 KG. for Degafille, 17.8 eggs and 0.44 KG. for Kilinto and 22 eggs and 0.55 KG. for BCPA.

The population appears to vary with the year and season of the same year. Highest population group observed were adult female chickens and matured male chickens being the least. The percentage of local and exotic breeds of chickens in the four PAS were found to be 100% and 0 in Awaro, 74.4% and 17.9% in Degafille, 80% and 85.9% and 13.6% in BCPA. The remaining unspecified percentages are crosses.

Mean matured cockerel weight was found to be 1375.3 g, 1496.7 g, 1518 g and 1353.6 g for Awaro, Degafille, Kilinto and BCPA respectively. Mean matured



weight of hen were1241.5 g, 1284.2 g, 1240 g and 1233.7 g for the four PAS respectively. The mean annual number of egg production per hen were 38.5, 42.1, 36.2 and 38.0 and the mean age at which pullets start to produce the first egg were 184.4 days, 187.8 days, 201. and 202.7 days respectively. The hatchability of the incubated eggs was high . It was observed that 81.8%, 81.6%, 85.8% and 68.4% respectively, indicating the good mothering ability of the local chickens.

The chickens besides scavenging were estimated to be provided with 48.3g, 70.2g, 48.2 g and 77.3g of wheat, corn or sorghum whole grains.

Disease outbreaks were common in the four PAS in the previous years. The annual crude mortality rate fairly high and was observed to be 93%, 49.5%, 63.5% and 42.65%. Diseases mainly occur between the months of April and September and peak in the months of July and August.

Uncontrolled mating was rampant and no selection. 80% of the respondents are interested in having and can afford to buy a mean 5 exotic chickens per household. Exotic breed preference was apparent.

Price per chicken appears to vary with weight, sex, festivals and season. The highest prices are offered during the Ethiopian Easter and New year festivals..

Chickens are managed at a very minimum input. . Within the households the chickens are owned by the wives and by children to a lesser extent. In about 75% of the households, the feeding, egg collection, and the sales activity is carried by women. The major constraints identified were disease, damaging vegetables (space shortage) and financial problems.

Keywords: Baseline data, chicken population, production goal, per capita consumption, productivity, husbandry, feeding, health care, breeds and breeding, inputs, marketing, constraints.

Introduction Ethiopia is one of the few African countries with a significantly large population of

chickens. The estimated chicken population as reported by different national and international organisations is close to 56,000,000 FAO (1986). The same report estimated Ethiopia produced 77,280 metric tons of egg and 68,000 metric tons of

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chicken meat. The national per capita income of egg in Ethiopia is 57 eggs or 2.29 Kg and that of chicken meat is 1.87 Kg (AACMC, 1984). Despite the huge population, the national income derived from this sector of farming and the per capita consumption is extremely low.

Little research and development work has been carried out in the poultry sector in Ethiopia. For instance, Hoyle (1992) surveyed the traditional rearing of poultry in the Wolayta area and reported the productivity, management and constraints for the Wolayta locality. Brannang and Persson (1990) compared the performance of the indigenous chickens with two exotic breeds (White Leghorn and Yarkon) in Asella (Arsi) area and found out the productivity of the local breed to be low.

The practice of planning and developing small-scale poultry production in Ethiopia is bested by many problems. Apart from the practical problems encountered by the farming community and conceptual problems envisaged by professionals in the field, policy makers extension workers (both government and non government) researchers and private investors have limitation of information on the poultry husbandry practices and productivity of chickens in the different regions of the country.

In the process of tackling these problems, different organisations and private investors are coming to Ambo College of Agriculture seeking information. But, to-date, there is no documented information pertaining to the resource base, productivity and management of the chickens and the constraints in the area.

The objectives of this survey are, therefore, to generate baseline data population, goal, consumption pattern, husbandry and marketing practices of chickensand its meat and eggs. It is also intended to identify the major constraints impeding the development of small-scale poultry production in the four peasant associations in Ambo Woreda.

Materials and methods The survey was carried between the months of September 1997 and July 1998.

Four peasant associations were chosen within Ambo woreda. The peasant associations were Awaro, Dega fille, Kilinto and Birbirssa and Chirecha peasant association



(BCPA). The peasant associations are located within 30 KM radius around Ambo town.

The peasant associations were chosen based on previous contact with the college and their accessibility. The peasant associations have good prospect for the development of peri urban intensive or semi-intensive small-scale poultry production in the area. The peasant associations vary in altitude, topography, climatic conditions and soil type.

Several visits were made prior to the start of the survey work between the months of September 1997 and January 1998. This was followed by contact with Ambo Woreda Bureau of Agriculture to discuss pertinent issues.

A semi-structured questionnaire was developed. Four enumerators with Diploma in General Agriculture and assistants were recruited and trained in classroom. Four guides (local residents) from each peasant association were recruited. The developed questionnaire was pre- tested in the field. Based on the feedback, the questionnaire was adjusted and coded.

During the actual survey work, a total of 396 households were randomly selected. When some numerical data appear doubtful, the data was cross-checked for reliability by cross examining questions placed elsewhere in the questionnaire and checked. Unrealistic data were discarded.

To determine the matured weight of the chickens, a total of 551 chickens caught from different villages within each peasant association were used. The chickens were weighed on a simple top load field balance with 25 grams calibrations.

The major constraints in all the four peasant associations were identified and ranked by the preference ranking method of the PRA technique. The Descriptive statistics was used in the analysis of the data.

Result and discussion The four peasant associations are located near the town of Ambo 125 west of the

capital Addis Ababa on the Addis-Lekempt road. The peasant associations are located within 30 km radius of Ambo. The peasant associations have different altitude,

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topography, soil type and climatic conditions. Some background information are presented on table 1.

Table 1: General information about the four peasant associations.

Peasant associations Parameters

Awaro Degafille Kilinto BCPA

Altitude (m.a.s.l) 2050 1950 1950 2300

Topography plain sloppy Sloppy hilly

climatic condition woina Dega woina Dega kola Dega

Soil type Black vertisol Red brown /gray Red

Chicken population 1391 1031 429 899

Mean no. chickens per household 7.79 5.91 4.93 4.92

Total population* 1058 1152 1095 1864

Total households* 198 165 304 319

Mean family size (persons) per household 6.95 6.25 6.8 5.2

Mean farm size (ha) 3.5 1.48 1.76 0.88

Per capita consumption of egg 19 19 17.8 22

Per capita consumption of chicken meat.(Kg) 0.54 0.53 0.44 0.55 Source: Ambo Woreda Bureau of Agriculture, 1997.

The peasant associations have a fairly close population except the BCPA. BCPA has the highest number of households while Dega fille the least. The kilinto and the BCPA peasant associations have fairly large number of households.

The mean family size is more or less similar in all peasant associations. The mean number of persons per household observed in this investigation for the three peasant associations (Awaro, Degafille and Kilinto) is slightly higher than the report for Oromiya region and the national family size which are 4.8 and 4.9 respectively (CSA, 1994).

The mean farm size of the four peasant associations is 1.90 hectares. The mean farm size of the Awaro PA is much larger than that of BCPA. BCPA has a rugged hilly topography. Farm plots were very small as observed during the survey.

Awaro peasant association has the highest poultry population and mean number of chickens per household.

The mean annual per capita consumption of egg and chicken meat, both per capital consumption’s are extremely low in all the peasant associations considered.



Woubishet (1989) reported 18 eggs and 6 chickens for the Ambo region, while AACMC (1984) reported the per capita consumption of egg and chicken meat to 57 egg and 2.46 kg respectively at national level. This report is consistent with what was reported by Woubeshet (1989) for the per capita consumption of eggs. The per capita consumption of chicken meat observed in this survey was lower than both Woubishet (1984) and AACMC (1984) report. The discrepancy observed might be due to long years between the survey time and change in price of chicken meat. Since the time the reports, the price of chickens have increased by more than 3 times from the time the two reports. The increase market price may have changed the attitude of the farmers to shift part of their home consumption of chicken meat to the market.

Objectives of chicken production The mode of production of the peasant associations is subsistence. Raising chickens

for home consumption purpose is not the major objective in all the peasant associations. Raising chickens for home consumption and for sales are the main objectives in both the Awaro and Degafille peasant association and rearing for triple purpose (home consumption, sales and breeding) is the prime objective in the BCPA.

Chicken Population, Age and Sex Structure and Breed Composition Determining chicken population is one of the most difficult task encountered. Even

with short time frame, chicken population fluctuates. It was thus thought that taking the population of the household gives a reasonable indication of the chicken population of a certain area regarding the poultry resource potential of a given peasant association. Despite the problems encountered above, the chicken population of the households surveyed during the survey period is presented in table 2.

The Awaro peasant association appears to have the highest population and the Dega fille peasant association being the least. Variation in population between years and between seasons was quite evident in all the peasant associations. See table 3.

Hoyle(1992), reported that chicken population in two woredas of Weliayta, (Northern Omo Zone) increase during the dry season. A similar pattern was

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observed in this survey. The main reason for the decreased chicken population in the wet season is because of the high disease prevalence.

Table 2: Chicken population of the respondents by year and season in the four peasant associations.

Year

1997 1998 Peasant association

Rainy Season Dry season Total Total

Kilinto 410 621 1031 385

Awaro 94 1279 1391 831

BCPA 373 526 899 503

Dega fille 140 289 429 334

Total 1017 2733 3750 2053

The age structure indicates that the adult females are the ones mostly observed in the household surveyed. Young aged group of chickens are relatively the smallest population owned by statistically insignificant number of respondents. The trend shows that quite few farmers incubate eggs by natural means (broody hens) to raise their own replacement stock. As the age of the chickens increase, the population of the chickens and number of respondents increases. Adult hens have the highest proportion in all the peasant associations. Male adult chickens have smaller proportion than adult female chickens. Adult male chickens are frequently marketed, when the female ones are retained for egg production.

The entire population of chickens in the Awaro peasant association is of indigenous local breed, 76.4% of the total flock in the Dega fille comprised of the indigenous local breed and while in Kilinto and BCPA the local breed accounts for 90.5 and 85.9% respectively.

Productivity of the Chickens Externally, the chickens of all peasant associations investigated are of small

frames and of the same conformation. The chickens appear very hardy and extremely well adapted to the local environmental conditions such as heat, cold, rain and periodic feed shortage. The color of the local breed is variable and includes not only pure colors of white, black, red, barred (black and white) and welsummer but all also possible combinations such as golden yellow, silver white, yellow brown etc.



The local birds in all the four peasant associations have low body weight, low egg production potential, slower growth rate but high mortality and hatchability. Table 3 shows the various productivity parameters of the chickens in the four peasant associations.

Both the male and female of the local breed have smaller body weight than the exotic breeds. Male chickens are heavier in weight than the female chickens of the same breed. Brannang and Persson (1990) and AACMC (1984) reported 1.5 kg for the indigenous cockerel and 1.2 kg for the hen-respectively. The observed result of the cockerels in this investigation is similar for the chickens in Dega fille and Kilinto peasant associations. In Awaro and BCPA the mean weight of the cockerels is slightly lower. The discrepancy observed in the latter two peasants association may be due to the frequent marketing of the heavy cockerels. It was observed at the time of the survey that farmers in the BCPA dispose cockerels frequently and their permanent flocks constitute of matured hens and growers.

Some farmers were interviewed as to why the situation occurred. The explanation given was to avoid cock fighting and to get more income. The weight of the hens in all the peasant association was in consistent with the previous reports. The low egg productivity of the local chickens observed in this study in agreement with AACMC (1984) reported which is 30-60 eggs per year. Despite the low meat and egg production potential of the chickens, the products (chicken meat and eggs) are preferred over the exotic chickens and is considered as delicacy by the local people.

The high hatchability observed in this study in the three peasants association is an indicative information of the good mothering ability of the hens for natural incubation. Doutressoule (1947) reported hatchability rate of 80% for African Bush chickens in Senegal. The observed result of this survey is consistent with the above researcher report. The lower hatchability rate observed in the BCPA (68.4%) may be due to the cool climatic prevailing in the area as area is high in altitude.

The age at which pullets start to produce the first egg is longer in all peasant associations and very long kilinto and BCPA. Most commercial egg producing chickens come into production at the age between 140-161 days. Retarded growth is quite evident when compared with the exotic chickens. This could be due to either the

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poor genotype that these local chickens possess or the poor nutrition of the chickens. The cause for the longer age at first egg need to be assessed in light of the two factors mentioned.

Table 3: Some productivity parameters of the local chickens in the four peasant associations

Peasant Association Parameters n. Awaro n. Degafil

le n. Kilinto n. BCPA

wt. matured cockerel (g) 91 46 82 84

Mean 375.3 1496.7 1518 1353.6

S.D 238.6 249 278 223.4

wt. of matured hen(g) 65 49 82 52

Mean 1241.5 1284.2 1240 1233.7

S.D 186.4 230 208 179.5

Age at which pullets start laying eggs (days)

106 51 67 100

Mean 185.4 187.8 201 202.7

S.D 18.9 19.5 17.7 20.7

Number of eggs produced 105 52 92 80

Mean 38.5 42.1 36.2 38.04

S.D 6.2 6.8 3.4 8.4

Mortality (%) 77 93.03 50 49.5 98 63.5 92 42.6

Number of eggs incubated per incubation

103 42 68 97

Mean 14.5 12.8 14.4 13.3

Number of chicks hatched per incubation.

103 42 68 97 3.3

Mean 11.9 10.4 12.3 9.1

S.D 2.6 2.4 1.5 1.98

Hatchability (%) 103 81.8 42 81.6 68 85.8 97 68.4

Nutrition Scavenging provides the basal feed. Almost all the chicken owners provide

supplementary feed or feeds. Cereal grains (wheat, maize and sorghum) are main supplementary feed offered. These cereal grains are home produced with some owners purchase from the market. The mean daily grain offered per bird was calculated and estimated to be 48.39+ 21 for Awaro, 70.2g-34 for Dega fille, 48.19+ 28 for klinto and 77.1g+31 for BCPA. The feed appears to be offered only for the time of harvest but not through out the year, as there is critical shortage of grains in the area at the time of the rainy season.



NRC (1984) recommends a daily quantity of 110g per matured laying hen per day of balanced poultry ration. The feeds offered are incomplete, unbalanced and inadequate. Although protein rich feedstuff such as byproducts of oil seeds (Guizotia abyssinica) and Atella (local brewing byproduct) are available at very low cost in the area, chicken owners do not know or are not aware of the importance of these feed sources.

Health care Disease outbreaks appear quite common in all the four peasant associations.

Mortality rate ranges from 40% to 93.03%. See table 3. The mortality rates reported here are of the field conditions and do not take age groups into account. Brannang and Persson (1990) reported 93% for chicks and 34% for adults for confined properly feed and managed local chickens in Assela area. The observed result in this investigation is higher than observed by the researchers. The variation could be explained by the proper provision of feed and confinement. The highest mortality of 93% observed in the Awaro peasant association does not seem realistic. But it can be concluded that there could be a severe problem in the area.

Respondents were interviewed to identify the diseases by local names and the symptoms that they observed. Then the information was taken to the college and the zonal veterinary office. Among the local names Fengil was the most common disease identified in all the peasant associations. The local veterinary office identified the disease as New Castle Disease. During field visits Infectious Coryza was also observed.

Most of the prevalent diseases occurring are of high fatal rates (80 %) affecting all age groups of chickens. Disease outbreaks occur starting the month of April and peaks in the rainy season (July and August).

Other than diseases, great treat comes from predators. Eagles, Mangoose and stray cats cause loss ranging from 28 to 50 %. The loss is indeed high implying the need for some sort of protection and confinement.

Animal Production


Breeding The local chickens are the result of uncontrolled crosses between various local not

selected by systematic breeding for a long time. In all the four-peasant associations over 60% of the farmers do not select chickens for breeding purpose. The traits which many farmers were interested were color, breed, egg production, body weight, fast growth and comb type. Single comb type chickens are not preferred. Color other than black is preferred. Welsummer color is the most preferred color. Even though the bureau of agriculture has been distributing cockerels for cross breeding and for purpose pullets for improvement in the last many years, the vast majority of the farmers did not have crossbred chickens. The few farmers who did cross breeding were also unable to quantify the improvement of the productivity of the crossbred chickens either in kind or its monitory value. But still many farmers are interested to cross and /or have exotic chickens. Variability in the breed to own or to cross with was apparent.

Over 80% of the respondents in all peasant associations are interested in owning exotic chickens. The mean number of chickens that they can afford to buy is six and ranges from 4-6. Many of the respondents like to increase the number but they were hesitant because of the risk of disease problem, management and financial limitations.

The Rhode Island Red and the White Leghorn breeds are the preferred breeds. This preference has an important implication to carry out poultry extension work. If exotic chicken distribution work has to be launched in Dega fille and Kilinto, the appropriate breed to distribute has to be the Rhode Island Red. On the other hand, in Awaro and BCPA more emphasis should be given for the White Leghorn breed.

Marketing The marketing channel is very simple and not complicated. Products are sold to go

between and consumers at Mutulu, Gudar and Ambo markets on market days. Respondents are aware of the decreased price offered by brokers in the villages and are not willing to sell chickens or eggs in the villages as they use to do in the past. Rather they prefer to take to the market and sell the products at the market price.



Respondents were interviewed to determine the mean annual income from the sales of poultry products. The data obtained were scanty because farmers were no willing to answer. The information obtained was not adequate to infer from.

Farmer prefers to sell live chickens during the dry season because they get higher price during this season. They do sell chickens in the rainy season but this sales during the rainy season are more or less forced sells. Sales during the rainy season is a risk averting mechanism although the prices are much lower than the dry season.

The prices offered for matured cockerel and hen at the market varies. Table 4 presents the prices offered and sold at different occasions.

Table 4: Highest price, normal price and lowest price by sex of chickens at the market.

Peasant Associations Parameters

n. Awaro n. Degafille

n. Kilinto n. BCPA

Highest price Cockerel 85 22 29 74

Mean 16.8 14.93 15.34 14.41

S.D. 2.42 2.69 2.07 2.68

Hen 85 20 31 74

Mean 10.29 10.75 12 9.39

S.D. 1.86 2.22 2.01 1.32

Normal price 36 20 28 68

Mean 14.19 13.75 13.64 10.21

S.D. 3.13 1.86 2.51 2.75

Hen 34 15 27 68

Mean 8.57 9.67 10.88 7.38

S.D. 1.41 2.09 2.09 1.62

Lowest price cockerel 88 22 30 74

Mean 10.43 10.43 10.1 7.53

S.D. 1.98 2.44 1.68 1.70

Hen 87 22 31 74

Mean 6.21 7.54 7.96 5.20

S.D. 1.38 2.15 1.77 0.82

Prices vary according to sex. Cockerels fetch higher prices than hens in all the peasant associations. Prices also differ between seasons, being high in the dry season and low in the rainy season. Prices of chickens increase during the festivals.

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Highest prices are given by consumers during the Easter festival and Ethiopia New year. (September 11 G.C.)

Other than sex, price is influenced by weight, by color and comb type for spiritual purpose. Single combed chickens are not is preferred by consumers during the Ethiopia New Year and Meskel (true cross day).

Price per dozen of egg very from U.S. 0.37 cents at the cheapest during the fasting days and highest U.S. 0.50 cents at the time of the festivals.

The dropping in price of chicken during the rainy season is one area of focus for future research and extension intervention to minimize either the chicken loss due to disease outbreak or income loss of the farmer.

Management and input Over 70% of the chickens in Awaro, BCPA, and Kilinto, the chickens are the

property of the wives. In Degafille, the chickens are the property of the wives and children. Husbands owning chickens in Awaro is virtually nonexistent. The spouse ownership in Degafille makes up 21% of the respondents.

The nucleus flock in the household is obtained by purchasing chickens from the market. Only 6%, 9.4% and 3.1% of the households incubate eggs and hatch to raise their own flock in BCPA, Degafille and Awaro peasant associations respectively. In about 21% and 11.3% of the households in the Awaro and Degafille peasant associations respectively, the business started by both raising and purchasing the chickens.

The mean number and sex of birds to start the flock were found to be two females and one male (total three chickens). Male chickens are not usually purchased. The observed result in this survey is in agreement with the report of Tadelle and Ogale (1996).

The chickens are not provided with housing of any sort of. The amount of supplemental feed offered has already been described else where in this report. When the amount offered is expressed in terms of monitory value, it is also negligible.



Regarding the management and labor input, the chickens are managed by the wives and by children. In about 80% the households in BCPA the wives offer the supplementary feeds. In kilinto peasant association, the provision of supplementary feed is entirely the duty of the wife while in Degafille the wives in 36% of the household carry the duty. In Awaro in 75% of the households feeding is done by the wives per-se and in about 22% of the households assisted by children. Egg collection and sales of the products are entirely the duties of the wives in all peasant associations. It appears that the role played by the female gender is masked, as the extension contact is done with the husbands that play little role in the production process.

General Constraints. Experience in some other parts of Ethiopia shows that there are some cultural

taboos and spiritual beliefs prohibiting the rearing and the consumption of poultry and poultry products. There is little or no cultural taboo prohibiting rearing and consumption of poultry products in the study area.

All the peasant associations do not get adequate assistance (extension service) from government or non-government organization pertaining to poultry production.

In BCPA, about 9% of the respondents get assistance from the Woreda Bureau and 12% from the Ethiopian Rural self Help Association (ERSHA) project (a local NGO).

Constraints prevailing in the four peasant associations vary. All the four peasant associations tried to reflect their major problems in slightly different priority. Disease problem, damag to vegetables, space shortage and lack of capital were the major problems identified. Lack of improved breed was ranked as the fifth problem followed by feed problem. Improved breed shortage comes next to the last. It appears that the current distribution of improved breed extension programs doesn't go with the felt need of the farmers in all the peasant associations.

Conclusion The following conclusions were made from the survey.

1. The per capita consumption of poultry and poultry products appear to be extremely low.

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2. The performance of the indigenous local birds is low however when this is relate to or compared to the low input, the productivity of the bird should not be regarded as bad but reasonable.

3. Disease problem appears to cause enormous loss in all the peasant associations.

4. The need for balanced ration for poultry is totally unknown. Hence this problem appears to be one of the contributing factors for the high disease loss as improperly fed animals are susceptible to number of disease because of lowered immunity.

5. The role and task that women play in the small-scale poultry production (village poultry production system) appears to be masked.

6. It appears that there exist considerable variations in the price of live chickens between seasons as the result which the farmer loose considerable income during the rainy season which calls for a strategy to over come the problem.

7. The current poultry extension service doesn't seem to go along with the felt need of the farmer.

Recommendation

– Further study should be carried out to identify the major poultry killer diseases in the area.

– Introducing low cost confinement housing and the intensive system of management may overcome some of the problems such as space shortage, damage vegetables and disease transmission.

– The current extension system does not seem to go along with the felt need of the farmers. Therefore, the extension system needs to be revised.

– The extension system should consider the task and role played by women in the production process.

– Farmers loose considerable income during the rainy season



because of low price of chickens because of disease outbreak. It is therefore, important to develop appropriate strategy to reduce the mortality and/or stabilize the price during the rainy season as mortality is the major cause identified for the lower price of chickens in the areas.

Acknowledgement The author wishes to thank the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation

(EARO) for the financial support it has given. A sincere thanks also goes to Ato Alazar Tilahun for the adjustments of the questionnaire and field data collection.

References Ambo Woreda Bureau of Agriculture, 1997. Basic Data Unit (unpublished report).

Australian Agricultural Consulting and Management Company (AACMC). 1984. Livestock sub-sector Review. Vol. 1. Annex 3.

Brannang E. and S.Persson. 1990. Ethiopian Animal Husbandry. A handbook. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. International Rural Development Center. 5 - 750. 07. Uppsala, Sweden. pp. 120 - 122.

Central Statistical Office (CSO). 1994. Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia. Result at Country Level. Vol. 1. Statistical Report. Addis Ababa. P.58.

Doutressoule,G. 1947. L`elevage en Afrique Occidentale Française. Edition larose. In: Gue`ye. El.H.F. and W. Bessei. 1997. The role of Poultry rearing in Senegal. Agriculture and Rural Development. Vol. 4:1. PP. 63-65.

Hoyle E.1992. Small-scale poultry Keeping in Welaita, North Omo Region. FRP Technical Pamphlet No. 3. Farmers Research Project (FRP). Farm Africa. Addis Ababa. 46 pp.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 1986. FAO Production yearbook. Basic Data Unit. Statistics Division. FAO. 00100. Rome Italy. p.204.

National Research Council (NRC). 1984. Nutrient Requirement of Poultry. 8th ed. National Academy Press, Washington D.C. pp. 11-13.

Tadelle D. and Ogalle. 1996. A survey of Village Poultry Production on the Central Highlands of Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. p.22.

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Woubshet A. 1989. Farm Development and Farm Family Life: Main measures and Interrelationships Between Peasant Farms and the Farm Households Around Ambo. (Memo). Ambo Junior College of Agriculture, Ambo, Ethiopia. p. 116.


A survey on cattle management and utilization in Gambella region Mureja Shiberu

National AI Centre, Kaliti, P. O. Box 22692, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract

Intervention on applying better ways of animal husbandry depends to a large extent on the production system of a particular locality. Where cattle owners are educated and are economically well, fast adoption of pertinent technology including cattle feeding, care, housing and breeding will be possible; where cattle owners are settled but with lower educational and economic background, such a technology can be adopted slowly; however, in pastoral communities, more understanding of the system is required before any intervention is to take place. This paper briefly describes the cattle procuction system in Gambella region of Ethiopia. The traditional pastoral cattle management and their utilization, problems underlying the system, and options for improvement are outlined. Results of the survey are helpful in making short-term and long-term plans to increase the outputs from the high cattle population existing in the region.

Introduction. Ethiopia is known for its big cattle population. However, the fact that the cattle

types are naturally selected for adaptation to disease and harsh climate than for productivity on one hand and predominance of extensive livestock production system on the other, deviates the rank with regard to the quantity of the products. This condition calls for both genetic and systemic aspects of cattle improvement.

Genetic improvement needs proper data handling and collection, followed by selection or appropriate mating system. This approach can potentially be started for every cattle type in the country since no intensive genetic improvement has taken place. It should, however, depend on the technical and infrastructural capacity to undergo the necessary genetic improvement procedures, the traits of interest and the policy.



An improvement in the production system allows utilization of the potential of the existing cattle types, and enhances their improvement in favour of the different products. Wider potential to improve the production system exists in the lowland regions of the country. This is because the low lands have lower density of human and cattle population, and the production system is predominantly pastoralism or agropastoralism. Gambella is one of the regions of Ethiopia in which pastoral system exists. This paper briefly describes the pastoral system existing in the region and indicates possibilities for improvement of the system in order to efficiently utilize the cattle resources.

Method of study The study was conducted in the 3 districts of Gambella region in 1988 and 1995. 22

villages of Jiko district were used to study the cattle management in the Nuer Habitats for 28 days. Observation was done in cattle camps and grazing location in the mornings and evenings. In addition, questionnaires were administered to capture information on movement, management and utilization issues in the 3 districts of the Nuer tribe. The cattle population estimates were from direct count and vaccination reports.

Survey observations Regional feature

Gambella is bounded by the Sudan Republic and the Southern Ethiopian Regional state (SNNPR) in the South, Oromia and SNNPR in the East, The Sudan Republic in the West and Oromia in the North. The altitude range is 300-1200 m. a. s. l. The air temperature in the central lowland is recorded as 380C for average maximum in March and 210C for average minimum in December. The annual rainfall range is 800-1400mm (Agriculture Office of Gambella, 1988). There are seven districts in the region. These are Akobo, Jiko, Itang, Gambella, Gogennajor, Abobo and Goderie. The existing tribes in the region include Komo (settled in Gambella district), Oppo (settled in Itang), Mezhengir (in Gambella and Goderie districts), Anyuaks (settled throughout the region), and Nuer (settled in mainly in Jiko, Akobo and Itang districts). The lowland area of Gambella region, which excludes Goderie district, has about 26 000 km2 area (Baro-Akobo Basins Study 1988).

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Among the seven districts, the highest proportion of cattle is found in Akobo, Jiko and Itang districts, where there are about 100 000, 150 000 and 50 000 cattle heads. Nuers own large number of cattle and small ruminantsd are semi-pastoral.

Pastoralism In addition to the land and cattle resource, there are rivers flowing across the

lowland portion of the region. The rivers are Alwero, Gilo, Baro, Akobo, Jiko, Adura, Mekuye, and Pibor. During summer, the increased amount of rainfall from the sources of these rivers results in the overflowing of the rivers covering wider areas of land. Besides, much of the land in the region is flat and prohibits drainage. These conditions have made livestock owners to temporarily shift their settlement towards drier areas. On the other hand streams and ponds in the wet season dwelling area become dry and water deficient when the dry season advances. This makes the owners move their herds towards rivers and settle along the sides in order to get water and relatively better pasture. In Akobo district, cattle owners settle along Gilo river in the dry season. In the wet season they migrate along with their herds to distant grazing area along Pibor river to avoid fooding due to over flowing of the Gilo river. The people grow and harvest sorghum in both the dry and wet season (John waine, Pers comm) settlement locations. Pastorals of Jiko and their herds live along Baro river in the dry season. When the rainy season starts, they move to Larie and Sudan Jiko sub-districts depending on the distance and the relationship they have with the people. Besides livestock rearing, pastorals of Jiko produce maize in their dry season residences in the months of December and May; such cereal production is also undertaken in their wet season residence during August. Much of the area in Itang district is settled by the Anyuaks and only villages including Watgatch, Bazial and Dorong are settled by the Nuers. During the wet season the people move to Larie sub-district.



Herd management A calf is fed with colostrum 1st four days; one teat is left for the calf to suckle

between 5th and 21st days. Water is also regularly provided. Calves are made to adapt river water and pasture from 21st day weaning, after which they were left to graze along with the other classes of cattle.

The higher age groups are fed solely on the rangelands. More than 4000 cattle heads from 2-3 villages graze together between 10 am to 4 pm daily. Watering is undertaken 2 times a day using in river banks. Productivity of the open savanna is at its peak during April to June when succulent pasture is available; July to September fibrous pasture, and October to November standing hay exists. Following Novembers the rangelands are burnt and for the following 6 months there will be shortage of feed. Although differential feeding is not done for animals in different status, lactating animals with low yielding potentials are provided with extracts from bushy outgrowth called ‘Bool’ or ‘Tubow’ to increase the yield. Cows whose calves died during parturition are initiated to be milked after inflating their reproductive system. Housing for cattle is uncommon during the dry season. Calves are housed in an open circular house. The higher age groups are kept in camps tethered by a rope tied to pegs. All management including vaccination are undertaken in the camps. In the wet season residence, every household herd is housed at its turn from grazing. Abnormalities in an animal body are controlled by providing extracts of leaves taken from different known herbs and woody out-growths. Similarly, extracts from a plant called 'koat' is provided to ease parturition. In addition, hyena waste is crushed and the solution given to cows which fail to conceive. Dusting ashes on the hides of animals is believed to control insect bites during grazing as insects are believed to attack animals with dark colourings. During night time, smoking dried cattle dung in the cattle camp, is common practice in order to control bites from insects.

Animal Production


Cattle products, their processing and use The milking utensil locally called 'kento' is prepared by washing it with urine

collected from cows and letting it dry. Milking is undertaken twice in a day by women. Milk is mostly consumed whole and few is churned. Curdled for 6 or more hours, milk is churned using the local utensil with wider tip prepared in the same way as the milking utensil. Churning is done by shaking sour milk on the ground or on air within the utensil. Cleaned butter is stored in a clay pot for a maximum of 6 months, and is mainly used with edible vegetable in the rainy season.

The role of milk as a source of income in pastoral economy can be enhanced by introducing a more advanced milk processing techniques such as cheese making which would allow seasonally surplus milk to be used more efficiently for later exchange as home consumption. This has an advantage that marketing dairy products may offer a more significant and reliable income source than the sales of animals (Kerven 1987). In addition to the cattle products milk, meat and blood, keeping a number of cattle heads has other social and economic benefits to the owners. Income generated from cattle sale is used in purchasing food items. Although only few quantity of sorghum or corn is produced near homestead farms, more than half of the family food crop need is fulfilled from the sale of cattle or their exchange with crops. Accordingly, an average mature ox is traded for 2-3 quintals of cereals depending on the seasons. The social benefits the cattle render include marriage, entertainment and compensation. In order to get married, a man provides 20-27 cattle for his father-in-law. The provision increases when one marries more than one woman. Killing a person can be compensated by providing 25-60 heads of cattle. Risk aversion to meet the indicated social and economic needs also takes place by trading live animals, cultivating and selling food and cash crops like maize, sorghum and tobacco, and getting cattle from close ethnic relatives. The pastorals do not use their cattle for meat except when the animals are at risk of death. On the other hand, blood feeding is common in the dry seasons and is obtained from young live bulls, steers or heifers. Up to 2 litres of blood can be



collected from an animal and the blood is eaten cooked with a vegetable locally called ‘wore’. The cattle types and genetic improvement

The Nuer cattle are one of the two known sanga types in Ethiopia: Danakil and Nuer (or Abigar). Local improvement of these cattle in Gambella involves culling of heifers considering pedigree information, culling cows based on milk yield and post-natal death of their progenies, and culling most males in their yearling age. The cows are observed to yield 1-4 litres of yield, and to weigh up to 570 kg. Because they are exposed to trypanosomiasis, and have partial genetic relationship with the west African humpless cattle types, they are expected to have better tolerant to thrips as compared to other zebu types in the country. No intervention has taken place in the past, on their conservation and improvement.

In order to avert risks of food and non-food items, and other cultural issues, Nuers need to rear many animals. Besides, the land can carry more number of animals if the vegetation is properly managed. When the human population increases, product per animal should increase, to match food requirement for which genetic improvement should be enhanced side by side with systemic improvement.

Conclusion It is considered that the region has a big potential area of land, unused vegetation

and great number of cattle population. The local knowledge to manage cattle is admirable. Ethnic ties and individual attempts for risk aversion is also considerable. On the other hand, there are limitations including degradation and burning of the range lands, a negative energy due to movement of the nomads from place to place, limited milk processing ways, stagnant genetic gain and possibilities for disease transmission due to overcrowded grazing.

Recommendations Based on the constraints observed in the region, the followings are recommended.

1. Empowering the pastorals on pasture and health management, and breed improvement through arranging training programmes. This is useful to identify communal interests for long-term pastoral strategy. In Botswana to

Animal Production


bring about effective grazing management for pastoralists, studies on the production system was to be followed by identification of target groups with common interests, settlement of nomads and communal management of land water and livestock. The duty was to be shared by both governmental and non-governmental organizations (Abel 1983). Similar programmes were undertaken by Maasailand, Kenya (Solomon et al., 1983) and in South Darfur of Sudan (Grandin 1987). For the programme to be acceptable, Grandin (1987) indicated others' work in which pastoralists must be incorporated into a decision making process influencing their future and that of the lands they occupy.

In accordance with these experiences, a settlement project can be established, only when the initiative comes from the pastorals themselves, Then model settlement of a group of pastorals along with their resources can be demonstrated by fulfilling the needs pertaining to settlement.

The action plan for the settlement can be forwarded as follows: 1. nomination of responsible organization to handle and co ordinate the settlement 2. testing the interests of the nomads for the settlement 3. a study identifying people with common interests, and indicating actual distribution of the potential resources including livestock, vegetation, land and water 4. surveying including partitioning of permanent site for housing, watering and grazing 5. reformation of farmers' organizations and election of their representatives by whom management of the grazing lands, water and cattle resources is possible and sustainable husbandry practices can be undertaken. 6. facilitating construction of house, watering points and roads.

2. Disease control. Scientific confirmation of the local treatments has to be enhanced in order to know their veterinary value further. In addition epidemiology of any out break can be controlled by reducing the overcrowded grazing, timely vaccination and treatment.

3. Genetic improvement. It is important that bulls be selected more intensively than cows as they affect the future generation more than the females. This could be possible by pooling best disease tolerant and milky cows into a nucleus



and selecting bulls with the best pedigree record of milk and performance record of tolerance especially of trypanosomiasis. Bulls or semen produced from these bulls can be distributed to the parts of the country where the disease is of economic importance.

It is worth noting that every intervention should be evaluated against time in order to know the progress attained.

References Abel, N. 1983. Botswana rangelands programme. ILCA Annual Report 1983.

International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Agriculture office of Gambella, 1988. Annual report of 1987-88 budget year. Gambella, Ethiopia. P. 1-5.

Baro-Akobo Basins Study Project, 1988. Master plan of river basins in Gambella. Progress report. Gambella, Ethiopia.

Cossins, N. J., 1985. The productivity and potentials of pastoral systems. ILCA Bulletin 21:10-15. ILCA, Addis Ababa.

Grandin, B. E., 1987. Pastoral culture and range management: recent lessons from Maasailand. ILCA Bulletin 28:7-13.

John Waine 1988. Pers comm. Gambella Awraja Agriculture Office. Gambella, Ethiopia.

Kerven, C. 1987. Some research and development implications for pastoral dairy production in Africa. ILCA Bulletin 26:29-35

Solomon Bekure, F. Chabari, B. E. Grandin, P. N. de Leeuw, A. Okuome, I. Ole Pasha, P. Semenye, M. de Suusa, 1983. Kenya rangelands programme. ILCA Annual Report 1983. P.33-40.

Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Ato Bruke Yemane of Ministry of

Agriculture for his invaluable technical and editorial comments to this paper. Brother Aberra Shibru is also remarkable for providing me his computer hardware anytime required.


Effect of wheat bran supplementation at graded levels on changes in physical body composition in teff straw (eragrostis tef) fed zebu (bos indicus) oxen of the Ethiopian highlands. Tesfaye Wolde Michael, 2P. O. Osuji 3 and Asfaw Yimegnuhal1

1 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O.Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

2 SNNP, Planning Unit

36 Tonacabear Gdns., Valley View, Marocas, St. Joseph, Trinidad.

Abstract

The effect on body composition and carcass components of highland Zebu (Bos indicus) oxen fed teff straw as basal diet and varying level of wheat bran as supplement was investigated. Fifty four castrated Zebu oxen, of 5-6 years age and similar body condition were allocated to three treatment groups based on a randomized block design with unequal block sizes and within block replication and were subjected to three levels of supplementation of wheat bran (0.75, 2.75 and 4.75 wheat bran kg/day).

Out of the 54 oxen, 18 of them (six from each treatment group) were slaughtered and both internal and external parts of the oxen were examined. Slaughter weight (SW) and Empty body weight (EBW) and hot carcass weight (HCW) were significantly affected (P<0.001) due to varying level of supplementation. There were no significant difference (p>0.05) between dressing percentage of EBW and SW. Adipose tissue fat (p<0.01), channel fat (0.001), omental and kidney knob (p<0.01) increased as supplementation increased up to medium level and slightly decreased at high level of supplementation. Lean: fat ratio was significantly different (P<0.01). Liver (p<0.001) and spleen (p<0.05) from the internal organ and reticulo-rumen (p<0.01) from the digestive tract were also affected due to the change in the level of supplementation while hump fat increased as supplementation increased but was not significantly different (p>0.05).



Key words: zebu, oxen, teff straw, wheat bran, carcass

Introduction In sub-Saharan Africa draught oxen depend on poor quality natural pasture or

crop residues (Soller et al., 1986; Goe, 1987). Thus they loose weight during the dry season and are in very poor physical condition for work at the beginning of rains when they are needed for land preparation (Mukasa, 1983). Furthermore, small holder farmers with very limited land and feed resources are constrained to keep their oxen throughout the year. Apart from this, the farmers use draught oxen for not more than 70 days per year for land preparation and other operations such as weeding, threshing and transporting (Gryseels and Anderson, 1983). Thus, looking to this, it seems quite necessary to combine use of oxen for traction with a supplementary enterprise e.g. fattening for beef with relatively cheaper diets available in the central highland of the country.

The agricultural by-product from the industrial sector played a great role in supplementing poor quality roughage. Among these industrial by-product wheat bran is the cheaper and readily available in areas located in favorable transit net work (Alemu et al, 1989). The crude protein content and fat range from 13.3 to 17.0 % and 3.0 to 4.5% respectively. Wheat bran is an important source of carbohydrates, protein, minerals and vitamins and considered as one of the options to fatten drought animals (Kearl, 1982; Alemu et al, 1989).

There are very few data on the physical body composition and carcass characteristics of Zebu animals used by small holders for traction and fattening purposes. As part of a trial aimed at investigating the effect of body condition of oxen before work on their capacity to work, the opportunity arose to study the body physical composition and carcass characteristics of animals in the Highland. The paper reports the effect of supplementing teff straw fed ad lib with varying levels of wheat bran on physical body composition and carcass characteristics of Ethiopian highland zebu oxen. This could also assist to establish feeding regimes and incorporate small- scale ox fattening system.

Animal Production


Materials and Methods Animals and Management

This study was conducted at ILRI Debre Zeit Research Station located about 50km south east of Addis Ababa, in the Ethiopian highlands at an altitude of about 1857 m above sea level. Annual average rainfall in ILRI-D/Z Station is 866 mm, 84 % of which falls in the month of June to September. Annual average temperature does not exceed 18.7o C.

Fifty-four castrated zebu oxen, aged 5-6 years and of similar body condition were purchased and were kept in isolation for quarantine for 21 days. They were vaccinated against major diseases and treated for ecto- and endo-parasites. During the quarantine period animals were fed teff straw and allowed to graze stubble for about 4hrs/day.

Experimental design and treatment A randomized block design with unequal block sizes and with in blocks replication

for some slaughter groups was used. The 54 oxen were ranked by weight and blocked and allocated to three levels of wheat bran supplementation. After 145 days of feeding, six oxen from each treatment were slaughtered.

Feeds and Feeding The oxen were allocated to three levels of supplementation: low, medium and high.

Teff straw was offered ad lib and the animals were individually fed. Wheat bran was supplemented at 0.75, 2.75 and 4.75 kg/head/day for the low, medium and high levels of supplementation respectively. Mineral blocks and water were provided ad libitum.

Slaughter procedure Six oxen from each feeding treatment, total of 18 oxen were trekked to Debre Zeit

abattoir which is 10 km from ILRI- Debre Zeit Research Station and were deprived feed and water from 24h and weighed before slaughter (slaughter weight). Each animal was stunned, bled by cutting the jugular vein, the feet and head cut-off and skinned. The entire gastro-intestinal tract was removed with contents and legated to divide into four sections: esophagus, reticulo-rumen, Omasum and abomasum, small and large intestine. Internal organs (lung, heart, liver, kidney and spleen) and the



internal fat deposits surrounding the stomach (omental), the intestine (mesenteric), fat lining the pelvic arch (channel fat) were removed.

Each carcass was split into two halves and each half was weighed, and the right side was stored in a cold room (-10 0 to +5 0 C). After overnight storage, the right half was deboned and then manually separated into bone, lean meat and fat.

Measurement and observation The weight of each oxen was taken just before slaughter. Also weight of blood,

feet, head, hide, internal organs, empty gut tissue and its contents and the internal fat deposits were recorded. The empty body weight (EBW) was calculated as slaughter weight less gut contents. In estimating the hot carcass weight, weight of head, hide, thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavity contents as well as legs below the hook and knee joints were not considered.

Dressing percentage was calculated as proportion of hot carcass weight from a slaughter weight and empty body weight. Physical composition of carcass was measured by taking weight of lean meat, fat and bone from the chilled carcass weight.

Statistical analysis Body composition and carcass components of each animal were subjected to

analysis of variance using the Generalized Linear Procedure (SAS, 1999). Sum of squares for treatment levels was further partitioned into single degrees of freedom using orthogonal polynomial contrasts.

Result Carcass characteristics of Ethiopian highland zebu oxen fed teff straw based diet

and supplemented with varying levels of wheat bran is presented in Table 1. The mean slaughter weight (p<0.001), empty body weight (p<0.001) and hot carcass weight (p<0.001) were significantly different among treatments. Both empty body weight and hot carcass weight increased as the level of supplementation increased. However, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) among treatments on dressing percentage calculated on both empty body weight and slaughter weight basis.

Animal Production


Physical composition of carcass expressed as g/kg cold carcass was significantly different for both lean meat (p<0.05) and fat (p<0.01) components of the carcass. The low and high supplementation groups were not significantly different (p>0.05) from each other in lean meat proportion from total carcass. The medium group had lower lean meat proportion and higher fat proportion from total carcass as compared with other two groups. The bone proportion from total carcass was not affected (p>0.05) across treatments. However, fat to bone (p<0.01) and lean to fat (p<0.01) ratios were different for the three treatment groups. The medium group had the highest fat to bone and lowest lean to fat ratio.

Adipose tissue (carcass fat) and internal fat deposits of oxen in kg are shown in Table 2. Adipose tissue (p<0.01), mesenteric and omental fat (p<0.001) and kidney knob and channel fat (p<0.05) depositions were significantly different between treatments. The values were higher for medium supplementation level followed by high group. Lean meat weight from chilled carcass was not affected (p>0.05) by supplementation, although the values increased with increasing supplementation.

Offal removed from the dressed carcass is shown in Table 3. Offal were grouped into five sections namely: blood, external components, internal organs, digestive tract and penis and bladder. Except for liver (p<0.001) and spleen (p<0.05) in internal organs and for reticulo-rumen (p<0.01) in digestive tract all offal components were not significantly (p>0.05) affected due to treatments. Liver, spleen and reticulo-rumen weight increased with increasing supplementation. Comparing offal components as percentage of live weight at slaughter, the ranges were found to be: 3.2-3.9% for blood, 12.7-14.4 % for external components, 3.2-3.8% for internal organs and 6.6-7.2% for digestive tract.

The change of physical body composition of oxen at varying levels of supplementation is shown in Figure 1 and 2. From all body components, the internal fat deposits and external offal were the most variable body components with the feeding level applied. As the level of supplementation increased, weight of internal fat deposits and external offal increased as well. However, there is only slight weight increase in blood, digestive tract and internal organs with increasing level of supplementation.



Discussion From the slaughter data it was observed that considerable changes in carcass

characteristics of zebu oxen following increasing level of supplementation were observed. The results showed that supplementation during the fattening gave subsequent advantage to oxen in terms of empty body weight and hot carcass weight. However, the difference in slaughter weight was reflected in the weights of the component tissues of cold carcass and weights of internal fat deposits but not with increasing supplementation level.

Increasing slaughter weight increased the adipose tissue (muscle fat deposit), mesenteric and omental fat, kidney knob and channel fat; but reduced both lean meat and bone weight proportion from cold carcass. The relationship among slaughter weight, proportion of fat and bone observed in this report were similar with the report done by other workers (Guenther et al., 1965; Zinn, Durham and Hedrick, 1970; Fahmy and Lalande, 1975; Buvanendran et al., 1983). However, there are conflicting reports on the relationship of lean proportion to slaughter weight. A decrease in the percentage of trimmed retail cuts with an increase in the percentage of saleable meat at higher weight had been reported Dinkel et al. (1969). The proportion of lean at different slaughter weight for different supplementation level reported here were similar to those observed in the improved Boran (Bos indicus) steers (Ledger, 1965) and Friesian (Anon, 1966).

Lean to bone, fat to bone and lean to fat ratios in the carcass has been proposed as indices of carcass merit in beef cattle (Berg and Butterfield, 1976). The lean + fat to bone ratio from different level of supplementation reported here were not significantly different. However, animals in medium group had highest lean + fat to bone ratio and highest slaughter weight. This indicate that the ratio increased with an increase in slaughter weight, but not with increasing supplementation level.

The lean to bone ratio was similar for low and medium treatments but increased at high supplementation level. The lean to bone ratio observed in this study was higher than that observed for Nigerian Zebu breeds Bunaji (White Fulani) and Sokoto Guladi (Buvanendran et al., 1983) with lean to bone ratio of 3.3 and 3.9 slaughtered at 119 and 157 dressed carcass weight respectively. However, Galal

Animal Production


(1978) observed a much higher lean to bone ratio of 4.70 in western Sudan Baggara cattle slaughtered at dressed carcass weight of 115.1 kg. The corresponding ratio for animals with similar carcass weights (152 kg) in this study was 3.73.

The fat to bone and the lean to fat ratio changes observed in this study could be better explained by the difference in feeding treatments applied during fattening period. Oxen in medium supplementation group had higher fat to bone and lower lean to fat ratio. This was probably because the medium group had more roughage intake as compared to high group tended to deposit more fat due to better rumen environment for acetate fermentation. The synthesis of adipose tissue when the diet is supplemented with high glycogenic potential diet is apparent (Thornton and Tume, 1984; Preston and Leng, 1986; Fiems et al, 1998).

The increase of liver with increasing supplementation level was the consequence of an increase of glycogen storage in the liver with increasing supplementation level (Lawrence et al, 1989). Increasing trend of internal fat and external offal were due to increase in sub-cutaneous layer of fat deposition on the hide and internal fat deposits surrounding the stomach and intestine (mesentric and omental fat) and fat lining in the pelvic arch(channel fat).

The body composition and carcass component varied with an increase in supplementation levels. Increase in important body and carcass components were observed as supplementation level increased, especially between low and the other two groups. However, performance of medium and high supplementation groups were almost similar. Considering saleable carcass components, it appears that the medium group were performing better, since it had the higher lean + fat to bone ratio. This suggests that the capacity of zebu oxen to utilize high-energy feedstuffs became limited at high level of supplementation. Therefore, it is economical to fatten animals at medium level in order to exploit two advantages. These include low feed cost and more income from sale of meat with a higher fat content, which has a higher demand in the Ethiopian domestic market.



Acknowledgement The authors gratefully acknowledge the support rendered by Drs. Micheal Bonsi

and Ignatius Nsahlai for documentation and useful advice.

Table 1: Effects of supplementation of teff straw with three levels of wheat bran on carcass characteristics of zebu oxen

Supplementation levels Significance Suppl. level

low mediu

m high SEM

Effect of suppl.

L Q

Slaughter wt. (kg) 249 307 301 6.9 *** *** **

Empty body wt. (kg) 217 263 264 5.5 *** *** **

Hot carcass wt. (kg) 126 152 155 3.9 *** *** **

Dressing percentage

Empty body wt. basis 57.9 58. 58. 0.82 NS NS NS

Slaughter wt. basis 50.4 49. 51. 0.85 NS NS NS

Carcass composition (g/kg cold carcass)

Lean meat 648 567 618 19.5 * NS *

Fat 175 279 222 18.8 ** * **

Bone 176 154 155 7.6 NS NS NS

Ratio

Lean meat+Fat : Bone 4.76 5.60 5.47 0.27 NS NS NS

Lean : Bone 3.73 3.73 4.00 0.22 NS NS NS

Fat : Bone 1.03 1.88 1.48 0.15 ** NS **

Lean : Fat 4.07 2.13 2.86 0.37 ** * * SEM = standard error of means; L = linear contrast; Q = quadratic contrast; NS = p>0.05; *=p<0.05; **=p<0.01; ***=p<0.001

Table 2: Effect of supplementation of teff straw with three levels of wheat bran on adipose tissue and internal fat deposits of zebu oxen in kg

Supplementation levels Significance

Suppl. level

low medium

high SEM

Effect of suppl.

L Q

Adipose tissue (fat) 22 41 34 2.8 ** * **

Lean meat 79 84 91 4.2 NS NS NS

Hump fat 2.7 3.4 5.9 0.91 NS * NS

Mesenteric and

Omental fat 2.4 6.2 6.0 0.46 *** *** **

Kidney knob and

channel fat 3.8 6.0 4.8 0.50 * NS * SEM = standard error of means; L = linear contrast; Q = quadratic contrast; NS = p>0.05; * = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01; *** = p<0.001

Animal Production


Table 3: Effect of supplementation of teff straw with three levels of wheat bran on offals removed from the dress carcass at slaughter (in kg) in zebu oxen

Significance Supplementation level

Suppl. level Offals removed from dressed carcass

low medium high SEM

Effect of suppl. L Q

a. Blood 9.69 9.74 9.89 0.92 NS NS NS

b. The external components

head 13.88 14.18 14.60 0.52 NS NS NS

feet 4.72 5.31 5.22 0.17 NS NS NS

hide 17.19 19.47 20.56 1.14 NS NS NS

c. The internal organs

lung 3.42 3.07 3.42 0.28 NS NS NS

heart 1.38 1.68 1.89 0.17 NS * NS

liver 2.77 3.74 4.32 0.17 *** *** NS

spleen 0.70 0.82 1.23 0.14 * * NS

kidney 0.54 0.57 0.57 0.04 NS NS NS

d. The digestive tract

esophagus 0.53 0.36 0.43 0.05 NS NS NS

reticulo-rumen 6.05 6.99 7.02 0.21 ** ** NS

omasum & abomasum 3.85 3.92 3.67 0.34 NS NS NS

intestines 7.42 9.05 9.43 0.65 NS * NS

e. Penis and bladder 1.03 1.03 1.09 0.08 NS NS NS SEM = standard error of means; L = linear contrast; Q = quadratic contrast; NS = p>0.05; * = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01; *** = p<0.001

Table 4: Digesta from the different sections of the gut and the gut tissue in percent of live weight at slaughter in zebu oxen fed teff-straw and supplemented with wheat bran


Suppl. level

low medium

high SEM

Effect of suppl.

L Q

Digesta as % SW

Reticulo-rumen 5.4 8.4 7.0 2.34 NS NS NS

Omasum and abomasum 0.85 1.09 1.06 0.68 NS NS NS

Small and large intestine 1.27 1.81 2.26 1.22 NS NS NS

Total gut contents 13.0 14.4 12.4 0.93 NS NS NS

Gut tissue as % SW

Reticulo rumen 2.52 2.09 2.24 0.09 NS NS NS

Omasum and abomasum 1.50 1.36 1.32 0.06 NS NS NS

Small and large intestine 3.96 3.76 4.32 0.20 NS NS NS SEM = standard error of means; L = linear contrast; Q = quadratic contrast NS = p>0.05



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Buvanendran, V., Ikhatua, U.J., Abubakar, B.Y. and Olayiwole, M.B. 1983. Carcass characteristics of indigenous breeds of cattle in Nigeria. J. Agric. Sci., Camb. 100, 407-411.

Dinkel, C.A., Busch, D.B., Schafer, D.E., Tumo, H.J., Minard, J.A. and Castello, W.J. 1969. Changes in composition of beef carcass with increasing animal weight. Journal of Animal Science 28, 316-323.

Fahmy, M.M. and Lalande, G. 1975. Growth rate, feed conversion ratio and carcass traits of Charolain x Holstein-Friesian and Hereford x Holstein-Freisian steers slaughtered at three different weights. Animal Production 20, 11-18.

Fiems, L.O.; Campeneere, S. D.; Bogaerts D.F; Cottyn, B.G..; Boucquo, Ch.V. 1998. The influence of dietary energy and protein levels on performance , carcass and meat quality of Belgian White-blue double –muscled finishing bulls. Animal Science 66(319-327).

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Kearl,L.C. 1982. Nutrient requirements of ruminant in developing countries.

Animal Production


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Levy, D., Holzer, Z. and Fulman, Y. 1975. Effect of concentrate: roughage ratio on the production of beef from Israeli - Friesian bulls slaughtered at different live weights. Animal Production 20, 199-205.

Mukasa, M.E. 1983. Aspects of management and productivity of indigenous cattle, sheep and goats in Ada District of Ethiopia, ILCA, Addis Ababa.

Preston, T.R. and Leng, R.A. 1986. Matching livestock production systems to available resources. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Soller, H., Reed, J.D. and Butterworth, M.H. 1986. Intake and utilization of feed by work oxen. ILCA Newsletter vol. 5 No. 2. Addis Ababa, ILCA.

Statistical Analysis Systems Institute (SAS), 1999. SAS guide for personal computers, Version 8. SAS institute, Cary, NC., 1028 pp.

Thornton, R.F. and Tume, R.K. 1984. Fat deposition in ruminants. In: Barker, S.K., Gowthorn, J.M., Mackintosh, J.B. and Purser, D.B. (eds). Ruminant physiology: Concepts and consequences. University of Western Australia, Perth pp. 289-298.

Zinn, D.W., Durham, R.M. and Hedrick, H.B. 1970. Feedlot and carcass grade characteristics of steers and heifers as influenced by days on feed. Journal of Animal Science, 31, 302-306.


Effect of wheat bran supplementation on feed intake, body weight change and retained energy in the carcass of Ethiopian highland zebu (bos indicus) oxen fed teff straw (eragrostis tef) as basal diet. Tesfaye Wolde Michael2, P.O. Osuji4, Asfaw Yimegnuhal1 and Alemu Yami3

1International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

2SNNP, Economic Planning Unit.

3Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), P.O.Box 32 Debre Zeit Ethiopia.

46 Tonacabear Gdns., Valley View, Marocas, St. Joseph, Trinidad.

Abstract

The experiment was carried-out at the ILRI Debre Zeit Research Station in Ethiopia. Sixty three Ethiopian Highland Zebu (Bos indicus) oxen were ranked by weight and blocked in a completely randomized block design. Nine representative oxen from various blocks were slaughtered as the initial slaughter group while the remaining 54 oxen were allocated to three levels of supplementation, low, medium and high. The animals were individually fed a diet consisting of teff straw ad libitum as roughage and wheat bran as supplement fed at 0.75, 2.75 and 4.75 kg head-1 day-1 for 145 days. Live-weight was recorded every two weeks. At the end of the experimental period 6 oxen from each feeding level were slaughtered and dissected into the component parts.

Supplementation had a significant effect (p<0.001) on teff straw and total dry matter (DMI) and organic matter intakes (OMI). Both DMI and OMI increased with increasing supplementation, however, teff straw intake increased from low to medium and then decreased. Supplementation increased body weight gain (p<0.001). The average body weight gains (BWG) were 68, 459 and 477± 27.6



g/day for the low, medium and high levels of supplementation respectively. The medium group performed well in terms of feed conversion efficiency and cost of dry matter per kg body weight. The data indicated that supplementation had significant effect on empty body weight change (EBWC) (p<0.001), muscle fat (p<0.01) and energy retained in the carcass. The medium group gained the most muscle fat (MFG) and retained more energy (ER) in the carcass.

Keywords: zebu, oxen, teff straw, wheat bran, retained energy, carcass.

Introduction Ruminant productivity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is limited due to the low

nutritive value of feeds available for the animals (van Soest, 1982). The most abundant feeds in Sub-Saharan Africa are over mature natural grasses and crop residues which are limited both in quantity and quality during the dry season resulting in low growth rates (Soller et al., 1986; Goe, 1987). Of all ruminants, cattle have been the most important in the provision of draught power and meat in the highlands of Sub-Saharan Africa (ILCA, 1981).

In most of (SSA) oxen are used for land development, tillage and threshing. Farmers normally use their oxen for six or seven years, starting when they are about three years old (ILCA, 1990). Gryseels and Andersen (1983) indicated oxen were working for some 450 pair hours per year. Draught oxen are not busy for the whole year hence, these animals are little used in support of agriculture. Once the working lives of oxen are over, they are usually fattened before being sold for meat. However, farmers may not get the best out of their animals under the existing crop/livestock production system. Feeding trials by Osuji and Capper (1992) showed that young (4-5 years) oxen gained weight more rapidly than older oxen. Therefore, farmers should consider fattening their oxen for sale much earlier. However, information on fattening of Zebu oxen (Bos indicus) based on the effect of available feed resources on animal performance is very limited.

This paper reports on the effect of supplementation of teff straw (Eragrostis tef) with three levels of wheat bran on feed intake, body weight gain and energy retained in the carcass of Ethiopian highland Zebu (Bos indicus) oxen.

Animal Production


Materials and Methods Animals and Management

Sixty three castrated Zebu (Bos indicus) oxen, aged 5-6 years, of similar body condition were purchased from the local market. The oxen were vaccinated against rinderpest, anthrax, foot and mouth disease, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, blackleg and pasteurellosis and tested for brucellosis. The oxen were also treated against endo and ecto parasites. While they were in quarantine for 21 days, the oxen were fed teff straw and allowed to graze stubble for 4 hours a day.

Experimental design and treatments A randomized block design with unequal block sizes and within blocks replication

for some slaughter groups was used (Cochran and Cox, 1957). The 63 oxen were ranked by weight and blocked (4 blocks) and 54 oxen were allocated to three levels of feeding while nine oxen representative of various blocks were slaughtered to provide base line information before the experiment started. Six oxen from each feeding treatment were slaughtered at the end of the experiment.

The oxen were allocated to three levels of supplementation: low, medium and high. Teff straw was fed ad libitum to the animals individually. Wheat bran was used as supplement and was fed at the rate of 0.75, 2.75 and 4.75 kg head-1 day-1 for the low, medium and high levels respectively, for 145 days. Mineral blocks and water were provided ad libitum. The oxen were weighed fortnightly. Body weight of oxen was recorded after fasting the oxen for 24 h. Oxen were deprived of feed and water before slaughter. The gastro-intestinal tract was removed and the weight of empty gut tissue and its contents were recorded for estimation of empty body weight. Carcasses were split into two halves and the right side was stored in a cold room (-10oC to +5?C). After overnight storage, the right half was deboned and the bone, lean meat and muscle fat separated manually and weighed. Then the lean meat and muscle fat were minced separately and samples.

Chemical analysis Roughage (teff straw) and concentrate (wheat bran) were analyzed for dry matter

(DM), nitrogen (N) and ash (A.O.A.C., 1990) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) (Goering and Van Soest, 1970). Gross energy estimation of feed samples, lean meat



and muscle fat were done using an adiabatic bomb calorimeter (Gallenkamp). The minced sample of muscle fat and lean meat were thoroughly mixed, for nitrogen (CP), ash and fat analyses according to the procedures described by AOAC (1990). The energy concentration of the body was calculated by using the following energy values according to (ARC 1980).

MJ/kg protein = 23.6

MJ/kg fat = 39.3

Feed compositions of both teff straw and wheat bran are summarized in Table 1.

Statistical analysis Feed intake, body weight gain and energy retention of each animal were subjected

to analyses of variance (ANOVA) using the Generalized Linear Models procedure (SAS, 1999). Sum of squares for feeding levels were further partitioned into single degrees of freedom using orthogonal polynomial contrasts.

Results Effect of supplementation on Feed intake

The effect of supplementation on dry matter (DMI) and organic matter intakes (OMI) of oxen is shown in Table 2.

Supplementation had a significant effect (P<0.001) on teff straw, dry matter and organic matter intakes. The linear (P<0.001) and quadratic (P<0.001) contrasts were also significant for total feed dry matter and organic matter intakes. Both total DMI and OMI increased with increasing supplementation. The values were 4.9, 6.8 and 7.3 kg/day for total DMI and 4.5, 6.2 and 6.7 kg/day for OMI for the low, medium and high levels of supplementation, respectively.

In contrast to total DMI and OMI, dry matter and organic matter intake of teff straw (basal feed) increased as supplementation increased from low to medium level and then decreased as the level of supplementation increased from medium to high. The teff straw dry matter intake values were 4.2, 4.3 and 3.2 kg/day, whereas organic matter intake values were 3.8, 3.9 and 2.9 kg/day for the low, medium and high levels of supplementation, respectively.

Animal Production


Body weight change Initial and final body weight, daily body weight change, muscle fat, lean meat and

retained energy at different levels of supplementary feeding are shown in Table 3. Supplementation had a significant effect (p<0.001) on total gain and average daily gain. Further, the linear (p<0.001) and quadratic (p<0.001) effects of supplementation on total and average daily gain were also significant. The values for total gain were 9.9, 66.5 and 69.1 kg for the low, medium, and high levels of supplementation respectively, throughout the 145 days of fattening. The average daily gain value for each category were 68, 459 and 477 g/day for the low, medium and high level of supplementation, respectively.

The trend on body weight change during the fattening period clearly demonstrated that oxen at the medium and high levels of supplementation performed almost similar in terms of body weight change per day. Whereas oxen on the low level of supplementation exhibited no marked body weight change. Though the initial weight Body weight of animals in the medium and high levels were similar, subsequent difference was observed until week 12 and the difference in between narrow down after up to the end of the fattening phase (figure 1).

Energy retained in the carcass Table 3 presents the data on body weight change, carcass composition and retained

energy in the carcass. Body weight change was calculated by subtracting the initial slaughter group values for all treatment groups. Supplementation had significant effects on body weight (p<0.001), muscle fat (p<0.01) and total energy retention (p<0.01). However, it had no effect on lean meat gain (p>0.05). Animals on the medium level of supplementation showed highest value in muscle fat gain and total energy retention in carcass. Total energy retention per day was 3.6, 9.8 and 8.6 MJ/day for the low, medium and high level of supplementation.

Discussion Feed intake

The fattening trial showed that increasing the level of supplementation increased both dry matter and organic matter intakes. However, at the high level of supplementation there was a substitution effect. The roughage intake of the medium



group decreased from 61.1 g/kgw.75 to 44.9 g/kgw.75 kg/day while the supplement level increased from 34.3 to 57.8 g/kgw.75. Similar findings were reported by other authors (Lindsday et al., 1982; Kerbs and Leng, 1984; Wanapat, 1985; Boniface et al., 1986; Egan et al., 1986; Preston and Leng, 1986; Leng, 1987; Egan, 1989). These studies in general indicated that when straw was fed as basal roughage in mixed diets, increased in intake occurred where the condition for dynamic processes of breakdown and removal of fibrous particles from the rumen were improved. In addition, when straws were fed together with high levels of supplement, substitution occurred where more acceptable and more readily digestible energy components depressed straw intake.

Ruminants increase their feed intake in response to an increase in demand for energy or protein or both Preston and Leng, 1986. The amount of feed consumed by the animal was often determined by the rate of absorption of the soluble components of the feed and the rate of passage through the rumen of both soluble and insoluble particles of the digesta (Leng et al., 1977). Therefore, the composition of a diet determines the animals' voluntary intake. In addition, feed intake is affected by nutrient imbalance and digestibility (Blaxter et al., 1961; Lindsay and Loxton, 1981, Mosi and Butterworth 1985; Wanapat et al., 1985).

In ruminant, the association between low intake and low digestibility of feed is due to the slow rate of digestion in the rumen and therefore the slow rate of breakdown of feed particles. Hence, feed intake is reduced by nutrient imbalance. The result revealed that as the level of supplementation increased feed intake increased up to certain stage of growth of the animal.

Body weight changes The observed increase in body weight gain with increased level of supplementation

confirms earlier reports on Zebu oxen of central Ethiopian highlands fed a wheat straw based diet supplemented with noug cake (2 kg/day) and given urea/molasses blocks. The oxen gained at the rate of 570 g/day (Preston and Leng, 1986). Similar results were also reported by the same authors on mature zebu bulls (5-6) years which gained at the rate of 740 g/day when their basal diet of teff straw was supplemented with poultry litter and noug cake. Recent studies made by Osuji and Capper (1992) indicated that draught oxen of varying ages (4-5, 7-8 and 10-11 years of age); gained

Animal Production


614, 514 and 400 g/day respectively when a teff straw based diet was supplemented with wheat bran/middlings and cotton seed cake.

Increased body weight gains in Brahman cattle when straw based diets well supplemented with a mixture of fat, protein and rice starch have been reported (Wanapat et al. 1985). In addition, Leng and Preston (1984) showed that supplementation of rice straw with molasses block increased body weight gain in Jersey bulls. Furthermore, increase in body weight gain was observed in sheep fed oat straw supplemented with rape and sunflower seed meal (Coombe et al., 1985). The observed increases in performance and likely to be due to by-pass protein when straw is supplemented with starch, protein and oil in byproduct. This could be due to by-pass nutrients escaping of rumen fermentation and thus the animal get the advantage in using the nutrients for body fat/protein deposition.

The animals on the medium and high levels of supplementation in this study performed the same way in terms of rate of gain during the fattening period. This suggests that the medium level of supplementation provided a better rumen environment that improved straw utilization compared to the high level of supplementation.

Energy retained in the carcasses Lean meat increased as the level of supplementation increased whereas fat was

higher in the medium supplementation group. This is probably due to more by-pass nutrients, particularly protein, for body protein deposition in the high supplementation group. On the other hand, the medium group with higher roughage intake tended to deposit more fat probably due to acetate type fermentation in the rumen. The use of acetate for more efficient adipose tissue synthesis when the diet was supplemented with high glycogenic potential diet was well established (Lindsay, 1983; Thornton and Tume, 1984; Preston and Leng, 1986). Furthermore, the results of Orskov and Allen (1966), Tyrell et al. (1979), for the efficiency of utilization of volatile fatty acids in growing lambs tended to be consistent with the present study.

The observed high energy retention in the medium feeding group better explained by the fact that, fat has a higher energy content than protein on weight basis



(Lehninger, 1981). The medium level of feeding in this study has got advantages in depositing more fat so that, such animals have to be sold at a higher price since the high quality carcass returns the highest price per unit of weight. Using a medium level of feeding, the production of more fat that is expected to take approximately four times the amount of food per unit of fat gain compared with a similar gain of muscle. Ledger, (1965), confirmed that zebu cattle has the ability of utilizing low energy feed more efficiently for body fat gain.

Conclusion From the results obtained it is possible to conclude that supplementation improved

the utilization of straw in Zebu oxen when the supplement was fed at the medium level or about 36 % of the diet. The utilization of straw reduced from 64 to 44 % of the diet in the high supplemented group. At the same time, the performance of oxen in terms of body weight gain at the medium and high levels of supplementation was almost similar indicating that the capacity of zebu oxen to utilize high energy feed becomes limited at higher level. Similarly, animals had the advantage to deposit more fat when supplemented at the medium level than the two extremes.

Therefore, it is economical to fatten animals using the medium level 64 % and 36 % of the roughage and supplement, respectively. This has two advantages, low feed cost and more income from sale of meat with a higher fat content and this type of meat is preferred in Ethiopia. However, further investigation is needed to verify that these conclusions can be extrapolated to other types of feed. More levels of supplementary feeding that could match with the common available feed types are needed to establish an economic optimum.

Acknowledgement The authors thank Ato Bekele Andarge and Ato Alemayehu Demissie and the rest

of the staff working in the Traction research for their technical support. We also gratefully acknowledge the General Manager of Addis Meat Processing and Mincing Factory and Head of Debre Zeit Abattoir and their colleagues in providing their facilities.

Animal Production


Table 1: Chemical composition of teff straw and wheat bran diets fed to Zebu oxen.

Composition on DM basis % Type of feed DM

As fed Ash OM N NDF

Gross energy

MJ/kg DM

Teff straw

Offer 91.67 9.30 90.70 0.53 78.0 17.87

Refusal 91.35 9.00 91.00 0.50 75.2 17.35

Wheat bran 89.17 5.40 94.60 2.61 47.5 18.68

DM = dry matter; OM = organic matter; MJ/kg DM = Mega joules per kilo gram dry matter NDF = Neutral Detergent Fiber

Table 2: Effect of different levels of wheat bran supplement on dry matter and organic matter intakes in kg/day of highland Zebu oxen fed teff straw as basal diet.


Supplement. level

Low Medium High SEM

Effect of Suppl

L Q

Dry matter intake

Teff straw 4.23 4.33 3.18 0.12 *** *** ***

Wheat bran 0.66 2.43 4.07 0.01 *** *** ***

Total 4.89 6.76 7.25 0.12 *** *** ***

Organic matter intake

Teff straw 3.84 3.93 2.89 0.12 *** *** ***

Wheat bran 0.63 2.31 3.85 0.01 *** *** ***

Total 4.47 6.24 6.74 0.11 *** *** ***

SEM = Standard Error of Means; L = Linear contrast; Q = Quadratic contrast *** = p<0.001



Table 3: Effect of different levels of supplementation of wheat bran on total body weight change, retained energy of muscle fat and lean meat of highland Zebu oxen fed teff straw as basal diet.


Suppl. level

Low Medium High SEM Effect of Suppl. L Q

Body weight (kg)

Initial 259 259 256 3.9 NS NS NS

Final 269 326 325 4.2 *** *** ***

Total body weight Change 10 67 66 1.7 *** *** ***

Body weight change/day 0.068 0.459 0.477 028 *** *** ***

Empty body weight (kg)

Final 217 263 264 5.5 *** *** **

Initial 211.5 211.5 211.5 7.8 NS NS NS

Change 5.5 51.5 52.5 5.5 *** *** **

Muscle fat (kg)

Final 21.8 41.0 33.5 2.8 ** * **

Initial 13.4 13.4 13.4 2.2 NS NS NS

Change 8.4 27.6 20.1 2.8 ** * **

Lean meat (kg)

Final 79.1 84.0 90.5 4.2 NS NS NS

Initial 71.2 71.2 71.2 2.6 NS NS NS

Change 7.9 12.8 19.3 4.2 NS NS NS

Retained Energy (ER)* MJ

Muscle fat 316 1075 734 107.7 ** * **

Lean meat 212 349 523 113.7 NS NS NS

Total ER 528 1424 1257 137.1 ** ** ** SEM = Standard Error of Means; L = Linear contrast; Q = Quadratic contrast Muscle fat (ER)= (EBW*EE/100)*39.3 MJ; lean protein (ER)=(EBW*N*6.25/100)*23.6 MJ (ARC 1980).

Animal Production


Figure 1. Effect of different levels of wheat bran supplement on the performance of highland Zebu fed teff straw (Eragrostis tef) as basal diet.

240

260

280

300

320

340

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

Weeks

Mea

n B

ody

wei

ght (

kg)

Low Medium High

References Agricultural Research Council (ARC). 1980. The nutrient requirements of ruminant

livestock. Slough. commonwealth Agricultural Bureau.

Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC). 1990. Official methods of analysis. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington, D.C.

Blaxter , K.L.,Wainman, F.W. and Wilson , R.S. 1961. The regulation of food intake by sheep. Animal Production. 3:51.

Boniface, A.N., Murray, R.M., and Hogan, J.P. 1986. Optimum level of ammonia in rumen liquor of cattle fed tropical pasture hay. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production, 16:151-154.

Cochran, W.G. and Cox, G..M 1957. Experimental designs. NewYork: Willy, pp 276-292.1



Coombe, J.B., Malholland, J.G. and Forrester, R.I. 1985. Effect of treatment with sodium hydroxide on the feeding value of oat and rape straw for sheep. Aust. J. Agric. Res.. 36:623-636.

Egan, A.R. 1989. Living with, and overcoming limits to feeding value of high fibre roughages. In: Hoffmann, D., Jan Nari, and Petherman, R.J. (ed.). Draught animals in rural development: Proceedings of an international research symposium, Cipana, Indonesia, 1-7 July 1989. ACIAR Proceedings No. 27:176-180.

Goe, M.R. 1987. Animal traction on smallholder farms in the Ethiopian highlands. PhD dissertation. Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

Goering, H.K. and Van Soest, P.J. 1970. Forage fibre analysis (apparatus, reagents, procedures and some applications). Agricultural Handbook 379. Agricultural Research Service, USDA (United States Department of Agriculture), Washington DC, USA, 20pp.

Gryseels, G., and Anderson, F.M. 1983. Research on farm and livestock productivity in the central Ethiopian highlands: Initial results, 1977-1980. Research report 4, ILCA, Addis Ababa.

International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA). 1981. Animal traction in sub-Saharan Africa. ILCA Bulletin 14, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA). 1990. ILCA Annual Report 1990. ILCA, Addis Ababa.

Kerbs, G. and Leng, R.A. 1984. The effect of supplementation with molasses /urea blocks on ruminal digestion. Animal Production in Australia, 15:704.

Ledger, H.P. 1965. The composition of improved Boran (Bos indicus) steer carcasses. J. Agric. Sci., Camb. 65:281-84.

Lehninger, A.L., 1981. Biochemistry, 2nd ed., Worth Publisher, Inc., New York.

Leng, R.A. 1987. Determining the nutritive value of forage. In: Blair, G.J., Ivory, D.A. and Evans, T.R. (ed.) Forages in southeast Asian and South Pacific Agriculture. Proceedings of an International Workshop held at CISARA, Indonesia, 19-23, August 1985.

Leng, R.A. and Preston, T.R. 1984. Nutritional strategies for the utilization of agro-industrial by products by ruminants and extension of the principles and technologies to the small farmers in Asia. In: Proceedings of the 5th World Conference on Animal Production, Tokyo. Japanese Society of Zoo technical Science, Tokyo, Japan pp.310-3180.

Animal Production


Leng, R.A., Kepton, J.J. and Nolan, J.V. 1977. Non protein nitrogen and bypass proteins in ruminant diets. AMRC review 33:1-21.

Lindsay, D.B. 1983. Growth and fattening. In: Rook, J.A.F. and Thomas, P.C. (eds.) Nutritional physiology of farm animals. Longsman, London.pp261-313.

Lindsay, J.A. and Loxton, I.D. 1981. Supplementation of tropical forage diets with protected proteins. In: Farrel, D.J. (ed.) Recent advances in animal nutrition in Australia. University of New England, Armidale, Australia.

Lindsay, J.A., Mason, G.W.J. and Toleman, M.A. 1982. Supplementation of pregnant cows with protected proteins when fed tropical forage diets. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production, 14:67-68.

Mosi, A.K., and Butterworth, M.H. 1985. The voluntary intake and digestibility of diets contaiing different proportion of teff (Eragrostis tef) straw and Trifolium tembense hay when fed to sheep. Tropical Animal Production 10:19-22.

Orskov, E.R. and Allen, D.M. 1966. Utilization of salts of volatile fatty acids by growing sheep. I. Acetate, propionate and butyrate as sources of energy for young growing lambs. British Journal of Nutrition, 20:295-305.

Osuji, P.O. and Capper, B. 1992. Effect of age on fattening and body condition of draught oxen fed teff straw (Eragrostis tef) based diets. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod., 24:103-108.

Preston, T.R. and Leng, R.A. 1986. Matching livestock production systems to available resources. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Soller, H., Reed, J.D., and Butterworth, M.H. 1986. Intake and utilization of feed by work oxen. ILCA Newsletter Vol. 5 No. 2, Addis Ababa, ILCA.

Statistical Analysis Systems Institute (SAS), 1987. SAS guide for personal computers, version 6. SAS Institute, Cary, NC., 1028pp.

Thornton, R.F. and Tume, R.K. 1984. Fat deposition in ruminants. In Barker, S.K., Gawthorn, J.M., Mackintosh, J.B. and Ourser, D.B. (eds). Ruminant physiology: concepts and consequences. University of Western Australia, Perth PP 289-2980.

Tyrell, M.F., Reynolds, P.J. and Moe, P.W. 1979. Effect of diet on partial efficiency of acetate use for body tissue synthesis by mature cattle. Journal of Animal Science, 48:598-608.

Van Soest, P.J. 1982. Nutritional ecology of the ruminant. O & B books, Corvallis, Oregon.



Wanapat, M. 1985. Nutritional status of draught buffaloes and cattle in North East Thailand. In Copland, J.W. (ed.). Draught Animal Power for Production: Proceedings of an international workshop held at James Cook University, Townsville, Qld, Australia, 10-16 July 1985. Canberra: ACIAR Proceedings No. 10:90-95.

Wanapat, M., Duangchan, S., Pongawote, S., Anakewit, T. and Tongapanung, P. 1985. Effects of various levels of concentrate fed with urea-treated rice straw for pure bred American Brahman Yearlings. In: Dixon, R.W. (ed.) 5th Annual Workshop of the Australian-Asian Fibrous Agricultural Residues Research Network. Melbourne University, Melbourne.


Animal production under threat: declining pastoral livelihoods and their implications for social organisation among the Ab’ala Afar of North-Eastern Ethiopia Kelemework Tafere

Lecturer of Social Anthropology, Mekelle University. PO. Box 231, Mekelle, Ethiopia.

Abstract

The Afar in the northern part of region 2 administration, have had a strong economic feature based on animal production. Over time, nomadism faced severe challenges due to ecological, political and demographic pressures. The Afar experienced a significant loss of their cattle because of epidemics, shortage of pasture and repeated raids by the Tigrayan highlanders. This led to a decline in the dependence of the Afar on animal production. As a way of coping with the problem, the Afar have gradually resorted to settled life and cultivation. The decline in the extent of pastoral livelihood is also reflected in other forms of social organizations such as the payment of bride wealth, blood price and compensation payments. Livestock ceased to be a major medium for exchange and people have to depend more on cash.

Introduction The Afar are Cushitic speaking people who live in the arid and semi-arid areas of

Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti. Outsiders have used many different terms to refer to the Afar. These include, Danakil, Adal and Teltal, even though the Afar liked none of them (Savard, 1970). The Afar inhabit an inhospitable land and their total number in Ethiopia is reported to be 1,098,184 (Central Statistical Authority, 1996). Ab’ala is an administrative unit in the present Afar regional state in Ethiopia established at a woreda level. It is located about 55 Kilometres east of Mekelle, the regional capital of Tigray.



Objectives The research set out with the objective of understanding the modes of livelihood

and social organisation of the Ab’ala Afar. Attempts were made to see the transformations in their economic subsistence with ecological and human pressures. In line with that, the dynamics of their social institutions are analysed.

Methods A three-month fieldwork was carried out in Ab’ala town and two other rural

settlements named Adiharemeli and Erkudi. Qualitative data was gathered through triangulated methods including partial immersion in the community, informal interviews, semi-structured interviews, and analysis of documents.

Labour, Livestock and Land The land use pattern in Ab'ala has exhibited a significant change over time. In the

“good old days” especially at the time of Emperor Yohannes and earlier, the Ab'ala Afar relied on "pure" nomadic pastoralism for their livelihood. This production system was founded on the pastoral philosophy of individual ownership of livestock in communal land. This enabled the Afar pastoralists to move freely in the different ecological sub-zones in different seasons. This, in turn, guaranteed an optimum use of the temporally and spatially variable resources.

Afar elders assert that at the time of Emperor Yohannes, all Ab’ala households enjoyed the ownership of adequate or more than adequate number of livestock and had strong economic and social set-ups. There was sharing and transfer of resources on different occasions. Transactions were largely made through the medium of livestock. But ownership of large herd did not determine a man's social status in the society.

Towards the time of Emperor Haile Selassie, the elders explained, the conditions began to change. This in particular occurred when the nobility and a few immigrants from the highlands cleared large tracts of the lowlands for cultivation thereby introducing a new land use system. Besides, the Afar claim that they have encountered a series of violent raids from neighbouring Tigrayans especially in the southern part of the ethnic boundary. Such raids were propelled by the desire of

Animal Production


Tigrayan peasants to compensate for their loss of livestock that occurred due to drought and disease. There were also occasions when livestock of the Afar were destroyed for the sake of social honour and prestige.

However, in the earlier phases of these changes, the pastoral mode of production was still dominant. A majority of the pastoralists continued to adhere to their traditional production system and the values associated with it. Persistence of their production system during that early period was possible due to the absence of strong ecological, political and economic pressures to opt for otherwise. The Ab’ala Afar had already developed complex adjustment techniques to minimise the risk of being driven out of the pastoral mode of living. One of these was the ownership of large multi-species herd. Both the diversification and size maximisation of herds were forms of traditional resource management designed to minimise risk in an environment where insecurity was the biggest problem.

Herd diversification provided a means for efficient utilisation of available range resources. As the different species have different feeding habits, severe degradation was avoided by maintaining a relatively low grazing density. Diversification was also economically advantageous because the different species were utilised for different purposes. Camels were mainly used for milk while cattle were raised for milk and their skin was used in the making of bed (Oloiyta). Goats were used for similar purposes: milk, sale and the processing of their skin for making water containers (locally called Sara).

In addition to herd maximisation and diversification, other strategies for maintaining Afar pastoral way of life included establishment of extensive support networks. The networks were formed through both granting livestock as gift to impoverished kinsmen and forging of political and military alliances against neighbouring highlanders.

The 1975 Land Proclamation promoted individualised usufruct rights over land. It abolished the feudal land tenure system and gave land to the users. The government encouraged agriculture rather than livestock husbandry. Therefore, a significant proportion of the pastoral land continued to be lost to cultivation. Land



allocation for these purposes continued on a large scale and there was more clearing to prepare farmland.

Gradually, due to ecological changes and a decline in the resource base, it became increasingly difficult for the Afar to adhere to old adjustment techniques and began to devise new coping strategies. These strategies include increasing the numbers of drought resistant livestock such as camels and goats. The latter are specially preferred for their better adaptability. Goats are also preferred because they can be easily converted into cash and have high rate of reproduction. The Afar also exhibited increased inclination of the Afar toward sedentary life and wider adoption of cultivation. Nevertheless, the people still prefer livestock husbandry to cultivation. This is evident in their allocation of labour whereby adult male labour is engaged more in activities related to livestock. It is thus often the case that Afar with agricultural plots invite highlanders for sharecropping. This clearly reveals that the inclination towards agriculture and settled life among the northern Afar is dictated by external pressures rather than by a free choice of the people themselves.

Recently, expansion of Ab'ala town availed new opportunities for economic and social provisions. These include power supply, schools, health and veterinary services as well as wage labour employment. Sedentary life, wage labour migration and urbanisation have ultimately resulted in changes in the old livestock-driven pastoral value systems as a result of exposure to highland culture and economic differentiation.

Table 1: A Decline in the Average livestock holding of the Afar over a Period of Two Decades

Animal Type Year

Cattle Sheep Goats Camel Donkey

1977 38 37 125 27 1

1997 13 17 53 9 1

Source: Dires (1999)

Animal Production


The Camel Market in Ab’ala: Photo by Kelemework Tafere

Kinship and Marriage Clans and Clan Solidarity

Among the Ab'ala Afar, decent and affinal ties play a significant role in social organization. Decent is traced patrilineally. Based on decent, a person belongs to a particular clan (mela). Clan identity is important in social, economic and political terms. Clan members are expected to share resources and help each other on emergencies.

Afar clans do not have specific individual territories. Accordingly, there is no perfect match between the clan and composition of settlements. Nevertheless, each settlement area is identified with a major clan. Residents of a particular settlement either belong to the same clan or are affinal relatives. But there are also local groups since movement into and out of these settlement areas is more or less free. The tendency of individuals to align with clan members territorially seems to relate to their interest in having easy access to clan members to benefit from their social, economic and political support. Such support becomes practically difficult to claim when members of a kinship group or a particular clan are far apart. The current



dispersion of Afar over distant areas within and outside Ethiopia in search of wage employment is thus considered a setback to clan solidarity. Such a dispersion of clan members are basically because of the weakening of the animal- production based economy.

In Ab'ala there are several clans of which the dominant are Seka, Damohita, Dahimella, and Hadarmo. Each clan is divided into several sub-clans and lineages. Clans are represented by clan heads, who access leadership status based on their age, strength in decision-making and overall credibility in the society. Leadership positions are sometimes accessed through inheritance. Clan heads are entrusted with the responsibility of regulating the behaviours of clan members. They are also expected to mobilise clan members for some positive pursuits, including co-operation in certain domestic activities and raising money for compensation. They make sure that every clan member is socially, economically and politically secure. But all these aspects of the social organization are significantly challenged when there is a threat to livestock because of drought and disease.

Marriage Marriage alliances are important among the Ab'ala Afar who practise both

endogamy and exogamy. However, it is common that a man tends to marry in his mother’s clan. The fact that the Afar often marry a relative from the same local community or the same territory has an adaptive value. It makes it easier to get help when sub-clan members are nearby. In line with Islamic laws, polygamy is practised. A man is normally entitled to have up to four wives. Due mainly to economic reasons, however, most Afar men tend to have one or two and rarely three marriage partners.

Marriage among the Ab'ala takes several forms. One form is cross-cousin marriage in which a man marries his father-sister’s daughter (Absuma). In the southern part of the Afar region fierce fighting may occur when a woman marries other than her mother- brother’s son. This, however, does not occur in Ab'ala. A woman is asked to marry her mother-brother’s son but is free to decide whom to marry.

The Ab’ala Afar do not marry their parallel cousins. In the context of the afar, A person cannot marry his father-brother’s daughter because ideally these children

Animal Production


belong to one father. Father-brother may, upon the death of father, may replace the biological father and marry the widow of his deceased brother. The same applies for the mother-sister’s children. In short, father- brother and the mother-sister are potential fathers and mothers.

It is apparent that in Ab'ala, perhaps more than in the southern part of Afar Region, people adopt serorate and levirate marriage arrangements. A man is forced to marry his brother’s widow. Similarly, A woman must replace her sister as a wife when the latter passes away. This practice is said to be for the sake of the children of the widow or that of the widowed.

Child betrothal is practised among the Ab'ala Afar. But actual marriage takes place when a girl reaches the age of 15 or above. The marriage procedure is generally as follows: The boy notifies his family about his prospective marriage partner. Then, his family, notably his father, mother and father-brother ask the girl’s family. The girl’s father decides first. Then, his brothers and her mother are consulted. When all agree to the marriage proposal, the boy’s family arranges a betrothal (Errer) upon a payment of some money. As the wedding day (Digbi) approaches, the girl’s father again receives a bride-wealth (Alekum) of about 1000-2000 Birr. The amount to be paid in bride-wealth varies from family to family based on negotiations. Generally, bride wealth payments have decreased overtime and cash has replaced payments in livestock. This is attributable to the decline in the herd size of the Afar.

Social Status, Household Property Relations and the Role of Women

In a typical Afar family, the father is the head of household. He is generally accepted as an authority figure and has the greatest share of rights over property, children and sometimes over his grand children as well. The household head also decides on such matters as mobility and sale of livestock, although in the latter case he may consult his wife beforehand. Nevertheless, the husband has the ultimate say.

In principle, livestock of a household are owned individually. Even children have their own livestock. When a child is born, he/she is given female goats or a camel to "see his or her luck". If the animal reproduces and survives hazards, the child is considered lucky. This provision of animals to a child often takes place on some



social occasions associated with the new-born child, including the tying up of the baby's umbilical cord and circumcision. In practice, however, livestock belong to the entire household.

According to the Afar gender division of labour, the husband undertakes the herding, milking and selling of animals (following discussion with his wife). The wife, in contrast, fetches water, grinds grains, and prepares food in the house. She sells ropes (Aketa). Children assume a prominent role in herding and related activities. In general, the current threat in livestock production is also reflected in the Afar gender relations. For example, since the Afar now prefer to rear small stock animals such as goats women’s involvement in managing some activities such as herding and milking has increased.

Summary and Conclusions The pastoral economy of the Afar had shown a steady decline over the past few

decades. With ecological changes, regular mobility has given way to transhumance. Changes in settlement patterns, in turn, had implications for land use systems. Cultivation is gradually replacing livestock husbandry as a dominant means of subsistence. These are followed by a change in many aspects of Afar social organisation and old livestock driven pastoral values have continued to erode. Nevertheless, some elements of their perceptions, beliefs and practices seem to have persisted over time; e.g. the allocation of labour to the different productive activities. From past experiences, the Afar could learn that animal husbandry has proved effective given the ecological situations of their environment. Hence, much of their productive time still seems to be invested in livestock husbandry. The policy implication is that attempts aiming at restocking or improving their livestock conditions are highly appreciated by the Afar and hence programs geared towards this direction are likely to be successful.

References Central Statistical Authority (1996) The 1994 Population and Housing Census of

Ethiopia: Results for Afar Region. Statistical Report, V. 1 December 1996. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Dires, T. 1999: Impact of Land Use on Vegetation Resources with Emphasis on Woody

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Vegetation in the Semi-Arid Area of Abala District, North Afar, Ethiopia. M.Sc.

Thesis. Department of Range Management, University of Nairobi, Kenya.

Savard. G (1970) The people of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie I University. Department of Sociology and Anthropology. Volume. 2/1970.


Introduction of ILCA internal agitator around bako for increasing the efficiency of traditional butter-making Alganesh Tola, Chernet Asfaw and Mulugeta Kebede

Bako Agricultural Research Center P.O. Box 03

Abstract

The internal agitator, developed by International Livestock Center for Africa, was introduced and evaluated in smallholder farm households around Bako and its butter-making efficiency compared with the traditional gourd churn. Twenty women farmers who own lactating cows were selected to participate in the study and offered on-station training as to how to use the agitator and then provided with the material. Among the participating households only eleven farmers churned using the internal agitator at their home. Due to the limited milk produced per household per day, the participating farmers could not collect a sufficient amount of milk required for simultaneous churning and comparison of the efficiency of both gourd churn and the ILCA internal agitator. Thus, on-station work was used to take accurate data on the efficiency of both materials in terms of churning time and butter yield. The reactions of the participating farmers to the innovation were also assessed using the prepared questionnaire. The analysis of the data using General Linear Model procedure of SAS shows no significant differences between the two butter-making methods in churning time and butter yield. Churning time was reduced from an average of 28 minutes in the traditional butter-making to 23 minutes using internal agitator. The average butter yield obtained from 6 liters of sour milk was 359.7 grams and 376.9 grams using gourd churn and the internal agitator, respectively, the increase in butter yield being 4.8 percent over the gourd churn. Using the ILCA internal agitator solved the problem of gender specificity in the traditional butter-making. In 81 percent of the households, both women and men did churnings by the ILCA internal agitator while men in 19 percent of the households were still reserved due to socio-cultural taboo. The participating households (63 percent) also



commented that cleaning and fumigation of the pot churn was easier compared to the local gourd churn thus resulting in good milk hygiene and quality. However, the ILCA internal agitator is relatively costly than traditional gourd churn (12.00 vs 7.50 Birr). All the participating farmers suggested that relatively lower durability of the internal agitator would incur additional cost for maintenance of its parts. In addition, churning using the internal agitator required high labour input compared to the gourd churn and its manipulation before the start of churning consumed time as suggested by 69 percent of the participating households.

Key Words: Smallholder, ILCA internal agitator, traditional butter-making, efficiency, churning time, butter yield

Introduction Milk is a product of almost every production system in Sub-Saharan Africa:

pastoral, agro pastoral, and mixed farming systems (O’Mahony and Peters, 1987). The demand for milk and dairy products in the area continues to increase with the overall growth rate in the consumption of milk and milk products being estimated at about 2.1% per annum (O’Connor, 1993). This increasing demand for milk and dairy products affords great opportunity and potential for the smallholder milk producer and for the development of the milk production and processing industry (O’Connor, 1993).

In areas where intensive dairying is well developed and there are easy accesses to formal milk marketing facilities, fresh milk sales by smallholder farmers are common (Debrah and Berhanu, 1991). However, farmers far from such formal marketing outlets suffer from constraints including poor access to markets, low durability of products, absence of structured marketing system (International Development Research Center, 1984), and unattractive prices to producers. In addition, the smaller quantity of milk produced by the majority of the rural households in the traditional system is usually processed into butter and cheese by the farm household and sold to traders or other households in local markets (Halloway et al., 2000). Processing milk into such stable marketable products could generate cash income for smallholder producers in rural areas, permit reinvestment

Animal Production


in the enterprise, yield by-products for home consumption and enable smallholder milk producers to conserve milk solids for sale or consumption in times of scarcity. Butter made of milk fat is commercially the most significant solid component of milk as the price of cheese (ayib) is about one-seventh that of butter (Coppock et al., 1992; O’Connor, 1992; Shapiro et al., 1992). The monetary advantage of extracting the maximum amount of fat from milk and converting it into butter is, thus, a key to dairy profitability in such areas.

Butter can be produced by churning either sour whole milk or cream separated from whole milk (O’Mahony and Peters, 1987). When making butter from larger volumes of milk (up to 300 liters) at a time, centrifugal separation followed by cream churning in a wooden churn is more appropriate (O’Mahony and Peters, 1987). Traditionally, however, butter has always been made from sour milk which is usually churned in a bottle gourd or earthenware jar (clay pot) (O’Mahony and Ephraim, 1985), but any watertight vessel of the required volume is suitable. Small quantities of milk are collected over a period of a few days and allowed to sour naturally. When a sufficient amount of milk has been collected, it is churned by shaking the churn forward and backward either on the lap or on the ground until butter granules are formed (O’Connor et al., 1993).

Most of the traditional methods of butter making are reported to be slow and inefficient. They give low yield of butter per unit of sour milk and require high labour input (O'Mahony and Peters, 1987). They may take from two to three hours depending on such factors as temperature, the fat content and acidity of the milk and the amount of milk in the churn. The time taken to make the butter together with the time involved in taking this butter to the market place is a considerable drain on the already limited time of the smallholder or specifically on that of his wife and family (O’Connor, undated). Furthermore, churning 6 liters of sour milk for two hours or more produces only 250 grams of butter (ILCA, undated). To reduce the time for processing the milk into butter and to improve the efficiency of the process, the International Livestock Research Institute, formerly the International Livestock Center for Africa, tested new innovation, which could be adopted by small-scale milk producers. That is a simple detachable paddle-wheel



agitator that fits inside the traditional clay pot. Under on-farm trials in the central highlands of Ethiopia, churning time was reduced from an average of over two hours to less than half an hour while butter fat recovery increased from 71% to 93% using the ILCA internal agitator (O’Mahony and Peters, 1987). This innovation was not introduced and tested against the traditional methods of butter-making in most parts of Western Oromia. Therefore, in this paper are reported the results of the efficiency of the innovation in Bako area compared to the traditional gourd churn and farmers’ reaction towards the technology.

Material and Methods Location of the study

The study was conducted around Bako Research Center, which is located at the distance of about 258 km West of Addis Ababa, on the main road to Nekemte. The elevation of the center is 1650 m above sea level. The area has uni-modal rainfall pattern with mean annual rainfall of 1200mm. The mean annual temperature is 21oC with a mean minimum and maximum of 14oC and 28oC, respectively.

Participating farmers Twenty women farmers who own lactating cows were selected to participate in the

study and offered on-station training as to how to use the agitator and then provided with the material. Among them only eleven farmers churned using the internal agitator at their home due to lack of sufficient amount of milk. However, all were asked using the prepared questionnaire to comment on the technology based on the training they took.

Treatments Twelve litres of whole milk was regularly collected within 2-3 days in milk

container and naturally soured. Using 6 litres for each, churnings were done simultaneously using both the traditional gourd churn and the ILCA internal agitator. The treatments were:

i. Sour milk was agitated by placing the gourd churn on the floor and rolling it back and forth.

ii. Sour milk was agitated using the internal agitator fitted to clay pot churn.

Animal Production


Measurements Due to the limited milk produced per household per day, the participating farmers

could not collect 12 liters of milk within 2-3 days, which was required for simultaneous churning, and comparison of the efficiency of both gourd churn and the ILCA internal agitator by avoiding temperature and milk fat variations. Thus, on-station work was used to take accurate data on their efficiency at an average ambient temperature of 21oC. Churning time required for butter recovery: Churning time for this study was the time difference between the start of churning and butter recovery. The breakpoint of butter recovery was known through change in the sound made while agitating and by looking for butter granules on the cover of the vent near the neck of the gourd churn, and on the blades of the internal agitator. Butter yield: After recovery of butter from buttermilk, it was rinsed with water, and weighed using a sensitive balance (1 mg sensitivity) to get butter yield per 6 liters of sour whole milk. Data collection and statistical analysis

Data on efficiency of both butter-making methods in terms of churning time and butter yield were regularly recorded. At the end of the experiment, the reaction of the farmers towards the technology was also assessed using a questionnaire. General linear model (GLM) of the Statistical Analysis System was used for the data analysis (SAS, 1987).

Results and Discussion Churning time and butter yield

The time taken for churning and the average butter yield obtained per 6 liters of sour milk using the traditional gourd churn and the ILCA internal agitator are given in Table 1. Both churning time and butter yield were not significantly affected by butter- making method.

Using the ILCA internal agitator reduced churning time by 22%, from an average of 28 minutes in gourd churn to 23 minutes. It did not cut churning time significantly over the traditional gourd churn which is not in agreement with the work of



O’Mahony and Peters (1987) who reported that using this internal agitator cuts churning time in half and increases recovery of butterfat as butter. The result obtained for churning time was not also in agreement with the work of O’Mahony and Ephraim (1985) who reported that using ILCA internal agitator reduced churning time from an average of 139 minutes in traditional clay pot to an average of 61 minutes in the on-farm trials in the Debre Birhan areas. The result obtained for ILCA internal agitator at Bako (23 minutes) was also found to be lower than that reported by the same authors for the same churner in the central highland (61 minutes). It is, however, nearer to the work of O’Connor et al. (1993) who reported a churning time of 31 minutes for the ILCA internal agitator in the controlled on-station experiment at Debre Zeit ILCA research center. This could be attributed to the higher ambient, and hence churning temperature at Bako, which increased the efficiency in terms of churning time due to its lower altitude (1650 masl) compared to that of Debre Birhan (2800 masl) and Debre Zeit (1800 masl) (O’Connor, 1993). In addition, churning by traditional gourd took less than half an hour as opposed to results reported for traditional clay pot churn (two hours or more) in the central highlands (O’Mahony and Peters, 1987). This might be due to the internal structures and shape of the gourd, which probably increased its degree of agitation by facilitating the incorporation of large volumes of air in the milk and fast formation of lumps of butter.

The average butter yield obtained using gourd churn and the internal agitator was 359.7 grams and 376.9 grams per 6 liters of sour milk, respectively. The use of the ILCA internal agitator increased the butter yield only by 4.8 percent over the gourd churn. Using this internal agitator did not significantly increase butter yield over the traditional gourd churn, which is in agreement with the work of Zelalem and Ledin (2000) who found no significant difference between the traditional clay pot and ILCA internal agitator. The results were, however, higher than both the traditional churns (285 grams) and the ILCA internal agitator (295.2 grams) reported by the same author for Holeta and Selale areas in the central highlands. The butter yield obtained using gourd churn and the internal agitator are almost double of that reported by O’Mahony and Peters (1987) for the traditional churns

Animal Production


(250 grams per 6 liters of sour milk). This could be due to breed difference in milk fat percentage.

Reaction of participating farmers to the technology The reaction of the participating farmers in terms of the advantages and

drawbacks of the technology compared to the local gourd churn is given in Table 2. The ILCA internal agitator solved the problem of gender specificity in the traditional butter-making. In 81 percent of the households, both women and men did churnings by the ILCA internal agitator while men in 19 percent of the households were still reserved due to socio-cultural taboo. The participating households (63 percent) also commented that cleaning and fumigation of the pot churn was easier compared to the local gourd churn thus resulting in good milk hygiene and quality.

The ILCA internal agitator is relatively costly than traditional gourd churn (12.00 vs 7.50 Birr) around Bako. All the participating farmers suggested that relatively lower durability of the internal agitator would incur additional cost for maintenance of its parts. In addition, churning using the internal agitator required high labour input to finish within very short time compared to the gourd churn and its manipulation before the start of churning consumed time as suggested by 69 percent of the participating households. This is not in agreement with the work of O'Mahony and Peters (1987) who reported that most of the traditional methods of making butter require high labour input.

Conclusions and Recommendation The result of the study confirmed that the efficiency of the internal agitator

regarding churning time and butter yield was similar to that of the traditional gourd churn. The traditional gourd churn was as efficient as ILCA internal agitator probably due to the internal structures and shape of the gourd churn, which probably increased its efficiency by facilitating the incorporation of large volumes of air in the milk and fast formation of lumps of butter. In addition, the time taken for churning using both methods was less than half an hour probably due to the higher ambient, and hence churning temperature at Bako.



The traditional gourd churn, being relatively cheaper and durable over the ILCA internal agitator, will remain adequate and appropriate to the local situation and resources available. The ILCA internal agitator, solving the problem of gender specificity and increasing the efficiency to some extent, can also be used as an alternative butter-making method. The use of the technology would, however, be more appropriate for highland farmers to improve the already existing inefficient traditional clay pot churn and where churning takes longer time due to the lower environmental temperature which delays butter-grain formation.

Future work should emphasis on studying the mechanisms governing the efficiency of traditional gourd churn and the way of multiplying the plant material with its adaptation areas. Its efficiency should be tested against the ILCA internal agitator and traditional clay pot churn with different acidity of milk and churning temperature under a wider agro ecology and socio-economic circumstances.

Acknowledgment We are highly grateful and show heartfelt appreciation to the Ethiopian Science

and Technology Commission for the financial supports it provided us to execute the project. We are also indebted to the management of the Bako Agricultural Research Center for facilitating the conditions in the process of implementing this project.

Table 1: The time taken for churning and the average butter yield obtained using the traditional gourd churn and ILCA internal agitator

No. of observations Churning time (minutes) Butter yield (gm/6 liter of sour whole milk)

Butter-making method NS NS

Traditional gourd churn 14 28 359.7 ± 34.9

ILCA internal agitator 16 23 376.9 ± 30.4

NS - Not significant

Animal Production


Table 2: The reaction of the participating farmers in terms of the advantages and drawbacks of the technology compared to the local gourd churn

No Advantage of the technology over the local gourd churn No of participating households

Percentage of female households commented

1 Both men and women can work on it 20 81

2 Cleaning and fumigation easier compared to the local gourd churn thus resulting in good milk hygiene and quality

20 63

Drawbacks of the technology compared to the local gourd churn

1 Relatively costly than the local gourd churn (12.00 vs 7.50 Birr)

20 100

2 Required high labour input (Required a number of individual members in the household to participate for continuous churning)

20 69

3 Relatively lower durability (Breakable mouth and seat of the pot, rope cut easily by friction, cracking formation on the wooden stopper, attack of the pole by termites), thus incurring additional cost for maintenance

20 100

References Coppock D.L., Holden S.J. and Mulugeta A. 1992. Review of dairy marketing and

processing in a semi-arid pastoral system in Ethiopia. In:Bokken R.F. and Senait Seyoum (eds), Dairy Marketing in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a symposium held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-30 November 1990. ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 315 334.

Debrah S. and Berhanu A. 1991. Dairy marketing in Ethiopia: Markets of first sale and producers’ marketing patterns. ILCA Research Report 19. ILCA(International Livestock Center for Africa), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 21.

Halloway G., Nicholson C., Delgado C., Staal S. and Ehuis. 2000. How to make a milk market: A case study from the Ethiopian highlands. Socio-economics and Policy Research Working Paper 28. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. pp 28.

ILCA. Undated. The ILCA Internal Agitator -Increasing the efficiency of traditional butter making. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 2.

International Development Research Center (IDRC). 1984. The potential for small-scale milk production in Eastern and Southern Africa. Ottawa, Canada. IDRC-MR 98E.

O’Connor C.B. 1992. Rural smallholder milk production and utilization and the future for dairy dairy development in Ethiopia. In: Bokken R.F. and Senait Seyoum



(eds), Dairy Marketing in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a symposium held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-30 November 1990.ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 123-130.

O’Connor C.B. 1993. Traditional cheese making manual. ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa), Addis Ababa. pp 2.

O’Connor C.B. Undated. Smallholder and village milk processing in the highlands of Ethiopia. ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa). ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

O’Connor C.B., S. Mezgebu and Z. Zewudie. 1993. Improving the efficiency of butter-making in Ethiopia. World Animal Review, 77:50-52.

O’Mahony, F. and Ephraim, B. 1985. Traditional butter making in Ethiopia and possible improvements. Addis Ababa, ILCA. ILCA Bulletin No. 22.

O’Mahony, F. and Peters, J. 1987. Sub-Saharan Africa - Options for smallholder milk processing. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. World Animal Review. No. 62. pp 16-30.

SAS. 1987. User’s guide: Statistics, version 5, SAS Institute. Statistical Analysis System(SAS). Inc. Cary, NC.

Shapiro K., Jesse E. and Foltz J. 1992. Dairy marketing and development in Africa. In: Bokken R.F. and Senait Seyoum (eds), Dairy Marketing in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a symposium held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-30 November 1990. ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa),Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 45-87.

Zelalem Y. and Ledin I. 2000. Efficiency of smallholder butter making in the Ethiopian central highlands. In press: Paper presented on the 8th conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. August 24-26, 2000. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.


Camel production and productivity in eastern lowlands of Ethiopia Bekele Tafesse and Kebebew Tuffa

Alemaya University, Department of Animal Sciences, P.O.Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

Abstract

The one humped camel (Camelus dromedaries) plays a significant role as a primary source of subsistence in the lowlands of the country. The Somali, Afar, and Borana are the main ethnic groups involved in camel husbandry in the nation.

The calf managed traditional from birth to weaning age. The weaning age varies from 8-18 months. After weaning if mail fails to get selected as future sire then it serves as pack animal or slaughtered and females are kept as dairy animal.

The watering and grazing management of camels is influenced by the habitat of camels. Based on the preference of camel the most important plant browsed by camels is Acacia brevispica, Opuntia vulgaris and Dichrostachys ciniarea. Camels are supplied with salt and traditional mineral water. Ogaden camels are watered every 10-15 days if water source is nearby. But during the rainy season camels may not drink water for 1-2 months.

Reproductive performance exerts a major influence on the productivity of milking animals. The age at puberty for male is around four years but is first allowed to bred at the age of five. Average age at first calving is six years and one female may produce up to eight calves in her total production life. The rutting season is associated with the availability of ample browse and usually it appears around the end of rainy season. . In the study area one bull is selected for a herd of camel which may serve satisfactorily 40-100 females. Calving rate, gestation length, days open and calving interval are recorded to be 40-50%, 350-390, 199 and 573 days respectively



Camel produce more milk for a longer period than other species of animals maintained in dry lands. The milk yield per day in eastern Ethiopia varies from 3-10kg, with lactation yield of 1244-2104 kg and lactation length of 9-14 months.

Camel serves as an important means of transportation in the dry lands of eastern Ethiopia and they are used for traction since the last 25 years. They select camel at the age of four and half years and train in the village. Only male camel is used for packing.

Camels are slaughtered on daily bases for household consumption. In Jijiga camel supplies around 164,506-kg meat each year and the per capita consumption in same town is 0.5 kg/year. The dressing percentage was 52 %. The body weight of Ogaden camel type is 612, 463, and 129, for mature male, mature female and a year old calf respectively. The mean calculated live weight for adult male and female camels were 486 kg and 427 kg and 384 kg and 326 kg for Jijiga and Shinille respectively. Camel hide and hair is not much utilised but in some areas it is used to prepare carpets and suturing thread for making shoes.

Introduction The Camelus dromedarius (one humped camel) is uniquely adapted domestic

animal in arid and semiarid environment. In Africa, there are about 11.5 million camels which represents more than 80 per cent of the Arabian camels and 2/3 of the world camel population (Schawartz, 1992) are found particularly in the arid and semiarid lowlands of the horn of Africa, including Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Eritrea and Djibouti. In Ethiopia, according to FAO (1993), there are about 1.03 million camels. Out of which, 70 per cent are found in the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia (CSA, 1988). But it is also worthy to mention that, there is regular inter boundary movement by the pastoralist between the neighbouring countries, states and zones with their livestock in search of water and good grazing land, and hence the estimation of livestock should be treated with caution at national level.

The Ethiopian dromedaries are found in southeastern and northeastern arid as well as semiarid regions, such as Ogaden, Afar, and Borana. The Somali, Afar, and Borana are the main ethnic groups involved in camel husbandry in the nation. The

Animal Production


one humped camel (Camelus dromedaries) plays a significant role as a primary source of subsistence in the lowlands of the country. It lives in wide arid and semiarid areas, which are not suitable for crop production and less suitable for other livestock production. Therefore, in this part of the country the camel is superior to all other types of livestock production in terms of security. In addition to this with continuing land degradation and the rapidly growing human population, the importance of camel is enhancing, because of its capability to withstand shortage of brows and water and produce milk, meat and draught power in desert area. The information at hand and the research conducted are limited owing to this; there is dire need to review the existing production potential of the camels in eastern Ethiopia.

Calf rearing and management During calving camel owners in Shinille zone clean all the mucous and watery

discharge from the new-born (Bekele, 1995). They help to get into its feet and allow suckling colostrum for a short period. If the calf consumes too much of it, it may cause diarrhoea. In Somalia region the herders were aware of the fact that colostrum helps the calf to get ride off the first faeces and at the same time strengthens its resistant against disease (Hashi 1993). The first three months are critical for the calf, because diarrhoea is a common problem and may cause death (Bekele 1995).

The presence of the calf during milking is highly essential and if the calf dies, either the calf’s skin or a puppet made of skin is put to use to stimulate the dam to let down milk both in Jijiga and Shinille zone (Tezera, 1998). Likewise Hashi (1993) also indicated that in Somalia if the calf is slaughtered or died, skin (maqaar) of the died calf is used to stimulate milk let down.

Tezera (1998) mentioned that in Shinille and Jijiga areas, the calf remains with its dam during night until three months of age before being separated. And the calf starts to nibble feed on average after 45 and 90 days, in Jijiga and Shinille respectively. The calves are weaned on average at the age of 15 and 14 months in Jijiga and Shinille respectively (Tezera, 1998). Whereas In Ogaden areas, complete weaning is attained at the age of 12-14 months (Abebe, 1989). However, according to Hashi (1993) there is a wide variation in age at weaning. He indicated that



depending on the brows situation, milk production of the dam, growth of the calf and the ultimate use of the calf weaning of calves vary from 8-18 months.

In Shinille zone method of weaning is usually practised by inserting two sharpened short stick to make V shape on the upper lip of the camel calf (Bekele, 1995) which causes pain to the dam whenever the calf tries to suckle. As a result, she jumps and hits the calf with the rear legs and prevents further progress of suckling. Similar practice is also reported in Somalia (Hashi, 1993).

After complete weaning, selection of future sires is conducted and male calves, which are rejected at this stage, are castrated, sold or slaughtered. Most of them used as pack animals. The female calves are kept as dairy animal.

Feeding and Watering Management The habitat of camel is characterised by shortage of water and high temperature.

Furthermore, there is also a considerable seasonal variation in the availability of quality and quantity of forage. These characterise the watering and grazing management of camels in most part of eastern Ethiopia. Pastoralists are also well aware of the need for efficient utilisation of their grazing land. Ogaden camels are fed both by browsing on low bushes, shrubs and trees and by grazing on grasses. Camels are long-range browser and cover long distance to meet its nutritional requirements. But, in Shinille zone the forage types used by camels are predominantly grasses, such as opuntia spp. The woody vegetation include Acacia especially cadaad, qurea, gumer and dhura Cashorina sp (Tezera 1998).

In Ogaden area, except salt no supplementation is given to camels (Abebe, 1991). In Jijiga and Shinille herders feed their camels with salt supplements. They trekked camels to Biyada, Horehewid and el-gel in Jijiga zone and Arabi, Waruf and Sanbate area of Shinille zone where traditional mineral sources are found (Tezera, 1998). The Ogaden nomads bring their camels to Bullale area for watering at least twice a year. The nomads believe that the water from Bullale, which is found in Degehabor zone, gives health to their camels (Abebe, 1989).

Camels consume wide variety of mixed plant growth available in their environment. Kebebew (1999b) selected 30 plant species in Errer valley eastern Ethiopia, which

Animal Production


are commonly consumed by camels. Species like Acacia brevispica, Opuntia vulgaris, Dichrostachys cinaria, Gadaba longifolia, Commiphora africina, Grewia bicolor, Rhynchosia velutina, Cordia somalensis and Maurua crassifolia. These species constitute major dietary portion of camel in the area throughout the year. On an average more than 97% of camel diet is composed of 12 browse plants. During dry seasons the dietary acceptance range was extended to compensate for declining forage availability. While, during unfavourable circumstance camels survive on drought tolerant and succulent plant species such as Opuntia vulgaris. Small leafed deciduous spiny and thorny plants also equally selected (if not more) as large leafed deciduous or evergreen plants. Thus forage plant species preferred by camel are normally not affected by physical defense structures or by leaf size at any given time (Kebebew, 1999b).

From the selected browse plants analysed for chemical composition there seems to be some evidence that preference could be motivated by nutrition (Kebebew, 1999b). The most important plant browsed by camels was Acacia brevispica; the chemical composition results show that Acacia brevispica is highest in nutrient concentration where as the second most important plant Opuntia vulgaris is lower in fibre and ant-nutritional factors. The third ranked plant Dichrostachys ciniarea is almost equal with first ranked plant but it is very thorny plant.

Camel maintains the nutritional characteristics of their diets apparently constant throughout the year through plant selection and water supply from feed is reasonably high. Therefore, the problem of camel nutrition is undoubtedly be the availability of forage or browse plant, which is normally scarce in arid eco-zones. Unlike reports from other places Kebebew (1999b) reported that diet of camel have high fibres but his observation regarding high anti-nutritional factor such as tannin in diet gets full attestation from other reports.

Camel is the only domestic animal, which can stay without water for as much as one month. Camel watering is a laborious activity, usually conducted jointly by a number of herds, especially when the source of water is well. The water sources in Ogaden area include wells, ponds, and rivers (Abebe, 1991) whereas in Jijiga zone



water sources are birkas, rivers and wells. In Shinille zone intermittent rivers and riverbeds are important sources of water.

Watering frequency, therefore, depends upon the availability of water sources, season of the year, and the capacity of the owners of camel to pay money to the owners of wells or ponds. Ogaden camels are watered every 10-15 days if water source is nearby. However, they can stay up to 30 days without being watered if water source is too far (Abebe, 1991). During the rainy season camels may not drink water for 1-2 months because the moisture of the plant browsed by camels is sufficient to supply their water requirement. He has also reported that Ogaden camels can consume up to 200 litters of water when they are deprived of water for long period.

Reproductive Performance of Camel Among other biological factors, the reproductive performance exerts a major

influence on the productivity of milk animals. Abebe (1991) indicated that Ogaden camels reach the age of puberty at about four years of age but are not allowed to breed before the age of five. Thus, a female Ogaden camel will be six years before having her first calf and produce about 7-8 calves in her production life. Ogaden camels usually come in heat or rut during the rainy season when adequate feed supply is available (Abebe, 1991) and the same was observed in Shinille (Bekele, 1995). During rutting season, some of the signs observed were aggressiveness to other male camels even to human, loss of appetite, frothy discharge on the mouth, gargling sound and blowing of the soft pallet. In the upper part of the neck blackish secretion is also common sign.

Apparently, it seems that the various reproductive traits, such as, calving rate (40-50 %), gestation length (350-390 days) (Tezera 1998, Zeleke and Bekele 2001, Melaku and Fesseha 2001) and others put camel in a poor economic position as compared to dairy cattle. Kebebew (1998) reported 199 and 573 days for days open and calving interval respectively for Ogaden camels in eastern Ethiopia. The average number of service per conception for Errer camels was 1.36±1 (n=33) and the average days open was 162.8±7.9 (n=33) (Zeleke and Bekele 2001). Though these facts places camel in a better position, still lot more is required to improve in this regard to take out of camel from category of low productive animal. However, if

Animal Production


the productivity refers to outputs over inputs, camels with hardly any input gives output and therefore could not be as such described as animal having low productivity.

Considering long productive life span of camels, calf production and milk production attributes are needed to be viewed separately. The management practice is to extend the lactation period even though this will have implications on the reproductive performance (Kebebew, 1998). But this has a logical base since pastoralists aim at obtaining sustained output, which is more valued than a high level of calf production. Summary of some reproductive traits of camels in the eastern Ethiopia is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Some Reproductive Parameters Reported in Eastern Ethiopia

Jijiga (n=38) Shinille (n=31) Ogaden (n =29)

Parameters Mean Mean Mean

Age at first mating (years)

Female

Male

4.7

6.2

4.4

6.5

5-7

Life span (years)

Female

Male

29.8

22

29

23.1

Productive Life span (year)

Female

Male

23.1

9.3

22.4

9.7

20-25

Gestation length (months) 12.8 12.2 12-13

Source Tezera, 1998 Tezera, 1998 Gedlu, 1991

Breeding Management Selective breeding is the most important husbandry techniques in camel

management. The selection is employed to maintain or improve productivity, endurance and drought resistance (Hashi, 1993). In Shinille and Ogaden zone the herders selects the best camel for breeding. They usually consider the ancestor milk production potential, length and beautiful appearance of the camel (Abebe, 1991). It is also believed that milk production will be higher if the scrotum of the selected camel is larger and hanged. The age of selection can be immediately after birth or within two



months after birth (Bekele, 1995). However, in Ogaden region, selection of camels for breeding is a common practice especially for the camel stud.

In Jijiga and Shinille zone the majority of the herder keep one bull in the herd (Melaku and Fesseha 2001). A single bull can serve a herd size of 80-100 females in a breading season (Tezera, 1998). Same author also reported that the majority of herd owners (61-70 %) breed their camels during wet season in Jijiga and Shinille.

The selected camel stud is not used for any purpose other than breeding in Ogaden (Abebe 1991). Male camels, which are not fit as stud, are either culled or separated from the flock and tamed for draught.

In Shinille zone, there is no specific age of culling for stud bulls. So long as it gives a good offspring, it is used for breeding. If offspring is not good in production it can be culled at any age (Bekele, 1995). Summery of some aspect of camel breeding in Shinille and Jijiga zones is given in table 2.

Milk production Yield

There are many discrepancies in literature about the amount of milk that a lactating camel yields. But there is an undisputed agreement among herdsmen on the fact that, even in the most sever droughts condition, camels remain lactating and often this is the only nourishment available to man in these areas.

The comparative efficiency of camel dairying is visible by the continuity of milk supply, even during long drought circumstances, when other animals cease to produce. Camel has supper adaptation to harsh environments, efficient exploitation of fragile habitats and higher effective yields. The comparative advantage of camel as a dairy beast over the other species in the same environment are difficult to quantify both from the specific productivity indicators and the weighted contribution of any species to human support.

In Eastern Ethiopia, Kebebew (1998) studied thirty lactation of Ogaden camels belonging to one herd having 100 animals were monitored in the Errer valley to examine the milk production and persistency characteristics of Ogaden camels under natural environments (Table 3). The least square means of the daily, peak and

Animal Production


lactation yield were 7.5, 11.5 and 2104 litters respectively. The average lactation monthly milk yield and length were 229 litters and 282 days respectively. The persistency indices, calculated were 120 per cent and 89 per cent for P1 and P2 respectively. The average daily milk offtake reported in Eastern Ethiopia is 3.12±0.03 in wet season and 1.49±0.04 in dry season (Zeleke and Bekele 2001).

Table 2: Summary of Some Aspects of Camel Breeding in Shinille and Jijiga Zones (in percentage)

Particular/Site Jijiga (n=53) Shinille (n=31)

Question. Own bull

1. I don’t have 17.0 16.1

2. Only one 71.7 77.4

3. Two 9.4 6.5

4. Three 1.9 0.0

Question. Age fix at first mating

5. Both males and females 49.1 67.7

6. Not fixed 38.8 32.3

Question. Breeding/calving season

1. Wet season 69.8 61.3

2. Dry season 26.4 25.8

3. All season 3.8 12.9

Question. Assisting the bulls during serving (Quimis)

1. Only inexperienced bulls 69.8 74.2

2. Any bulls used for breeding 30.2 25.8

Question. Assisting the females during parturition

1. No 0 0

2. Yes 100 100

Question. Fixing re-breeding time after parturition

1. No 26.4 6.5

2. Yes 73.6 93.5

Source:Tezera 1998

Table 3: Least-square means of milk production and reproductive traits for different calving seasons, parity group and calf death before weaning of camels under pastoral management in eastern Ethiopia. (all yields in liters).

Source of variation

Mean lactation length (days)

Mean daily yield

Mean peak Yield

Mean monthly

yield

Mean total lactation

yield P1 % P2 % Mean days

open

Calving interval (days)

Season

• Season one

• Season two

• Season three

295a ± 15

243 b ± 17

308 a ± 18

8.6 a ± 0.5

7.3ab ± 0.4

6.8 b ± 0.5

13.4 a ± 0.8

12.0 a ± 0.9

9.0b ± 0.9

256 ±14

230 ±15

201 ± 9

2419a ±140

1856c ±156

2036b ±163

138 ± 10

109 ± 11

113 ± 11

101a ± 9

72 b ± 10

96 a ± 10

209 a ± 13

143 b ± 14

246 a ± 15

583 a ± 14

517 b ± 15

620a ± 16

Parity groups

• Parity 1

• Parity 2

• Parity group 3+4

• Parity 5

• Parity group 6+8

293 ± 20

280 ± 18

279 ± 22

284 ± 22

274 ± 25

6.3 b ± 0.6

7.8 a ± 0.5

8.0 a ± 0.6

8.0 a ± 0.7

7.6 a ± 0.7

10.4 b ± 1.0

12.1 a ± 1.0

12.8 a ± 1.2

11.9 a ± 1.2

10.1 b ± 1.3

187 b ± 18

236 a ± 16

255 a ± 20

238 a ± 20

229ab ± 22

1856 c ±182

2069b ± 66

2291a ± 207

2203 b ± 204

2099 b ± 232

117 b ± 13

122ab ± 11

116 b ± 14

153a ± 14

93c ± 16

97 a ± 11

94a ± 10

95a ± 13

91a ± 12

70 b ± 14

217 ± 16

208 ± 15

209 ± 19

203 ± 18

160 ± 21

591 ± 17

582 ± 16

583 ± 20

577 ± 19

534 ± 22

Calf survival

• Died befor wean

• Alive at weaning

282 ± 16

282 ± 11

7.6 ± 0.3

7.3 ± 0.4

12.6 a ± 0.8

10.3b ± 0.6

247 ± 14

210 ± 10

2247 a ± 148

1960 b ± 102

121 ± 10

119 ± 7

89 ± 9

90 ± 6

188 ± 13

210 ± 9

562 ± 14

584 ± 10

Mean 282 ± 10 7.5 ± 0.5 11.5 ± 0.5 229 ± 9 2104 ± 97 120 ± 6 89 ± 5 199 ± 13 573 ± 14 Means with different superscripts within effect differ (P<0.05). Source: Kebebew,1998

Animal Production


The maximum daily and lactation yield were observed during the third and fourth lactations. The lactation curves had a typical shape, although less pronounced for camels that calved during the long dry season. Camels that calved in the long wet season and old camels showed the lowest persistency. Kebebew (1998) noticed that Ogaden camels have high milk yield, long lactation length and high persistency, which are the good indications suggesting that Ogaden camels are good dairy animals in arid and semi-arid areas.

It is widely recognized that camels produce more milk for a longer period of time than other species maintained in the same environment. In Ethiopia, camels grazing on irrigated pasture in Afar region gave 9 kg per day after 14 months of lactation (Knoess, 1977)

The objectives of pastoral dairy are to have a milk animal with extended lactation able to rear a calf without losing too much body condition and conceive again (Hashi, 1988). Therefore, when sustained milk out put is far more important than an over all high yield over a short period, the length of lactation of camel can reach up to 18 months. Practically, it can even extend further to 2 years without significant reduction in milk production (Kebebew, 1998) providing milk for human subsistence during dry seasons. Table 4: Summary of Milk Production Characteristics of Camels in Afar and Borana Regions

Locality Daily yield (kg) Lactation yield (kg) Lactation length (months) Authors

Awash 3.2-10.4 1200-3700 12 Knoess, 1977

Afar 5.1 1568 12 Ayele, 1987

Afar 4.4 1123 12.2 Richard and Gerard, 1989

Borana 3.1-6.2 1045 12 Belete, 1985

Of all animals, camel milk is the one available all the year round in the teashops throughout the Somali region. Camel milk supply and consumption outweighed other milk types in rural pastoral areas of the Somali region which is true for all camel zones of Ethiopia. Sour camel milk represents the major supply of food to settlements and towns. Hashi (1988) made similar observations in Somalia, about the extent to which all lactating females were actually milked for human



consumption, as governed by season and proximity to markets. Under all circumstances, camel wins as the main milk producer.

Table 5: Summary of Milk Production Characteristics of Camels in the eastern Ethiopia

Locality Daily yield (kg) Lactation yield (kg) Lactation Length

(months) Source

Ogaden 8-10 - 14 Abebe 1991

Errer valley 7.5 2104 9.5 Kebebew 1998

Jijiga 4.5 2009 15 Tezera, 1998

Shinille 3 1244 13 Tezera, 1998

Ogaden 5.13 - - Gedlu, 1996

Composition Kebebew (1999a) has reported the level of different components of camel milk in

Ogaden and Errer valley (Table 6). As the available data on milk composition of camel in Ethiopia is limited, therefore, it is not possible to compare milk composition of different region in the country. But this may open a possibility for further investigation for this uncovered area in other part of the country.

In spite of this fact, the results reported by Kebebew (1999a) demonstrated that the fat quantity varied from one camel to another and correspond well with values reported in other camel producing countries. Fat content has fluctuated over dry and wet seasons. Dry season milk fat content is significantly lower than the wet season milk.

Table 6: Mean, Standard Deviations (SD) and Coefficient of Variations (CV)for Major Components of Ogaden Camel Milk in eastern Ethiopia.

Type of Nutrients Mean SD CV

Fat 4.2 1.0 25.8

Protein 3.0 0.6 18.9

TS 12.8 1.6 12.5

SNF 8.7 1.6 17.9

Casein 2.4 0.5 19.9

Source: Kebebew, 1999a

If comparison is to be made between the life time milk production and fat production of exotic dairy breeds of cattle (Bos taurus) and that of camels, one can

Animal Production


equivocally conclude that camels are superior to dairy animals though they are not under intensive selection.

Draught Power Camels are one of the most important means of transportation. Camel plays an

important role in the lowland society as a means of transportation for their belongings, water, contraband materials, firewood, and elders and sick individuals from one site to another.

In Ogaden region, only male dromedaries are used for packing and females are forbidden culturally for packing (Abebe, 1989). Moreover, Ogaden camels have been used for traction since 25 years. In Ethiopia, especially in Afar Region camel is integrated in agriculture. Camel as farming animal was appreciated by the Afar because of its enormous power and better adaptation for traction (Gerad, 1991). The Issa clans use camel for packing at five years of age or more (Melaku and Fesseha, 2001). Selection is conducted at the age of four and half years and are trained at the village for about three months (Bekele, 1995). Melaku and Fesseha, (2001) reported also the ability of camels to work for 12 hr, covering 60 km a day, without food or water, carrying 100-300 kg, depends on their bodily condition.

According to the observation of the principal author in Shinille zone, when camels are loaded for the first time, they jump with the load in the back and try to get rid of it, and become restless. Any noise causing material should be avoided from the load till it becomes adapted with this activity. To calm the camel the trainer strongly ties the upper lip with rope and drag towards the ground till it accepts all the orders and becomes perfect. Similar practice is also observed in Somalia (Hashi, 1993). Camels are not used for riding in the Issa and Hawya clans, because they consider camels as a respected and Nobel animal. But it can be used for transportation of sick individuals to the nearby hospitals.

Meat Production The data on camel as meat animal is hard to find, but with a population of over

one million camels, its meat production potential is considerable. Camel meat is one of the main sources of protein for the Somali Muslims in the country. In Eastern



Ethiopia camels are slaughtered in Jijiga, Dire Dawa, Harar, Deghabur, Kebridehar, Gode, and other areas on daily basis for household consumption. Camel meat is highly honoured by the Muslims in the urban areas being second in preference to mutton, the hump and liver were the most preferred parts (Melaku and Fesseha, 2001). In the nomadic area, camels are slaughtered on special occasion such as wedding ceremony and religious festival (Abebe, 1989). In Ogaden area, for fattening purpose, camels are selected and is prohibited from baggaging and sometimes castrated (Abebe, 1989). The body weight of Ogaden type camel is 612, 463, and 129, for mature male, mature female and a year old calf respectively (Abebe, 1989).

According to Schawartiz (1992) adult camel live weight ranges approximately from 320 to 750 kg and this weight range is reached between the age of 5 to 7 in pastoral production system. In the Eastern Ethiopia up to 90% of the slaughtered camels are male and only unproductive females are slaughtered, and the dressing percentage of camel was reported to be 52% (Melaku and Fesseha, 2001).

Table 7: The body weight of Ogaden Camels Obtained from Body Measurement in Ogaden Region

No Age/sex Body weight (kg)

1 Mature male Maximum 774

Average 612

Minimum 504

2 Mature female Maximum 650

Average 463

Minimum 389

3 1 year old calf Maximum 149

Average 129

Minimum 108 Source: Abebe, 1989

Estimate of camel live weight for Jijiga and Shinille zones is also given in Table 8. According to Tezera 1998, the mean calculated live weight for adult male and female camels were 486 kg and 427 kg and 384 kg and 326 kg for Jijiga and Shinille respectively. These figures indicate that Ogaden type camels found in Jijiga have better meat potential than the Issa type or the Shinille camels.

Animal Production


Camel supplies around 164,506 kg of meat each year in Jijiga (Tezera, 1998), and the per capita consumption of camel meat for Jijiga town is 0.5 kg/year. Meat production is affected by reproduction efficiency and individual growth potential, which may further get influenced by many factors. This, therefore, suggest further initiation of research in this aspect both at regional and national level in order to evaluate camel as efficient meat producers, and to find out solutions on the way it can be improved. Research in meat processing, packaging, storing and other marketing practices also need to be encouraged.

Camel Hide and Hair In Shinille zone, according to the observation of the principal author, they use

camel hide from the fore leg for suturing shoes made from oxen hides after dissecting into very small fine suturing material. Issa around Dire Dawa uses camel hide to prepare carpet and ropes for making shoes (Melaku and Fesseha, 1988).

The young camel up to six months of age is fully covered with soft hair and at the age of two years camels with good nutritional condition shed the hair, which is very soft like cotton., This is called `Gambele' by Issa and used for decoration during wedding ceremony (Bekele, 1995). Camel wool or hair had no use in Eastern Ethiopia (Melaku and Fesseha, 2001).

Table 8: Estimation of camel Live weight From Body Measurement in Jijiga and Shinille Zone

Site and Category Number of Camels Mean(Kg) Range(Kg)

Jijiga

• Adult male 55 486 291-673

• Adult female 91 427 273-606

• Calves 31 116 71-73

Shinille

• Adult male 18 384 298-520

• Adult female 31 326 207-452

All adults

• Male 73 461 291-673

• Female 122 401 207-606

Source: Tezera 1998



References Abebe, W. (1989). A study on the husbandry of Ogaden camels, Camel Pastoralism as

Food System in Ethiopia, IDR, AAU, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia pp; 90-91.

Abebe. W, (1991). Traditional husbandry practice and major health problems of camels in the Ogaden. Nomadic people pp; 21-30.

Ayele, G.M. (1987). Livestock production and its socio economic importance among the Afar in north-east Ethiopia. Camel Forum Working Paper No. 16 Somalia Academy of Science and Arts; Mogadishu, Somalia.

Bekele, T.W. (1995). Observation on camel reproduction, utilization, camel types and some health problems of camels in eastern lowlands.

Belete Desalegne (1985). Milk off-take, growth and feeding habits of camels in the southern rangelands of Ethiopia. International Livestock Centre for Africa: Addis Ababa Ethiopia (memo)

CSA, (1988). Time series data on livestock and poultry population of Ethiopia 1980/81-1985/86. Central Statistical Authority, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

FAO (1993). Animal Health Year Book, Rome, Italy.

Gedlu, M. (1996). Camel productivity in Jijiga zone. 20pp.

Geberemariam (1989). The future of camel rearing for production in Ethiopia. Proceeding of camel pastoralism as food system in Ethiopia, IDR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp; 49-54

Gerard, D. (1991). Oasis agriculture and camel harnessed traction: a new initiative of the afar pastoralist of the Awash valley in Ethiopia for complementary food production. Nomadic peoples 29:42-52.

Hashi, A.M. (1988). The role of camel production in dry lands with reference to Somalia. Camel forum working paper No. 25 Somali Academy of Science and Arts 98pp.

Hashi, A.M. (1993). Traditional practice of camel husbandry and management in Somalia. The multipurpose camel: Interdisciplinary studies on pastoral production in Somalia. pp: 123-139

Kebebew, T. (1998). Milk production, persistency and composition of pastorally managed Ogaden camels in Eastern Ethiopia, MSc Thesis, AUA.

Kebebew, T. (1999a). Milk composition of pastorally managed camels in eastern Ethiopia, Proceeding of DHP-Ethiopia, National workshop 16-18 December

Animal Production


1998, Mekelle, Ethiopia.

Kebebew, T. (1999b). Seasonal dietary preference dynamics of camels (in press)

Knoess, K.H. (1977). The camel as a meat and milk animal. World Animal Review 22:39-44

Melaku T. and Fesseha, G. (1988). Observation on the productivity and disease of the Issa camel, Proceeding of 2nd National Livestock Improvement Conference 24-26. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia IAR, pp, 235-238

Melaku T. and Fesseha, G. (2001). A study on the productivity and disease of camels in Eastern Ethiopia, Tropical Animal Health and Production, 33:265-274

Richard, D. and Gerard, D. (1989). Milk production of Dankali camels (Ethiopia), Revue Elev. Med. Vet. Pays trop., 42 (1): 97-103

Schawartz, (1992). The camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Eastern Africa. The One-Hamped Camels In Eastern Africa. A Pictorial Guide to Disease. Health Care and Management. Verlag Josef Margeraf Scientific Books, FR, Germany. pp 5-9

Tezera, G. (1998). Characterisation of camel husbandry practices and camel milk and meat utilisation in Shinille and Jijiga zone of SNRS. MSc Thesis, AUA

Zeleke, M and Bekele, T. (2000). Camel herd health and productivity in Eastern Ethiopia selected semi-nomadic households. Proceeding of the international workshop on the camel calf. 24-26 October 1999, Quarzazate, Morocco, Revue Elev. Med. Vet. Pays trop., 53 (2): 213-217

Zeleke, M and Bekele, T. (2001). Effect of season on productivity of camels (Camelus dromedarius) and the prevalence of their major parasite in Eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 33:321-329.

FEEDS AND NUTRITION


Effect of plant height at cutting, sources and levels of fertiliser on yield, chemical composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility of Napier grass (pennisetum purpureum schumach) Tessema Zewdu14, Robert Baars2 and Alemu Yami3

1 Adet Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 8, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

2 Alemaya University, P. O. Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

3 Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre, P. O. Box 32, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia

4 Corresponding author

Abstract

Dry matter yield (DMY), chemical composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) response of Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.) to different sources and levels of fertiliser were studied in a randomized complete block design with three replications at Adet Agricultural Research Center, Northwestern Ethiopia. The treatments were arranged in a factorial experiment with five fertiliser applications (0, 46 and 92 N kg ha-1, and 1 and 2 t ha-1 manure) and three heights at cutting (when the plant reached at 0.5, 1 and 1.5m above ground). There was a significant (P<0.05) effect on DMY due to the interaction of cutting height with feriliser application and plant height at cutting. High DMY was obtained as plant height at cutting increased from 0.5 to 1.5m and by the interaction effect of 92 N kg ha-1 and 1 m height. Dry matter, NDF, ADL, cellulose, Ca and metabolisable energy (ME) contents were significantly (P < 0.05) affected by plant height at cutting only, while ash, CP, P, ADF-ash and hemicelluose were affected by both plant height at cutting and fertiliser application. Only plant height at cutting had a significant (P<0.05) effect on IVDMD. Utilisation of Napier grass at 1 m height is advantageous instead of using chemical fertiliser and cattle manure based on forage yield,



chemical composition and IVDMD. In addition further studies on animal performances and intake are needed to develop Napier based diets for small holders.

Introduction The contribution of the livestock sub-sector to the overall agricultural GDP in

Ethiopia is only 33 percent, which is low considering the rapidly increasing human population and increasing demand for meat, milk and draught power (ILCA, 1993). Seasonal variation in feed quality and quantity is the main limitation to animal production in Ethiopia. More than 90 percent of the livestock feed in Ethiopia are crop residue and natural pasture, which are poor in quality and provide inadequate energy, protein, minerals and vitamins (Daniel, 1990). This results in slow growth rates, poor fertility and high rate of mortality.

Livestock productivity can be promoted through the use of good quality forages with high yield, adaptable to biotic and abiotic environmental stresses. Yielding potential, nutrient content and digestibility should be evaluated before recommending different forage crops to the livestock producers in any farming system. Chemical analyses provide information on the nature and effects of a feed from which the rate and extent of biological degradation can be predicted (Osuji et al., 1993) and often used as an index of quality (Norton, 1981). In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) is one of the best methods available for estimating digestibility (Weiss, 1994).

Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.) could provide a significant amount of high quality forage in tropical countries. It is highly adaptable and popularly used by small holders in most parts of Ethiopia (Seyoum et al., 1998). The development of regular harvesting systems and application of some inorganic fertiliser or farmyard manure can significantly improve the productivity of Napier grass of a reasonably good quality (Annido and Potter, 1994). Management strategy which optimize both quality and yield need to be identified to develop Napier based diets for small holders in Ethiopia. Therefore, this study was carried out to assess the effect of plant height at cutting as well as different sources and levels of fertiliser on DMY, chemical composition and IVDMD of Napier grass.

Feeds and Nutrition


Materials and Methods Location

Dry matter yield, chemical composition and IVDMD studies were conducted during the 1999 and 2000 crop seasons at Adet Agricultural Research Centre, North western Ethiopia, 445 km away from Addis Ababa. The area is located at 11o 17’ N latitude and 37o 43’ E longitude at an elevation of 2240 m above sea level. The centre is characterised by alluvial soil and to some extent by red and black soils. The research activities reported here were conducted on red soil representing one of the typical soil types of the region. The annual rainfall of the area is 1285 mm with a range from 860 to 1771 mm and 109 rainy days per year (average of 14 years, 1986-99) (AARC, 1999). There is one main rainy season extending from May to October. The average annual minimum and maximum temperatures are 8.8 and 25.4 oC, respectively (AARC, 1999). In 1999 and 2000, the annual rainfall was 1215 mm and the average monthly minimum and maximum temperatures were 7.5 and 26.1 oC, respectively.

Experimental treatments, design and management The study was conducted using a 5 × 3 factorial experiment arranged in a

randomised complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The treatments were five fertiliser applications (0, 46 and 92 N kg ha-1, and 1 and 2 t ha-1 cattle manure) and three plant heights at cutting (0.5, 1 and 1.5 m). All the grass was harvested 10-15 cm above the ground. The plot size was 3 by 5 m. The spacing between replications and plots were 2 and 1 m, respectively, while spacing between individual plants within rows and between rows was 0.5 and 1 m, respectively. One adaptable and high yielding Napier grass accession (ILRI accession no. 14984) previously tested at AARC was selected and vegetatively propagated in the 3rd week of July 1999 using root splits on a well prepared red soil when the soil was moist.

The plots were not irrigated and moisture supply was based on rainfall. Diammonium phosphate fertiliser was applied at planting at a rate of 100 kg ha-1 for establishment purpose. Nitrogen (N) fertiliser was applied after establishment (one month after planting) by placing near root slips depending on the treatment during the two crop seasons. The cattle manure applied on the plot was more than three months old. The manure was crushed, ground and broadcasted on the plot and



raked in the soil one month before planting for proper decomposition. Soil and manure samples were taken for major nutrient analysis before planting of Napier grass and analysed according to standard procedures (Table 1).

Table 1: Manure and soil analysis of the experimental plot before planting of Napier grass

Treatment combination

Total N O.C OM

% Available P (ppm)

pH (H2O)

1:1 EC

(Mmhos/cm)

0d + 0.5H 0.1468 3.2 6.4 0.88 4.83 0.0302

0d + 1.0H 0.1483 3.2 6.4 0.84 4.76 0.0502

0d + 1.5H 0.1363 3.0 6.0 0.69 4.78 0.0412

46d + 0.5H 0.1438 2.9 5.8 0.70 4.82 0.0322

46d + 1.0H 0.1453 2.9 5.8 0.77 4.90 0.0272

46d + 1.5H 0.1453 2.9 5.8 0.66 4.78 0.0492

92 d + 0.5H 0.1438 3.1 6.3 0.68 4.95 0.0362

92d + 1H 0.1363 3.1 6.2 0.70 4.76 0.0482

92d + 1.5H 0.1423 4.4 8.8 0.79 4.97 0.0392

1e + 0.5H 0.1498 2.9 5.8 0.82 4.72 0.0502

1e + 1H 0.1423 2.7 5.4 0.86 4.80 0.0402

1e + 1.5H 0.1483 2.9 5.8 0.77 4.77 0.0502

2e + 0.5H 0.1408 2.5 5.0 0.68 4.78 0.0692

2e + 1H 0.1528 3.0 6.0 0.67 4.78 0.0622

2e + 1.5H 0.1453 3.2 6.4 0.66 4.85 0.0332

Cattle manure 1.549 53.08 92.54 50 mg/kg - - d = N kg ha-1; e = cattle manure (t ha-1); H = height of Napier grass harvested (m)

Data collection and analytical procedures Napier grass was harvested from all the treatments excluding guard rows (a net

plot size of 3m by 2m) and individual samples were taken for DMY analysis, which was determined by oven drying at 65 oC for 72 h until constant weight was obtained. Samples representing the whole plant in each treatment were taken randomly and sun-dried by leaving in the sun until the moisture became lost for partial dry matter analysis. Then, the partially dried samples were again oven-dried over-night at 105 0C for final analytical processes. The dried samples were ground to pass through a 1 mm sieve for chemical composition and IVDMD.Dry matter content was determined by oven drying all the samples at 105 oC overnight. Ash was determined by igniting the samples in a muffle furnace at 550 oC overnight (AOAC, 1990). Nitrogen and phosphorus (P) contents were determined by auto-analyzer (Chemlab, 1978 and 1984) and crude protein (CP) was calculated as N x 6.25. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid

Feeds and Nutrition


detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) were determined according to Goering and Van Soest (1970). Hemicelluloses and cellulose were calculated as NDF minus ADF and ADF minus (ADL + ADF-ash), respectively. Calcium (Ca) was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer, 1982). In addition, IVDMD was determined by the modified Tilley and Terry system (Van Soest and Robertson, 1985). The metabolisable energy (ME) contents for each treatment was estimated using the equation of the Australian Agricultural Council (AAC) for tropical forages (AAC, 1990): - ME (MJ kg-1 DM) = DOM (g Kg-1 DM) x 18.5 x 0.81 where DOM is digestible organic matter and DM represents dry matter and DOM% was calculated as 0.95 IVDMD% - 2 (AOAC, 1980). All the chemical analyses and IVDMD were done at International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) nutrition laboratory in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Statistical analyses Dry matter yield, chemical composition and IVDMD data were subjected to

analyses of variance (ANOVA) by the general linear Models (GLM) procedure of SAS (1998). The model included the effects of fertiliser, plant height at cutting, their interaction and replications. Mean separation was carried out using the least significance difference (LSD). Correlation analysis between DMY, chemical composition and IVDMD were determined. Mean differences for DMY, chemical composition and IVDMD were considered significant at P<0.05.

Results and Discussion Dry matter yield

Dry matter yield was significantly affected by the interaction of plant height at cutting and fertiliser application as well as plant height at cutting alone (Table 2). However, different sources and levels of fertiliser application did not affect DMY of Napier grass. This might be due to the fact that DMY of Napier grass was proportional to the amount of manure and chemical fertiliser applied in Taiwan as reported by (Liang, 1982). Higher DMY was obtained from the cutting height of 1 and 1.5m but a low dry matter production was observed from a reduced height of cutting (0.5m). Similarly, the highest DMY of Napier grass accessions was obtained from the intermediate height of cutting (1m) in the central highlands of Ethiopia (Seyoum et



al., 1998). The interaction effect of 92 N kg ha-1 and cutting at 1 m height produced the highest DMY of 12.34 t ha-1 followed by 2 t ha-1 cattle manure with 1 m height (11.72 t ha-1).

Table 2: Least square means of dry matter yield of Napier grass as influenced by plant height at cutting and fertiliser application

Height of cutting (m) Fertilizer application (N Kg ha-1)

0.5 1.0 1.5 mean

0 N Kg ha-1 6.99defg 6.48efg 8.45bcdef 7.31

46 N Kg ha-1 6.95defg 10.67abc 9.05abcde 8.89

92 N Kg ha-1 5.51fg 12.34a 10.28abcd 9.38

1 t ha-1 cattle manure 5.88efg 7.84cdef 8.16cdef 7.29

2 t ha-1 cattle manure 4.18g 8.58bcdef 11.72ab 8.16

Mean 5.90b 9.18a 9.53a 8.21

SE (±) for comparing any two means = 1.18

SE (±) for comparing plant height means = 0.53 Within rows, means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05

The increment of DMY of the current study as plant height at cutting advances (Hassan et al., 1990; Mureithi and Thrope, 1996) and at the highest N fertiliser level (Cowan et al., 1995) is in agreement with past research results. Plant height at cutting significantly affects the fodder yield of Napier grass in Kenya (Muinga et al., 1992). Increasing N levels from 0 to 300 N kg ha-1 increased green and dry forage yield of Napier grass in Egypt (Kamel et al., 1983).

Chemical Composition Dry matter (DM), Ca, NDF, ADL and cellulose contents were significantly affected

by plant height at cutting, while both plant height at cutting and fertiliser application showed a significant effect on total ash, CP, P, ADF-ash and hemicelluose (Table 3 and 4). The DM percent increased as plant height at cutting increased. A similar result of DM percent increase as height at cutting increased was reported by Seyoum et al. (1998) in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Ash percent was higher at the shorter plant height at cutting. The result of ash percent in the present study is similar to that obtained by Seyoum et al. (1998) in the central highlands of Ethiopia. The same authors found that ash percent had a tendency to decline with increase in height at cutting of Napier grass.

Feeds and Nutrition


There was a reduction in CP percent of Napier grass as increased in plant height at cutting. Cutting at 0.5 m height resulted in the highest (20 percent) while harvesting at 1.5 m resulted in the lowest (9.6 percent) CP. Harvesting at 1.0 m produced an intermediate CP level (11.5 percent). The CP percent obtained in the current study showed a similar trend to the results of other authors who reported a decline in protein level as plant maturity advances (Hassan et al., 1990; Seyoum et al., 1998). This is probably due to the increase in the percent of structural components of the stem and reduction in the protein percent of the harvested material (Kabuga and Darko, 1993). The utilisation of Napier grass at about 91 cm (about 8 weeks of age) than at older ages with increased stemminess, and the point of significant changes in CP lied between 137 cm and 183 cm in Kenya (Odhiambo, 1974).

Among the fertiliser treatments, 92 N Kg ha-1 gave the highest CP content of 15.1 percent. The increase in CP percent with increasing N fertiliser observed in this study is in agreement with the reports of many authors (Daniel, 1990; Peyraud et al., 1997). The CP percent of all cutting heights and fertiliser applications in the current study were above the minimum CP level of 7.5 percent required for optimum rumen function (Van Soest, 1982). A minimum of 15 percent CP is required for lactation and growth (Norton, 1981). The CP percent of the present study revealed that Napier grass harvested at the younger stage (0.5 m) is more satisfactory for extra production of animals than maintenance requirement compared to harvested at older stages (1.5 m height) and Napier grass fertilised by commercial N-fertiliser is above the threshold level of CP for maintenance. Leng (1990) reported that low quality forages are those with less than 8.0 percent CP.

Neutral detergent fiber and ADF percent increased with increase in plant height of Napier grass. Roughage diets with NDF percent of 45 to 65 percent and below 45 percent are generally considered to be medium and high quality feeds, respectively (Singh and Oosting, 1992). The threshold level of NDF that affects dry matter intake (DMI) of forage is > 60.0 percent (Meissner et al., 1991). The cell wall percent is moderately lower in unfertilised compared to N fertilised grass (Peyraud et al., 1997). Based on Singh and Oosting (1992) and Meissner et al. (1991) NDF value



categories, the Napier grass harvested at 0.5 m height does not seem to affect DMI of animals in this study.

Table 3: Chemical composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility of Napier grass as influenced by plant height at cutting.

Plant height at cutting (m) Chemical composition

0.5 1.0 1.5 SE ±

In dry matter (%)

Dry matter 20.0b 18.2b 24.0a 0.77

Ash 16.8a 16.6a 15.2b 0.318

Crude protein 20.0a 11.5b 9.6c 0.31

Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) 58.25c 61.57b 63.46a 0.55

Acid detergent fiber (ADF) 30.32c 35.53b 37.41a 0.47

Acid detergent lignin (ADL) 3.01c 3.69b 4.23a 0.12

ADF-ash 5.72b 7.98a 7.35a 0.30

Cellulose 21.60c 23.86b 25.83a 0.61

Hemicellulose 27.96a 26.08b 26.10b 0.20

Calcium 0.80a 0.59b 0.53b 0.03

Phosphorus 0.21a 0.20a 0.17b 0.004

IVDMD 71.74a 65.50b 61.03c 0.43

ME (MJ Kg/DM) 9.91a 9.03b 8.39c 0.61

Within rows, means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05

Both ADL and ADF-ash percent also increased with an increase in plant height at cutting. The ADL percent in this study was quite lower than reported by previous authors. The ADL and silica percent of Napier grass harvested at 0.5m height to be 47 and 53 g Kg-1 DM, respectively in Kenya (Kariuri et al., 1998). These are higher than the ADL percent and lower than the ADF-ash percent of the present findings. The cellulose percent increased with increase in height at cutting. However, the hemicellulose percent were reduced as increased in height at cutting.

Cellulose and hemicellulose percent increase with advance in stage of growth of the grass (Kidunda et al., 1990). However, the hemicellulose percent in the current study was found to be in disagreement with previous report. Here hemicellulose percent reduced as height at cutting increased. This may indicate that hemicellulose is more digestible than cellulose since it is found by subtracting ADF from NDF and hemicellulose at the shorter height might be less lignified as

Feeds and Nutrition


compared to cellulose that obtained from ADF fraction. Chemical N fertiliser increased the ADF-ash and hemicellulose components of Napier grass. This was highly reflected at the older ages of growth.

Table 4: Chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of Napier grass as influenced by different sources and levels of fertiliser

Fertiliser application Chemical composition

0 46 92 1 2 SE ±

In dry matter (%)

Dry matter 21.9 19.4 20.5 21.8 20.4 0.99

Ash 16.5a 15.7b 15.1c 16.5ab 17.1a 0.41

Crude protein 12.6c 14.5ab 15.1a 13.4bc 12.9c 0.40

Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) 61.31 61.44 61.78 60.42 60.51 0.71

Acid detergent fiber (ADF) 34.99 34.08 34.98 34.03 34.01 0.61

Acid detergent lignin (ADL) 3.59 3.66 3.79 3.61 3.55 0.15

ADF-ash 7.02a 6.86a 6.05b 7.42a 7.74a 0.38

Cellulose 24.39 23.56 25.14 23.00 22.73 0.79

Hemicellulose 26.32c 27.36a 27.13ab 26.40bc 26.35c 0.26

Calcium 0.63 0.63 0.59 0.68 0.70 0.04

Phosphorus 0.20ab 0.19b 0.17c 0.20ab 0.21a 0.01

IVDMD 65.90 66.16 65.53 66.19 66.67 0.55

ME (MJ Kg/DM) 9.09 9.12 9.03 9.13 9.19 0.78

Within rows, means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05

Harvesting at 1.0 and 1.5 m height produced lower Ca percent than cutting at 0.5 m height. Calcium percent showed no significant difference between cutting at 1.0 and 1.5 m height. Napier grass harvested at 0.5 m height in Kenya has been reported to contain 0.35 percent Ca which was suggested to be satisfactory level that can sustain acceptable growth rates in dairy heifers (Kariuki et al., 1998). The dietary Ca requirement for cattle recommended to be 0.43 percent (McDowell, 1985). Contrary to the previous work (Kariuki et al., 1998) the results of the present study showed that Napier grass harvested at 0.5 m height had higher Ca percent (0.80%) and it is above the calcium recommended for growth purposes (ARC, 1980; Kearl, 1982; McDowell, 1985).

Higher phosphorus percent were obtained at 0.5 and 1 m height at cutting (0.20 percent) than 1.5 m cutting height. Phosphorus percent reduced as height at cutting increased. Cattle manure application produced the highest P and Ca contents



compared to chemical N fertiliser. This may be due to the fact that cattle manure contains not only N but also other nutrients that could be utilized by the plant system. The P requirements of grazing ruminants as reviewed by McDowell (1985) is 0.17 percent. Kearl (1982) also reported the P requirements of ruminants as 0.15-0.46 percent. However, according to the ARC (1980) the P requirements of ruminants is reported to be 0.11-0.34 percent. The P percent in the present study was within the recommended ranges of P requirements for animals.

In vitro dry matter digestibility and metabolisable energy contents Plant height at cutting only had a significant effect on IVDMD and ME contents of

Napier grass. As plant height at cutting increased, there were a decline in IVDMD and ME values (Table 3). However, a significant effect was not observed on IVDMD and ME contents due to different sources and levels of fertiliser application (Table 4). The result of the present study also revealed that both IVDMD and ME contents were higher at the younger stage (0.5 m) than older ages (>1.0 m). This was supported by Taliaferro et al. (1975) who reported that grasses harvested at relatively advanced stages of development depressed IVDMD percent. As lignins are closely linked to the carbohydrates in the cell wall of plants, they exert a major effect on the digestibility of feeds, principally hemicellulose and cellulose (Van Soest, 1982). The steady decline in dry matter digestibility (DMD) with an increasing age of growth for tropical grasses has generally been attributed to an increase in structural components (cell walls) and a decline in the leaf to stem ratio (Kabuga and Darko, 1993). The OMD and ME percent of Napier grass harvested at 0.5 m in Kenya were 57.1 percent and 8.6 MJ Kg-

1 DM, respectively (Kariuki et al., 1998). However, the DMD (71.7 percent) in the present study harvested at the same height was higher than those reported by Kariuri et al. (1998). This might be attributed to environmental and soil variation occurred in different locations. Beyene et al. (1977) reported on estimated ME percent of dry forages in Ethiopia as 1.37 to 2.77 Mcal kg-1DM. Similarly, Seyoum Bediye and Zinashi Sileshi (1989) found that a mean ME percent of 1.7 and 2.2 Mcal kg-1DM for dry and green feed, respectively. The result of the ME percent in the present study was within the range of the reports of previous authors.

Feeds and Nutrition


Among the levels of each factor in the study harvesting at 1 m height and applying 92 N Kg ha-1 gave higher total CP yields and digestible matter of Napier grass (Table 5). Harvesting of Napier grass at 1 m height is more advantageous based on CP, IVDMD and total digestible nutrient yields than instead of applying chemical fertiliser that needs extra cost and cattle manure, which has alternative uses and difficult for application under small holder management condition. Besides, the amount of cattle manure produced from a single dual purpose animal under small holder condition is very low due to shortage of feed and a hectare of crop land requires many tones of cattle manure for proper feritlisation.

Table 5: Total nutrient yields (CP and digestible matter) of Napier grass based on dry matter yield, crude protein content and in vitro dry matter digestibility of each level of factors

Parameters Total nutrient yields (t ha-1) Factors

DMY

(t ha-1) CP IVDMD CP Digestible

matter

Plant height

0.5 m 5.90 20.0 71.74 118.0 423.3

1.0 m 9.18 11.5 65.50 105.6 601.3

1.5 m 9.53 9.6 61.03 91.5 581.6

Fertiliser application

0 N Kg ha-1 7.31 12.6 65.90 921.1 481.7

46 N Kg ha-1 8.89 14.5 66.16 128.9 588.2

92 N Kg ha-1 9.38 15.1 65.53 141.6 614.7

1 t ha-1 cattle manure 7.29 13.4 66.19 97.7 482.5

2 t ha-1 cattle manure 8.16 12.9 66.67 105.3 544.0

Conclusions Dry matter yield was affected by the interaction of plant height at cutting and

fertiliser application as well as plant height at cutting alone. Plant height at cutting had a significant effect on DM, Ca, NDF, ADF, ADL, cellulose, IVDMD and ME values, while ash, CP, P, ADF-ash and hemicellulose percent were significantly affected by both plant height at cutting and fertiliser application. Utilisation of Napier grass at 1 m height is recommended as compared to chemical fertiliser and cattle manure application. Napier grass at 1 m height is categorised under medium to high quality forage based on chemical composition, IVDMD values and total digestible



matter. In addition further studies on animal performances and intake are needed to develop Napier based diets for small holders.

Acknowledgment We would like to thank the Amhara National Regional Council and the Adet

Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia for financing the research. All the staffs of Animal Feeds and Nutrition Research Division of Adet Agricultural Research Center are highly acknowledged for their assistance during the execution of the research.

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Seyoum, B., Zinashi, S., Tadesse, T.T. and Liyusew, A. 1998. Evaluation of Napier (Pennisetum purpureum) and pennisetum hybrids (Pennisetum purpureum x pennisetum typhoides) in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia. Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), ESAP, 15-17 May 1997, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 194-202.

Singh, G. P. and S. J. Oosting. 1992. A model for describing the energy value of straws. Indian dairy man XLIV: 322-327.

Taliaferro, C.M., Horn, F.P., Tucker, B.B., Totusek, R., and Morrison, R.D. 1975. Performances of three warm-season perennial Grasses and a Native Range Mixtures as influenced by N and P fertilisation. Agronomy Journal 67: 281-291.

Van Soest, P.J. and Robertson, J.B. 1985. Analysis of forages and fibrous foods. A laboratory manual for animal science 613, Cornell University, USA.

Weiss, P.W. 1994. Estimation of digestibility of forages by laboratory methods. PP, 644-682. In: George, C., Fahey, Jr., Michael Collins, David R. Mertens, and E. Moser (ed.). Forage quality, evaluation and utilisation. Madison, American Society of Agronomy Inc., Crop Science of America Inc. and Soil Science Society of America Inc.


Supplementary values of brewer's dried yeast and rapeseed meal in broiler starter rations Amsalu Asfaw1, Alemu Yami2 and Solomon Mogus3

1 KPRMC, Kombolcha, ARARI;

2EARO, DZRC, Debre- Zeit;

3Jimma University, Jimma

Abstract

This experiment was undertaken to determine whether or not brewery dried yeast (BDY) and rapeseed meal (RSM) Brassica napus, Vs `Tower' supplement one another and improve their combined protein quality in the broiler starter rations.

A total of 384 unsexed, day old chicks of Hubbard breed were fed diets containing about half of the percent CP provided by one or a combination of RSM and BDY. The result of the experiment indicated that chicks fed on 26.45% RSM alone and combination of 13.23% RSM and 9.87% BDY as complementary sources of protein significantly increased feed consumption (p<0.01) body weight gain, dry matter efficiency ratio (p<0.05) and reduced intake to gain ratio (p<0.01), without significantly altering mortality.

The result of the experiment revealed that RSM and BDY have complementary relationship and chicks supplemented RSM with BDY as complementary sources of protein performed better than the commercial ration (the control).

Key words: BDY, RSM, Broiler, amino acid, complement and Performance.

Introduction Protein content as a measure of nutritional value of a feed is becoming of less

important and each amino acid is being considered individually especially Methionine and lysine, which are referred to as critical amino acids for poultry. Unfortunately, quality protein sources such as fishmeal and synthetic amino acids are very expensive and not easily available at the local market.



The amino acid balances of RSM match well with that of Soya bean meal (Clandinin and Robblee, 1966), the former being richer in methionine. RSM is the cheap source of protein and contains up to 40% crude protein and could potentially be a good source of protein for poultry.

Brewery dried yeast (BDY) is an excellent source of protein of high biological values (Jay, 1978). Nevertheless Daghir and Sell (1982) observed that the most serious amino acid limitation in yeast single cell protein (YSCP) is methionine, but it is richer in lysine in practical poultry diets. Previous report (Daghir and Sell, 1982) has also indicated that deficiency of methionine results in poor performance of birds. Lesson et al. (1987) showed that supplementing YSCP chick diets with methionine has beneficial effects.

It could, therefore be possible that the amino acid balance of RSM in poultry diets might be improved by adding BDY. However, nothing has been done so far, to test the different ratios of RSM and BDY combination as protein supplements in broiler rations. The objectives of the present experiment was, therefore to determine whether or not BDY and RSM proteins supplement one another and improve the combined protein quality of the broiler starter rations.

Materials and methods Formulation of Treatment Rations. Five iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous broiler

starter treatment rations were formulated to contain 22% crude protein (CP) of which almost half was provided by either RSM, BDY or three combinations of RSM and BDY. Diet one (T1) RSM alone; diet two (T2) BDY alone; diet three (T3) 50% RSM and 50% BDY; diet four (T4) 75% RSM + 25% BDY; diet five (T5) 25% RSM and 75% BDY. Diet six (T6), the positive control, was a commercial broiler starter ration purchased from the Ethiopian Livestock and Poultry Feed Processing Enterprise (Kality). All the treatments were formulated to contain 2930 Kcal ME/kg of metabolizable energy (Table 1).

Management of experimental birds. Three hundred eighty four unsexed day old chicks of the Hubbard breed were used. The chicks were wing band, weighed (extreme high or low weights were discarded) and randomly divided into 6 groups of 64 chicks each. Each group was further randomly sub-divided into two replicates of

Feeds and Nutrition


32. Each group was housed in 12 individual pens. Finally the six treatment rations shown in Table 1, were randomly assigned to the experimental chicks, in a completely randomized design with two replications for the study period of one month. All chicks were vaccinated twice against New Castle Disease. Feed and water were offered ad lib. Feed intake and refusals were weighed and recorded every day. The orts were mixed with the new ration and given again to avoid selection. Chicks were weighed once a week. The parameters used to measure the response of chicks were mean daily dry matter intake; mean daily body weight gain; dry matter efficiency ratio; any abnormalities and mortality.

Laboratory Analysis. Samples of each feed ingredient were analyzed for DM, Crude fiber (CF), crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE) and Ca by methods recommended by the A.O.A.C. (1975). The metabolizable energy (ME) levels of feed ingredients were determined by an indirect method, according to Wiseman (1987). ME (Kcal/kg DM) = 3951 + 54.4 EE - 88.7 CF - 40.8 Ash

Statistical Analysis. Data collected were analyzed using the General Linear Models (GLM) procedure of Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, Inc., 1984). Duncan's (1955) method of multiple comparison among means was used to locate the treatment means that were different from the rest.

Apparent N Digestibility. Apparent N Digestibility was determined by the addition of chromic oxide (3 g/kg) as an inert feed marker to each of the experimental diets and fed to the chicks from days 21 to 28. Samples of excreta from each pen were collected for 3 consecutive days (days 26-28), homogenized, and dried in a forced draft oven at 26.6�C for 24 hr. Dried samples from daily collections were pooled by treatment and ground to pass through a 1 mm sieve. The diet and excreta were analyzed for chromium using the method of Fenton and Fenton (1979); nitrogen in both feed and excreta was determined by the Kjeldahl procedure.

Result and discussion Daily Dry Matter Intake. As shown in table 2, analysis of variance revealed that

there were significant (P<0.05) differences between the treatment means. The feed intakes of chicks fed on the experimental rations containing either RSM, BDY or a combination of them (T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5) were not significantly (P>0.05) different



from each other but significantly (P<0.05) greater than the chicks fed on the commercial broiler ration (T6).

Although not statistically apparent, addition of RSM at 13.23% with BDY at 9.87% (T3); 19.84 % from RSM and 4.93% from BDY (T4) and RSM at 26.45% (T1) seemed to increase dry matter intake of chicks more than the other treatment rations

Leslie et al. (1976) demonstrated that when fortified with arginine and methionine, RSM could be fed at a level of 40% to supply the entire protein requirement of the chick. Summer et al. (1989) reported that addition of lysine and arginine resulted in a significant increase in performance as compared to the methionine supplement Canula meal basal diet.

Yalemshet (1988) suggested that the supplementation of BDY with NSC as complementary sources of protein increased feed consumption and Protein intake which may help account for the superior performance of chicks fed these diets compared to those fed the control diet and those supplemented with NSC or BDY alone.

Daily Body Weight Gain. Daily body weight gain data are presented in table 2. Highly significant (P<0.01) differences are noted for the treatment effects. The experimental diets (T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5) were all significantly (P<0.01) higher than those receiving the commercial broiler diet (T6). Improvement in weight gain was noted from the chicks given the RSM at 26.45% alone (T1) and RSM at 13.23% with BDY at 9.87% (T3). Chicks fed ration containing RSM at 13.23% with BDY at 9.87% (T3) were not significantly different from chicks fed combination of 19.84% RSM and 4.93% BDY (T4). Chicks fed on T2 and T5 showed low body weight gain next to T6. Yalemshet (1988) observed that diets with NSC as sole protein source was significantly lower than diets containing combinations of 5% NSC and 5% BDY and 7.5% NSC Supplemented with 2.5% BDY.

The result of this study is in agreement with the findings of Weerden et al. (1970), who reported that live weight gains on the ration with 10% and 7.5% hydrocarbon grown yeast was not significantly different from that on either of the fish meal controls at 3, 5 or 7½ weeks. Chicks on the 15% level of inclusion showed

Feeds and Nutrition


significantly lower gain than that of the control. Growth rates of chicks were not adversely affected until the percentage of the yeast reached 15%. Summers (1986) suggested that canola protein could meet the sulfur amino acid requirement of the growing chicks with out supplementation of methionine.

Increasing the incorporation of BDY (T5 and T2) resulting in poor growth may be due to methionine deficiency or poor availability of this amino acid (Daghir and Sell, 1982). Also BDY may contain some metabolic products that can be detrimental at high levels. Using RSM alone or combination of RSM and BDY (T3 and T4) to complement one another improved the protein quality, which indicates improved availability of amino acids. Muztar and Slinger (1980) and Salmon (1984) support this result.

Dry Matter Efficiency Ratio. As indicated in table 2, the DMER of starter chicks fed the commercial broiler ration (T6) were significantly lower than those on the experimental rations (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5). Chicks fed T1 (RSM at 26.45%) and T3 (RSM at 13.23% with BDY at 9.87%) showed better efficiency. Eventhough, chicks fed T4 not significantly different from chicks fed T2, diets containing higher amounts of BDY (T2 and T5) and the control showed less DMER.

The result of this study is contrary to the findings of Saoud and Daghir (1980) who reported that replacing SBM in a semi synthetic diet with yeast protein from molasses depressed growth and feed efficiency at levels of 10, 15 and 20% of the diet. However, McMillan et al. (1987) reported that 10% inclusion of single cell protein from Kluyveromyces fragilis in diets had no deleterious effects on performance of young broiler chicks.

Apparent N Digestibility. Apparent Nitrogen Digestibility of chicks fed T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6 were 51.7, 52.2, 56.1, 53.0, 55.4, and 56.4, respectively. Statistically there was no significant (P>0.05) difference among treatment means.

Mortality. No significant differences in mortality were observed among the chicks fed the treatment diets during the starter phase (0-4 weeks) (Table 2). The mortality experienced in this experiment was higher than during the first experiment. This was most likely due to the low outside temperatures in conjunction with high velocity of wind and repeated interruption of electricity.



Sticky droppings were observed in diets having higher amount of BDY (T2 and T5) during the experimental period. Waldroup et al. (1971) reported that Hydrocarbon yeasts for broilers should not exceed 15% of the diet even if growth and feed efficiency were not affected because of litter condition and sticky dropping.

Table 1: Diet formulation and dietary nutrient content of broiler starter diets.

Ingredients T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

Rape seed meal 26.45 -- 13.23 19.84 6.12 --

Brewery dried yeast -- 19.74 9.87 4.93 14.80 --

Sorghum -- 54.76 31.05 20.00 44.05 --

Corn 48 -- 20.35 29.73 10.00 30.00

Noug seed cake 23.05 23.00 23.00 23.00 22.53 14.00

Wheat grain -- -- -- -- -- 15.00

Wheat middling -- -- -- -- -- 20.00

Meat & bone meal -- -- -- -- 5.80 --

Soya bean -- -- -- -- -- 14.55

ME, Kcal/kg 2926 2953 2942 2908 2946 2950

CP, % 22.79 22.98 22.81 22.78 22.23 22

N. B. Bone meal and salt included at 2% and 0.5% respectively. Vitamin premix given Via drinking water as prescribed by the manufacturers.

Table 2: The chemical composition of feed ingredients used in the treatment ration.

Ingredients DM a CP a CF a EE a Ash a Ca a MEb

Corn, White dent, (Zea mays), grnd. 89.46 11.21 1.94 4.21 1.58 0.11 3340

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), grnd. 89.56 10.24 2.56 3.20 1.70 0.037 3270

Noug seed cake (Guizotia abyssinica), mech.ext.

92.53 30.09 21.41 8.41 15.02 0.67 2607

Rapeseed meal (Brassica napus), mech. ext.

94.33 37.80 10.60 8.99 9.03 0.67 2620

Brewer’s yeast, dried 91.75 50.67 2.63 0.46 5.02 0.14 3538

Wheat short 90.19 18.47 7.00 2980

Bone meal (steam ground) 91.73 10.26 - - 71.5 24.71 - a % / Kg DM of feed stuff sample. b Kcal and estimated using Wiseman (1987) formula.

Feeds and Nutrition


Table 3: Performance of broiler starters fed treatment diets

Treatment DDMI, g DBWG, g DMER I:G App. N. dig Mortality, %

T1 37.20 a 17.82 a 0.46 a 2.17 b 56.40 8.75

T2 35.70 a 15.82 c 0.44 a 2.31 b 55.40 3.03

T3 38.06 a 17.51 ab 0.45 a 2.23 b 53.00 10.61

T4 37.26 a 16.00 bc 0.44 bc 2.26 b 56.10 0.00

T5 36.01 a 14.71 c 0.42ab 2.38 ab 52.20 5.72

T6 26.01 b 9.32 d 0.37 b 2.69 a 51.70 11.85

F-test * ** * * ns Ns

C. V., % 7.00 7.48 5.06 5.82 4.87 79.91

Reference Association of Official Analytical Chemists (A.O.A.C.). 1975. Official methods for

analysis.11th ed. AOAC, Washington, D. C.

Clandinin, D. R. and Robblee, A. R. 1966. Rapeseed meal for poultry: A review. World's Poult. Sci. J. 22:217-232.

Daghir, N. J. and Sell, J. L. 1982. Amino acid supplementation of yeasts Single-cell protein for growing Chicken. Poult. Sci. 61:337-344.

Duncan, D. B. 1955. Multiple range and F-tests. Biometrics. 11:1-42.

Fenton, T. W. and Fenton, M. 1979. An improved procedure for determination of chromic oxide in feed and feces. Cand. J. Anim. Sci. 59:631.

Jay, J. M. 1978. Modern food microbiology. 2nd ed. pp. 281-288.

Lesslie, A. J., Summers, J. D., Grandhi, R. and Lesson, S. 1976. Arginine-lysine relationship in rapeseed meal. Poult. Sci. 55:631.

Lesson, S., Atteh, J. O., and Summers J. D. 1987. The replacement value of canola meal for soybean meal in poultry diets. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 67: 151-158.

McMillan, E. G., Moran, E. T., Duitschaever, C., Gordner, D. andGardner, M. 1987. Single cell protein as a feeds tuff for broiler chicks (Abstract). Poult.Sci.66:144.

Muztar, A. J. and Slinger, S. J. 1980. Apparent amino acid availability and apparent metabolizable energy value of Tower and Candle rapeseed and rapeseed meal. Poult. Sci.59:1430.



Salmon, R. E., 1984. True metabolizable energy and total available amino acids of Candle, Altex and Regent Canola meals. Poult. Sci. 63:135.

Saoud, N. B. and Daghir, N. J. 1980. Blood constituents of yeast fed chicks. Poult. Sci.59:1807.

Statistical Analysis System Institute, Inc. 1984. Statistical Methods. SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, N.C.

Summers, J. D., Spratt, D. and Bedford, M. 1989. Factors influencing the response of broilers to calcium supplementation of canola meal. Poult. Sci. 69: 615-622.

Summers, J. D. 1986. Energy, a critical nutrient for growing pullets and laying hens. Maryland Nutrition conference for feed manufacturers. Pp 21-26.

Waldroup, P.W., Hillard, C.M. and Mitchell, R.J. 1971. The nutritive value of yeast grown on hydrocarbon fractions for broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 50: 1022-1029.

van Weerden, E. J., Shacklady, C. A. and vander Wal, P. 1970. Hydrocarbon-grown yeast in rations for chicks. Brit. Poult. Sci.11:189.

Wiseman, J. 1987. Meeting nutritional requirement from available resources. In: Feeding of non-ruminant animals. Translated and ed. by J. Wiseman. Butterworth and C. Ltd.

Yalmshet, W. A. 1988. Evaluation of protein quality and supplementary value of brewery dried yeast and noug seed cake in chick-starter ration, M. Sc. Thesis. Alemaya, Ethiopia.


Studies on the level of inclusion of rapeseed meal (b. napus vs `tower') in broiler finisher rations Amsalu Asfaw1, Alemu Yami2 and Solomon Mogus3

1 ARARI, Poultry Research, Kombolcha,

2EARO, DZRC, Debre- Zeit,

3 Jimma University

Abstract

This experiment was undertaken to investigate the nutrient composition and level of inclusion of rape seed meal (RSM) Brassica napus, Vs `Tower' in the broiler finisher rations.

The chemical analysis indicates that the CP and ME value of RSM were 37.81% and 2620 kcal/kg respectively, indicating the potential of the feed as protein supplement for both non-ruminants and ruminants.

A total of 396 mixed sex, four weeks old chicks were fed diets containing 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% RSM. Increasing the dietary level of RSM significantly increased feed intake (p<0.01), body weight gain (p<0.05) and dry matter efficiency ratio (p<0.01). This was accompanied by a significant decreased in intake to gain ratio (p<0.05) and feed cost per kg live weight gain (p>0.01).

The result of the experiment revealed that RSM could be included up to 25% in broiler finisher diets without adversely affecting performance.

Key words: RSM, Broiler finisher, chemical composition, Level of inclusion and Performance.

Introduction Feed cost, which account for about 65% of the total cost of production (Oluyemi and

Roberts, 1979), is the single most important constraint for the expansion of poultry enterprises, to bring animal protein within the reach of poor people. Thus, exploring of alternative feed resources and knowledge of the nutritional characteristics of these



feeds and its optimal level of inclusion is a corner stone of successful poultry production.

Of the oil meals produced in Ethiopia, RSM is the third or fourth, both in terms of area coverage and production (Negussie, 1990). It is also the cheap in cost and contains up to 40% crude protein and could potentially be a good source of protein for both ruminants and non-ruminants (Fenwick and Curtis, 1980).

It has been realized that there are limits to the amounts of RSM, which can be added to poultry diets because of its anti nutritional factors (Fenwick et. al, 1986 and Sorensen, 1990). Some of the available information indicate that the level of `toxic principles' in rapeseed is related to the variety of rapeseed and the environmental conditions under which the rapeseed is grown (Robbelin and Thies, 1980; Larsen, 1981; Sorensen, 1990). In Ethiopia due to better oil and cake quality and yield, only Brassica napus, `Tower' has been selected for production among Brassica species (Ministry of state farms development, 1986). Unfortunately, there is no detailed information on the nutrient content and levels of inclusion of this variety in poultry ration. Thus, there is need to investigate the possible level of inclusion of this particular variety of rapeseed meal in broiler finisher ration. The major objective of this research was, therefore, to assess the nutrient content and to determine the level of inclusion of RSM in broiler finisher diet.

Materials and methods Experimental site. The study was under taken at Alemaya University. The

experimental feed, RSM was obtained from Nazareth Edible Oil Factory (rapeseed was grown in Bale and Arussi zones of Oromia region).

Laboratory Analysis. Samples of each feed ingredient were analysed for DM, Crude fibre (CF), crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE) and Ca by methods recommended by the A.O.A.C. (1975). The metabolizable energy (ME) levels of feed ingredients were determined by an indirect method, according to Wiseman (1987). ME (Kcal/kg DM) = 3951 + 54.4 EE - 88.7 CF - 40.8 Ash.

Formulation of experimental rations. The experiment comprised 6 treatment diets, one positive control with 0 % RSM (T1) and 5 diets with 5 (T2), 10 (T3), 15 (T4), 20

Feeds and Nutrition


(T5) and 25-(T6) % RSM respectively. The diets were calculated on air-dry basis, to be isocaloric (3100 Kcal ME/kg) and isonitrogenous (19.5% CP (Table 1).

Management of experimental birds. Until one month of age the experimental chicks were fed the same type of commercial starter ration. The chicks were wing band and weighed. Extreme high or low weights were discarded. Three hundred ninety six unsexed chicks of the Hubbard breed were used. The selected chicks were randomly divided into 6 groups of 66 chicks each. Each group was further randomly sub-divided into two replicates of 33. Finally the six treatments shown in table 1, were randomly assigned to the experimental chicks in completely randomised design with two replications for the study period of one month. All chicks were vaccinated twice against New Castle Disease. Feed and water were offered ad lib. Feed intake and refusals were weighed and recorded. Chicks were weighed once a week. Mean daily dry matter intake, body weight gain, feed conversion efficiency, any abnormalities and mortality and feed cost per live weight gain were used as treatment evaluation parameters.

Statistical Analysis. All the data collected were analysed using the General Linear Models (GLM) procedure of Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, Inc., 1984). Duncan's (1955) method of multiple comparison among means was used to locate the treatment means that were different from the rest.

Results and discussion Chemical composition. The analysis indicates that (Table 2) the CP content and

ME value of RSM were 37.81% and 2620 kcal/kg respectively, indicating the potential of the feed as a protein supplement for both ruminants and non-ruminants. This result is in agreement with the values reported by Salmon (1979), Teshome (1988), and Blair et al. (1986). The CP content of RSM was found to be comparable with that of soybean meal but better than that of noug seed cake. The CF content of rapeseed meal was 10.6%, which is comparable to previously report by Salmon (1979) and Zuprizal and Chagneau (1992).

Mean daily dry matter intake (DDMI). The mean daily DM intakes of chicks are presented in table 3. There was highly significant (P<0.01) differences between treatment means and the groups fed on diets containing 25%, 20% and 15% RSM



consumed significantly higher DM than the others. Birds placed on the control diet (T1) had the least mean daily DM intake while those on the 25% consumed the highest DM intake per day. A general trend of increasing DDMI with increasing levels of RSM was observed. The decrease in feed intake of T1 and T2 may be related to the high inclusion of BDY in the diet (19.74% and 15%). White and Balloun (1977) suggest that certain properties of YSCP impaired feed intake, and pelleting and granulating modified these properties.

These results conform to the observations of Hulan et al. (1980), Albino et al. (1982), Salmon (1984) and Proudfoot et al. (1983). Other authors (Leslie and Summers, 1972; Clandinin et al., 1983) have, however, reported a decrease in feed intake with increasing levels of dietary RSM. Total substitution of the dietary soybean meal by canola meal in both starter and finisher diets had no effect on feed intake, weight gain, feed to gain ratio, ME of the diet and apparent retention of N, fat, Ca, Mg or P (Leeson et al., 1987).

Mean Daily Body weight gain (DBWG). The effect of including varying levels of RSM in broiler finisher rations on body weight gain is presented in table 3. There were significant differences (P<0.05) in DBWG between the diets. The diet containing 25% and 20% RSM resulted in significantly higher body weight gain than others. The least mean daily body weight gains was obtained on diets containing no RSM (the control diet). The decline in growth rate with decreasing levels of RSM might be attributed to the reduced feed intake. Incorporation of high level of BDY in broiler finisher ration resulting in poor growth perhaps due to low availability of methionine (Daghir and Sell, 1982).

A significant improvement in weight gain was observed with increasing levels of RSM inclusion in the diet. The result of this study is in contrast to the results of Clandinin and Robblee (1966), Leslie and Summers (1972), Pekerten and Ergul (1981) and Thomas et al.(1983), who recommended 15% level of inclusion of conventional Canadian RSM. However, this finding is in agreement with the reports of Kiiskinen (1983), Leeson et al. (1987), and Summers et al. (1988). Salmon (1979) also reported that inclusion up to 30% RSM in turkey chick diets did not affect mean live weight gain of poults.

Feeds and Nutrition


Mean Daily Dry Matter Efficiency Ratio (DMER). The DMER resulting from feeding the six treatment rations are presented in table 3. There was significant (P<0.05) differences between treatment groups. The diet containing 25% RSM showed the highest DMER even though it was not significantly different from birds fed 20% RSM. Diets containing 5% and 10% RSM had no significant differences. Diets containing 15% RSM had no significant differences from the diets containing 20% RSM and 0% RSM.

DMER of chicks fed on rations containing 20 and 25% RSM was significantly higher (p<0.05) than those fed on the diets containing 0-15% RSM. The better efficiency of feed utilisation of the chicks fed on the diets containing higher levels (20 and 25%) of RSM, over those fed on low level (0-10%) seems to be contrary to the results reported by Salmon (1979). He suggested either ME value used for RSM in calculating the diets over estimated the ME actually present in the meal or that the ME value of other dietary ingredients were underestimated. However, the present results agree with the findings of Blair et al. (1986) and Leeson et al. (1987). Karunajeewa et al. (1990) also observed significant improvement when chicks were given the diets containing 22.35 and 29.80% RSM in the finisher phase, despite these chicks being less well-feathered than the other groups. There are a number of reports indicating good availability of the amino acids in canola meal (Likuski and Dorrell, 1978; Muztar and Slinger, 1980; Salmon, 1984). The reports of Summers and Leeson (1986) and Summers et al. (1989) also suggest that canola protein can meet the sulphur amino acid requirement of the growing chick without methionine supplementation.

The results of this experiment are in agreement with earlier Swedish work with broiler chicks (Thomke et al., 1983; Elwinger and Saterby, 1986) which indicated that at least 20% of LG-RSM may be used without any adverse effect on growth and feed efficiency.

Mortality. There were no statistically significant differences (P>0.05) in mortality between the treatments during the experimental period (Table 3). The incidence of mortality was lower for chick's fed on diets containing 10% & above RSM diets compared with those on the control diet (T1) and 5% RSM (T2) though not



significant. On the other side damp droppings were encountered in birds on diets containing higher amounts of BDY.

Feed cost per kg live weight gain. In poultry production, the producer's goal is to achieve maximum growth with least cost feed. As shown in Table 3 there was highly significant differences (P<0.01) between the treatments. Birds fed on the ration with the highest RSM (25%) costed the least for each unit of live weight gain. The control (commercial feed) had the highest cost per unit gain.

Generally, the result of this study clearly showed that RSM could safely and economically included up to 25% in broilers finisher ration.

Table 1: Diet formulation and chemical composition of treatment rations used in this study.

Ingredients T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

Rape seed meal (RSM) 0 5 10 15 20 25

Brewery dried yeast (BDY) 19.7 15 12 9 7.5 4.5

Sorghum 17.8 30 30 25 20 18

Corn 50 40 40 40 50 50

Noug seed cake (NSC) -- 2.5 5.5 -- -- --

Wheat short 10 -- -- 8.5 -- --

ME, Kcal/kg 3117 3141 3147 3107 3113 3147

CP, % 19.6 19.7 19.6 19.5 19.5 19.7

CF, % 2.65 3.01 4.06 3.69 3.68 4.07

N.B. Bone meal and salt included at 2% and 0.5% respectively. Vitamin premix given Via drinking water as prescribed by the manufacturers.

Feeds and Nutrition


Table 2: The chemical composition of feed ingredients used in the treatment ration.

Ingredients DM a CP a CF a EE a Ash a Ca a MEb

Corn, White dent, (Zea mays), grnd.

89.46 11.21 1.94 4.21 1.58 0.11 3340

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), grnd.

89.56 10.24 2.56 3.20 1.70 0.037 3270

Noug seed cake (Guizotia abyssinica), mech.ext.

92.53 30.09 21.41 8.41 15.02 0.67 2607

Rapeseed meal (Brassica napus), mech. ext.

94.33 37.80 10.60 8.99 9.03 0.67 2620

Brewer’s yeast, dried 91.75 50.67 2.63 0.46 5.02 0.14 3538

Wheat short 90.19 18.47 7.00 2980

Bone meal (steam ground) 91.73 10.26 - - 71.5 24.71 -

a % / Kg DM of feed stuff sample. b Kcal and estimated using Wiseman (1987) formula.

Table 3: Performance of broiler finishers fed diets with increasing levels of RSM

Treatment DDMI, g DBWG, g DMER I:G Mort., % FC/Kwg, $

0% RSM 33.13 c 8.76 d 0.27 c 3.69 bc 9.21 3.25 a

5% RSM 50.78 b 11.31 c 0.22 d 4.53 a 9.21 2.60 b

10% RSM 49.89 b 11.36 c 0.23 d 4.39 a 5.26 2.16 c

15% RSM 68.37 a 19.19 b 0.28 bc 3.56 bcd 7.9 1.72 d

20% RSM 74.62 a 22.85 ab 0.31 ab 3.27 cd 6.58 1.59 de

25% RSM 76.16 a 24.61 a 0.33 a 3.09 d 6.58 1.31 e

F-test ** * * * Ns **

C. V., % 6.78 9.74 4.62 4.85 24.75 3.45

Reference Albino, L. F. T., Michelan, F. T., Fialho, E. T., and Gomes, P. C. 1982. Use of rapeseed

oil meal as a substitute for soybean oils meal in rations for broiler chicks. Nutr. Abstr. Rev. 53:4351.

Association of Official Analytical Chemists (A.O.A.C.). 1975. Official methods for analysis.11th ed. AOAC, Washington, D.C.

Blair, R., Misir, R., Bell, J. M., and Clandinin, D. R. 1986. Chemical composition and nutritive value for chickens of meal from recent cultivars of Canola. Poult. Sci. 65:295.

Clandinin, D. R. Renner, R. and Robblee, A. R. 1959. Rapeseed meal studies: 1. Effects of variety of rapeseed of processing temperature on the nutritive value and



chemical composition of rapeseed meal. Poult. Sci. 38:1367-1372.

Clandinin, D. R. and Robblee, A. R. 1966. Rapeseed meal for poultry: A review. World's Poult.Sci. J. 22:217-232.

Clandinin, D. R., Rabble, A. R., Harden, R. T., and Arlington, K.1983. 7th progress report, research on canola seed, oil meal and meat fraction. Pp 5-6, Canal Council of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Pub. No. 61.

Dagger, N. J. and Sell, J. L. 1982. Amino acid supplementation of yeast's Single-cell protein for growing Chicken. Poult. Sci. 61:337-344.

Duncan, D. B. 1955. Multiple range and F-tests. Biometrics. 11:1-42.

Elwinger, K. and Saterby, B. 1986. Continued experiments with rapeseed meal of a Swedish LG Type fed to poultry. Swedish J. Agric. Res. 16:27.

Fenwick, G. R. and Curtis, R. F. 1980. Rapeseed meal and its use in poultry diet. A review. Anim. Feed Sci. Techn.5: 255-298.

Fenwick, G. R., Spinks, E. A., Wilkinson, A. P., Heaney, R. K. and Legoy, M. A. 1986. Effects of processing on the anti nutrient content of rapeseed. J. Sci. Food Agric. 37:735-741.

Hulan, H. W., Proudfoot, R. G. and MCRAE, K. B. 1980. The nutritional value of tower and candle rapeseed meals for turkey broilers housed under different lighting conditions. Poult. Sci. 59: 100-109.

Hulan, H. W., and Proudfoot, R. G. 1981. Replacement of soybean meal in chicken broiler diets by rapeseed meal and fishmeal as complementary protein sources. Cand. J. Anim. Sci. 61:991.

Karunajeewa, H., Ijagbuji, E. G., and Reece, R. C. 1990. Effect of dietary levels of RSM and polyethylene glycol on the performance of male broiler chicks. Brit. Poult. Sci.31: 545.

Kiiskinen, T. 1983. The effect of diets supplemented with Regent rapeseed meal on performance broiler chicks. Ann. Agric. Fenn. 22:206.

Larsen, P. O. 1981. Glucosinolates. PP 501-526. In: Stumpt, P. K. and Conn, E. E. (ed.) The Biochemistry of plants. A comprehensive Treatise, Vol. 7, Secondary plants products. Academic presses New York.

Lesslie, A. J. and Summers, J. D. 1972. Feeding value of rapeseed for laying hens. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 52: 563-566.

Lesson, S., Atteh, J. O., and Summers J. D. 1987. The replacement value of canola

Feeds and Nutrition


meal for soybean meal in poultry diets. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 67: 151-158.

Likuski, H. J. A. and Borrell, H. G. 1978. A bioassay for rapid determination of amino acid availability values. Poult. Sci. 57:1658.

Ministry of State Farms Development. 1986. State farms sub-sector review. Vol. II. Production of crops, Addis Ababa.

Muztar, A. J. and Slinger, S. J. 1980. Apparent amino acid availability and apparent metabolizable energy value of Tower and Candle rapeseed and rapeseed meal. Poult. Sci.59: 1430.

Negussie, A. 1990. Yield and yield components of Ethiopian mustard and rapeseed as affected by some agronomic practices. M. Sc. Thesis. AUA. Alemaya, Ethiopia.

Oluyemi, J. A. and Roberts, F. A. 1979. Poultry production in tropical climates. The Macillan Press, LTD, London.

Pekerten, B. and Ergul, M. 1981. Rapeseed meal in feeds for Chicken. Nutr. Abstr. Rev. 53:1062. Proudfoot, F. G., Hulan, H. W. and McRAE, K. B. 1983. The effect of diets supplemented with tower and/or candle rapeseed meals on performance of meat chickens breeders. Cand. J. Anim. Sci. 62:239-247.

Röbbelin, G. and Thies, W. 1980. Variation in Rapeseed glucosinolates and breeding for improved meal quality. Pp. 285. 299. In: Brassica Crops and Wild Allies Biology and Breeding. Japan Scientific Societies Press. Tokyo, Japan.

Salmon, R. E. 1979. Low glucosinolate rapeseed meal in turkey broiler diets of varying nutrient density Poult. Sci. 58: 1514-1523.

Salmon, R. E., 1984. True metabolizable energy and total available amino acids of Candle, Altex and Regent Canola meals. Poult. Sci. 63:135.

Sorensen, H. 1990. Glucosinolates: Structural properties, function. PP 149-172 In: Sahidi, F. ed. Canola and Rapeseed production, chemistry, Nutrition and processing technology. 1st ed. Van Nostran Reinhold; Newyork, NY.

Statistical Analysis System Institute, Inc. 1984. Statistical Methods. SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, N.C. Summers, J. D. and Leeson, S. 1985. Mineral profile of canola and soybean meal Cand. J. Anim. Sci. 65: 913-919.

Summers, J. D., Spratt, D. and Bedford, M. 1992. Sulphur and Calcium Supplementation of Soybean meal and Canola Meal diets. Cand. J. Anim. Sci. 72:127-133.



Summers, J. D. 1986. Energy, a critical nutrient for growing pullets and laying hens. Maryland Nutrition conference for feed manufacturers. pp 21-26.

Summers, J. D., Spratt, D. and Leeson, S. 1989. Utilization of Ca in rapeseed supplemented laying diets. Cand. J. Anim. Sci.68: 1315-1317.

Teshome, S. 1988. Studies on inclusion rate of rapeseed meal as animal feed. Annual Research report, 1987/88. D/Zeit Agricultural Research Center. Ethiopia.

Thomas, V. M., Katz, R. J., Auld, D. A., Petersen, S. F., Sauter, E. A. and Steel, E. E. 1983. Nutritive value of expeller extracted rape and saf flower oil seed meals for poultry. Poult. Sci.62:882.

White, W. B. and Balloun, S. L. 1977. The value of methanol derived single cell protein for broilers. Poult. Sci. 56:266-273.

Wiseman, J. 1987. Meeting nutritional requirement from available resources. In: Feeding of non-ruminant animals. Translated and ed. by J. Wiseman. Butterworth and C. Ltd.

Zuprizal, M. L., and Chagneau, A. M. 1992. Effect of age and sex on true digestibility of amino acids of rapeseed meal and soybean meal in growing broilers. Poult. Sci. 11:189.


Evaluation of the effect of cutting height on dm forage yield and quality of Napier grass (pennisetum purpureum) in northeastern part of Wello. Samuel Menbere and Mesfin Dejene

Sirinka Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 74, Woldia, Ethiopia

Abstract

The Dry matter (DM) yield and quality (leaf part proportion and CP) performance of four pennisetum lines at six different cutting height were evaluated in northeastern part of Wello for three consecutive years. Best line and cutting height were identified based on total dry matter yield, leaf proportion and CP yield per ha. It was found that ILCA 14984 produced significantly (P<0.01) higher leaf proportion of 72.5% with the second highest total DM yield of 10.47t/ha. Followed by Holetta X, with leaf proportion and total DM yield of 68.26% and 10.11t/ha respectively. While the other lines gave proportion of leaf ranging from 64.10% to 65.39%. Cutting height had shown significant (P<0.01) effect on total DM yield and leaf proportion. Among the cutting heights studied, harvesting at 1.5m of height produce the highest total DM yield of 12.16t/ha with leaf proportion of 68.29%. However, significantly (P<0.01) higher leaf proportion of 77.46% was obtained at 1.25m of height. While the other cutting heights produced a total DM yield ranging from 8.67-11.90t/ha. Except on DM content (%), both cutting height and Pennisetum line had not significant effect on nutrient content. However, harvesting at 1.5m and control (harvesting after one year of establishment) height gave the highest CP yield (0.45t/ha) and DM content (24.38%) respectively. Among the evaluated Pennisetum lines Sirinka Y gave the highest CP yield (0.44t/ha). Therefore, based on the total DM yield, leaf part proportion and CP yield performance; the optimum cutting height of pennisetum lines in the northeastern part of Wello is 1.5m. The best pennisetum line in overall performance was ILCA No. 14984 followed by Sirinka Y line.



Further studies should be carried out to evaluate additional pure and hybrid lines for better DM yield and chemical composition.

Keywords: Cutting height, leaf proportion, total dry matter, pennisetum line, Crude protein

Introduction Pennisetum purpureum Schumach (Napier grass also called elephant grss) is a

native grass to sub tropical Africa and now introduced in to tropical and sub tropical countries (Skerman and Rivers 1990). It produces the highest dry matter yield (Hsu et al. 1985) and it is highly palatable in leafy stage (Tiley 1989). It survives drought quite well when established because of its deep root system (Skerman and Rivers 1990). The productivity of this grass is influenced to a large extent by harvest management (Kanyama and Bdje 1982). Especially the growth height or stage at which the grass is harvested has significant effect on total dry matter production and as well on the composition or quality of leaf proportion of the product.

In most tropical grasses dry matter and nutritive quality is primarily affected by the way of management mostly by stage of harvest. As the harvesting stage is delayed indigestible structural carbohydrates such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignine will dominate much of the nutrient in the forage yield. Silva (1965) reported that the cellulose content and in vitro digestibility of Napier grass decreased with age. While Forseca et al. (1965) studied the in vivo digestibility of Napier grass and found that the digestibility co-efficient and content decreased with the age whereas the fiber content increased.

This is an excellent grass for backyard forage plots under good management. It is also very good for planting on contour strips and in gullies to control soil erosion (Alemayehu 1997). Moreover, local farmers in Buganda have appreciated the soil regenerating effect of this grass for a long time (Boonman 1993).

In the past years different ILCA accessions and local lines of Napier grass were evaluated for their adaptability under northeastern Wello environmental condition. ILCA. 14983, ILCA. 14984, Holetta X and Sirinka Y lines were accessions selected for their best adaptation.

Feeds and Nutrition


In order to understand the management system of these new lines of napier grasses, experiments were conducted, for three years, to identify productive Pennisetum line and to determine the optimum harvesting height for highest dry matter forage production with maximum quality (leaf proportion and CP).

Materials and methods The trial was conducted in northeastern Wello at Sirinka Agricultural Research

Center. Sirinka is located at 11.830 N and 39.680 E. The site situated at 1850 m.a.s.l. with mean annual rainfall of 950 mm, and a mean maximum and minimum temperature 26.34 and 13.43 oC respectively. The grasses were planted on July 9, 1996, July 7, 1997 and July 13, 1998 on eutric vertisol soil by using root splits with out fertilizer application. The planting materials were planted in a well prepared holes separated by spacing of 0.5m and 0.2m between rows and plants respectively. Each plot has an area of 5.0m by 2.75m, and therefore consisted of 40 plants.

0255075

100125150175200225250275300

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DECMonths

Rai

nfal

l (m

m.)

19 years 1996-98

Figure 1: Average distribution of rainfall during experimental period (1996-98) and for 19 years (1982-98) at Sirinka.

Four lines of Napier grasses including Sirinka Y, Holetta X, ILCA. 14983 and 14984 were used. These lines were evaluated under five different cutting heights (1.0m, 1.25m, 1.5m, 1.75m, 2.0m) and the control was harvested after one year of establishment. The design was 4 by 6 split plot in randomize complete block with



three replications. The lines were put in the main plot and cutting heights in the sub plots.

All the plots were cut according to the assigned treatments. On cutting, the middle rows were harvested. Fresh weight and plant height were measured. Leaf and stem parts were separated in order to determine the proportion of leaf and stem part. Fresh sample were taken from both botanical parts and put in the drought oven at 105 oC for 24 hours to determine dry matter content and leaf/stem proportion. Representative Dry sample of leaf part were ground through 1mm screen and analysed for Ash and CP (AOAC 1980), neutral and acid deteregent fiber, and organic matter (Van Soest and Robertson 1985).

Detail weather data including rainfall and temperature were recorded during the experimental periods and presented in figure 1 and 2. Finally the collected data were analyzed using ANOVA by Genstat statistical software (Genstat 1993)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Months

Trm

pera

ture

(oC

)

Mean Max (6 years) Mean Max(1996-97)

Mean Min(6 years) Mean Min(1996-97)

Figure 2: Average maximum and minimum temperature during experimental period (1996-

98) and for 6 years (1992-98) at Sirinka.

Results and discussion Forage yield. Leaf DM yield and leaf proportion difference of the three

experimental years were significant (P<0.05). Highest mean leaf DM yield (11.39t/ha) and leaf proportion (74.74%) were obtained on the first year (Table 1).

Feeds and Nutrition


Table 1: Mean forage DM yield (t/ha) and botanical proportion (%) of the experimental years

DM, yield Botanical proportion Years

Total Leaf Stem Leaf Stem

1996

1997

1998

MSE

15.39

8.38

7.76

200.17

11.39A*

5.06B

4.98B

93.75

4.00

3.33

2.78

21.56

74.74A

61.34B

66.31B

172.4

25.26B

38.36A

33.69A

172.4 * Means in a column with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05)

Dry matter (DM) yield and botanical proportion of pennisetum lines over each experimental years are given in Table 2. Total and leaf DM yield of tested lines varied from 9.7-11.78t/ha and 6.59-7.70t/ha, with a mean yield of 10.51 and 7.14t/ha respectively. However, the total and leaf DM yields difference of these lines both in total and leaf were not significant.

Differences in DM yield of leaf and stem proportions among the four pennisetum lines were significant (P<0.01) and (P<0.05) respectively. ILCA. 14984 gave the highest mean leaf proportion (72.5%). The heights mean DM stem yield (4.07t/ha) was obtained from Sirinka Y in three experimental years (Table 2).

All pennisetum lines gave highest total and leaf DM yield on the first experimental year. Accordingly, Sirinka Y and ILCA. 14984 gave mean total DM yield of 16.17 and 15.65t/ha on the first year respectively. Especially, ILCA. 14984 gave significantly (P<0.05) higher leaf proportion of 76.92%, 70.39% and 70.20% on the first, second and third years respectively (Table 2).

ILCA. 14984 was the best line for its highest mean leaf proportion of 72.50% when its second highest total DM yield of 10.46t/ha was taken in to consideration (Table 2). In similar study Seyoum et al. (1998) reported that ILCA. 14984 produced the highest annual DM yield of 5.40t/ha as compared to different pennisetum hybrids.

The number of harvest and leaf proportion declines as the cutting height or interval increases. It is obvious that cutting interval and height have direct relation, as the harvesting interval increases the height at which the grass is harvested also increases. Therefore, as the cutting height or interval increases the total DM yield will increase with smaller proportion of leaf part. Hsu et al. (1989) reported that



both fresh and dry matter yields were increased when the grass were harvested at maximum height or long interval.

Table 2: Mean forage DM yield (t/ha) and botanical proportion (%) of Pennisetum lines across each experimental years

DM, yield Botanical proportion Pennisetum

lines Year

Total Leaf Stem Leaf Stem

Holetta X

1996

1997

1998

14.96

8.01

7.34

11.29

4.66

4.77

3.67BCD*

3.35BCD

2.57D

76.29AB

59.77E

68.73BC

23.71DE

40.33A

31.27CD

Line Mean 10.11 6.91 3.20B 68.26AB 31.74AB

ILCA 14983 1996

1997

1998

14.79

6.81

7.49

11.65

3.90

4.22

3.14CD

2.90CD

3.27CD

77.51A

55.66E

59.12E

22.49E

44.34A

40.88A

Line Mean 9.70 6.59 3.10B 64.10B 35.90A

ILCA 14984 1996

1997

1998

15.65

7.00

8.75

11.59

4.64

5.85

4.06ABC

2.36D

2.90CD

76.92A

70.39ABC

70.20ABC

23.08E

29.61CDE

29.80CDE

Line Mean 10.46 7.36 3.11B 72.50A 27.50B

Sirinka Y 1996

1997

1998

16.17

11.71

7.46

11.03

7.02

5.06

5.14A

4.68AB

2.40D

68.25C

60.75DE

67.19CD

31.75C

39.25AB

32.81BC

Line Mean 11.78 7.70 4.07A 65.39B 34.61A

Over all Mean 10.51 7.14 3.37 67.56 32.44

MSE 21.74 11.71 3.211 101.5 101.5

*Means in a column with different letters are significantly different (P<0.01).

In spite of these facts, the mean total DM yield of the six cutting heights varied from 8.67-12.16t/ha, moreover the leaf part proportion varied from 61.84-77.46%. Differences among cutting heights were significant (P<0.01) in terms of total DM yield. Cutting height of 1.5m gave the highest total DM yield of 12.16t/ha followed by cutting height of 1.75m that produced total DM yield of 11.90t/ha (Table 3). Harvesting at a height of 1.25m oroduced more leaf part compared to the other cutting heights. Thus cutting height of 1.25m showed significantly (P<0.01) highest leaf proportion (77.46%). Moreover, harvesting after one year of establishment (control) produced significantly (P<0.01) higher stem (38.16%) proportion (Table 3).

Feeds and Nutrition


Table 3: Effect of cutting height (m.) on mean forage DM yield (t/ha) and botanical proportion (%)

DM, yield Botanical proportion Cutting

heights Total Leaf Stem Leaf Stem

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

Control

MSE

8.67B

8.68B

12.16A

11.90A

11.46AB

10.19AB

23.26

6.47

6.87

8.37

7.60

7.17

6.36

12.11

2.20B

1.81B

3.78A

4.30A

4.29A

3.84A

3.909

73.07AB

77.46A

68.29BC

62.72C

62.01C

61.84C

138.5

26.93BC

22.54C

31.71AB

37.28A

37.99A

38.16A

138.5

*Means in a column with different letters are significantly different (P<0.01).

This study clearly indicates that harvesting of pennisetum lines at a height 1.5m gave a highest mean leaf proportion of 68.29% and significantly (P<0.01) higher total DM yield (12.16t/ha). On similar study, Tiley (1989) reported that cutting of Napier grass at 1.5m growth stage was considered as the best practical compromise.

There were no significant interactions between pennisetum line and cutting height for all parameters considered. However, Table 4 clearly indicates that harvesting ILCA 14984 at 1.5m of height gave the highest mean total and leaf DM yield of 13.26 and 9.97t/ha respectively with leaf proportion of 79.11% as compared with the other Pennisetum lines.

Forage quality. The nutritional value of each Pennisetum line across each cutting height is presented in Table 5. The DM content obtained in this study is similar to the result reported by other authors, where a Dry matter content increases with increase of cutting height (Seyoum 1998). In spite of this fact, cutting height had shown significant (P<0.05) effect on the DM content. Accordingly, harvesting at control (after one year of establishment) height gave the highest DM content of 24.38%. While Pennisetum lines had not shown significant effect on the DM content.



Table 4: Mean forage DM yield (t/ha) and botanical proportion (%)of each cutting height (m.) across each Pennisetum lines

DM, yield Botanical proportion Cutting height

Pennisetum

Line Total Leaf Stem Leaf Stem

1.00

Holetta X

ILCA 14983

ILCA 14984

Sirinka Y

7.92

8.60

8.49

9.68

5.89

6.20

6.99

6.79

2.04

2.40

1.49

2.89

72.76

66.58

80.82

72.14

27.24

33.42

19.18

27.86

1.25

Holetta X

ILCA 14983

ILCA 14984

Sirinka Y

9.01

8.07

7.56

10.09

7.32

6.33

5.75

8.08

1.69

1.73

1.81

2.01

77.49

74.35

80.49

77.49

22.51

25.65

19.51

22.51

1.50

Holetta X

ILCA 14983

ILCA 14984

Sirinka Y

13.62

8.83

13.26

12.91

9.08

5.83

9.97

8.62

4.55

3.00

3.29

4.30

67.31

64.40

79.11

62.36

32.69

35.60

20.89

37.64

1.75 Holetta X

ILCA 14983

ILCA 14984

Sirinka Y

8.78

12.56

13.76

12.49

5.52

7.97

9.18

7.73

3.26

4.59

4.58

4.76

66.31

55.70

65.70

63.15

33.69

44.30

34.30

36.85

2.00 Holetta X

ILCA 14983

ILCA 14984

Sirinka Y

11.51

9.03

10.88

14.43

7.68

6.07

6.65

8.38

3.83

2.96

4.32

6.05

64.71

63.10

61.19

59.04

35.29

36.90

38.81

40.96

Control Holetta X

ILCA 14983

ILCA 14984

Sirinka Y

9.78

11.10

8.85

11.04

5.96

7.15

5.70

6.61

3.82

3.95

3.15

4.43

61.00

60.47

67.71

58.20

39.00

39.53

32.29

41.80

MSE 23.01 12.48 3.72 108.1 108.1

Feeds and Nutrition


Table 5: Effect of Pennisetum lines and cutting height (m.) on chemical composition (%)

Pennisetum lines Cutting height

Sirinka Y Holetta X ILCA 14983 ILCA 14984

Cutting height mean

DM content (%) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 Control

20.42 21.60 21.09 22.35 24.30 24.20

20.23 21.62 21.30 20.92 21.60 24.04

20.53 19.90 23.33 27.06 24.33 25.66

21.43 21.01 23.14 21.06 21.97 23.60

20.65B 21.03B 22.21AB 22.85AB 23.05AB 24.38A

Line mean 22.33 21.62 23.47 22.03 Ash content (%) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 Control

22.26 23.92 23.99 22.47 22.23 20.51

20.51 20.41 22.74 23.12 21.91 16.91

22.94 27.53 21.32 25.58 25.20 25.00

21.52 23.45 21.36 20.76 20.58 23.78

21.81 23.83 22.35 22.98 22.48 21.55

Line mean 22.53 20.93 24.60 21.91 OM content (%) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 Control

77.74 76.08 76.01 77.53 76.77 77.69

79.49 79.59 77.26 76.88 78.09 83.09

77.06 72.47 78.68 74.42 74.80 75.00

78.48 76.55 78.64 79.24 79.42 76.22

78.19 76.17 77.65 77.02 77.27 78.00

Line mean 76.97 79.07 75.41 78.09 CP content (%) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 Control

5.19 5.69 5.87 6.44 5.94 5.06

6.44 5.50 5.37 5.69 5.94 5.31

6.00 5.19 5.44 5.06 6.00 4.56

4.87 5.62 4.87 5.12 5.50 5.06

5.63 5.50 5.39 5.58 5.85 5.00

Line mean 5.70 5.71 5.38 5.17 NDF content (%) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 Control

64.21 61.25 59.09 60.86 58.36 62.34

64.82 63.95 62.61 61.60 63.31 68.83

60.49 57.96 61.47 59.75 61.29 60.59

62.72 60.69 66.75 61.27 64.24 59.25

63.06 62.96 62.48 60.87 61.80 62.75

Line mean 61.02 64.19 60.26 62.49 ADF content (%) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 Control

35.11 33.68 31.99 31.57 31.52 32.82

35.99 35.09 35.01 34.69 33.98 37.15

33.52 30.69 33.08 33.41 33.50 33.07

35.76 34.63 36.75 33.37 35.27 33.05

35.10 33.52 34.21 33.26 33.57 34.02

Line mean 32.78 35.32 32.88 34.81 *Means in a column with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05).



Both Pennisetum line and cutting heights have not shown significant effect on Ash, Organic matter (OM) and Crude protein (CP) content.

Nevertheless, among the evaluated cutting heights harvesting at 1.25m, 1.0m and 2.0m heights gave highest Ash, OM and CP content of 23.83%, 78.19% and 5.84% respectively. Moreover, among the tested Pennisetum lines, ILCA 14983 gave the highest Ash content of 24.60%, while Holetta X produced the highest OM and CP content of 79.07% and 5.71% respectively (Table 5). Seyoum et al (1998) and Hsu et al (1989) reported that the ash and CP content decline as the cutting height increases. However, in this study the trend was not similar with the other authors, this might be due to long storage time of the plant sample before analysis.

Table 6: Effect of Pennisetum lines and cutting height (m.) on Crude protein (CP) and Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) yield (t/ha)

Pennisetum lines Cutting height

Sirinka Y Holetta X ILCA 14983 ILCA 14984 Cutting height

mean

CP yield

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

Control

0.35

0.46

0.51

0.50

0.50

0.33

0.38

0.37

0.49

0.31

0.46

0.32

0.37

0.33

0.32

0.40

0.36

0.33

0.34

0.32

0.49

0.47

0.37

0.29

0.36

0.37

0.45

0.42

0.42

0.32

Line mean 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.38

NDF yield

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

Control

4.36

4.95

5.09

4.70

4.89

4.12

3.82

4.68

5.68

3.40

4.86

4.10

3.75

3.67

3.58

4.76

3.72

4.33

4.38

3.49

6.65

5.62

4.27

3.38

4.08

4.20

5.25

4.62

4.44

3.98

Line mean 4.69 4.43 3.97 4.63

Pennisetum line and cutting height had no significant effect on NDF and ADF content. Among the evaluated Pennisetum lines Holetta X had 64.19% NDF and 35.32% ADF while ILCA 14983 and Sirinka Y showed 60.26% NDF and 32.78% ADF respectively. Moreover, harvesting at 1.0m of height produced more NDF

Feeds and Nutrition


(63.06%) and ADF (35.10%), while harvesting at 1.75m of height gave proportionally less NDF (60.87%) and ADF (33.26%).

The CP and NDF yield of each cutting height and Pennisetum line is presented in Table 6. The effect of cutting height and Pennisetum lines on the CP and NDF yield were not significant. Among the tested Pennisetum lines Sirinka Y gave the highest CP and NDF yield of 0.44t/ha 4.69t/ha respectively (Table 6) while harvesting at 1.5m of height gave the highest CP and NDF yield of 0.45t/ha and 5.25t/ha respectively.

Conclusions and Recommendation Pennisetum purpureum (Napier grass) line with higher leaf/stem proportion had

better forage quality (Hsu et al. 1989). Alcanter, (1986) also showed that DM forage yield in Napier grass increased with increasing cutting height. Our result also showed that Pennisetum line cut to produce maximum DM yield, leaf proportion and CP would be selected and recommended. Mwakha, (1972) also indicated that harvesting at minimum cutting height favored maximum production of utilizable DM forage by Napier grass.

Among the evaluated pennisetum lines, ILCA 14984 was the best for its highest total DM yield and leaf proportion, while Sirinka Y was the best for its highest CP yield. Moreover, cutting height of 1.5m produced the highest total and leaf DM and CP yields. Harvesting ILCA 14984 and Sirinka Y at 1.5m. of height would give better DM forage yield both in quantity and quality (leaf proportion and CP yield) under northeastern Wello environmental condition.

Acknowledgement We would like to extend our great thanks to Ato Zerihun Tadesse (ILRI), Ato

Girma Taye and Ato Yohannes Tilahun (EARO) for their valuable help on the data analysis. We would like also to thank Ato Mesfin Lakew, Ato Yohannis Alemu, Ato Ayalew Wudu and Ato Belaye Tadesse for their assistance and collaboration in data collection. We also extend our thanks to all staff at Forage genetic Resource Department (ILRI) and Feeds and Nutrition Division (Holetta Research Center) for their great collaboration in providing us planting material. Finally, we greatly thank



Ato Dawit Negassa and Mulugeta Habte-Michael, analytical service laboratory, ILRI, for their kind cooperation in the analysis of the plant samples.

References Alcantera V.de. B.G., 1986. A study on cutting frequency in eight Pennisetum

purpureum Schum. cultivars. Herb Abstr. 56: #3606.

Alemayehu Mengistu, 1997. Conservation based forage development. International Institute for Sustainable Development. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 82-83

AOAC, 1980. Official Methods of Analysis 12th edition. Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC), Arlington, VA, USA.

Boonman J.G., 1993. Elephant Grass Husbandry. East Africa Grasses and Fodders: Their Ecology and Husbandry. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp 235-257.

Forseca J.B., Campos J. and Conrad J.H., 1965. Studies on the digestibility of tropical forage by the conventional method. Proc. 9th International Grassland Congress., 1: pp 807-808.

Genstat 5, committee of the statistics department, 1993. Roth Amsted Experimental Station. Lawes Agricultural Trust. Oxford Science publications, CLAENDON press Oxford.

Hsu F.H., K.Y. Hong and M.C. Lee, 1989. Effect Of Cutting Height on Forag Yield Quality Of Napier grasses. International grassland congress. 1: pp 589-590.

Kanyama Phiru G.Y. and O.T. Bdje, 1982. Effect of Cutting Height and Frequency on yield and quality of fodder. Paper presented at the conference on Applied Science for Development. Bunda Coll. Of Agri., Lilongwe, Malawi. pp 206-210

Mwakha E., 1972. Effect of cutting frequency on productivity of Napier and Guatimala grasses in western Kenya. East Africa Agric. and Forestry J. : pp 206-210.

Seyoum Bediye, Zinash Seleshi, Tadesse T/Tsadik and Liyusew Ayalew, 1998. Evaluation of Napier (Pennisetum purpureum) and Pennisetum hybrids (Pennisetum purpureum x Pennisetum typhoides) in the central Highlands of Ethiopia. Proc. 5th Conference of ESAP: pp 194-202.

Silva D.J.da Conrad J.H and Campos J., 1965. Digestibility in vitro of some tropical forages. Proc. 9th International Grassland Congress., 1: pp 895-897.

Skerman P.J. and F. Reverso, 1990. Tropical Grasses.Food and Agricultural Organsation of the United Nation (FAO), Roma, Italy PP 832.

Feeds and Nutrition


Tiley G.E.D., 1989. Factors Affecting the Productivity of Elephant grass. International grass land congress. 1: p 599-600.

Van Soest P.J. and Robertson J.B., 1985. Forage fiber analysis (apparatus reagent procedures and some applications) Agricultural handbook No. 379 Agricultural Services.


Forage yield performance and the residual effect of undersown forage crops on maize grain and residue yields Diriba Geleti and Lemma Gizachew

Bako Research Center, P.O.Box 3, Western Shewa, Ethiopia

Abstract

The study was conducted with the objective of assessing the feasibility of undersowing planted forage crops in maize and its effect on forage, maize grain and residue yields. Pure grass (Chloris gayana), pure legumes (Desmodium intortum, Stylosanthes guianensis and Macrotyloma axillare) and the mixture of these three legumes with Chloris gayana were drilled between the rows of maize after six weeks of maize planting. Significant treatment effects were observed for maize grain yield (P<0.01), residue yield (P<0.001), legume DM yield (P<0.05), grass DM (P<0.01) and total forage (P<0.001) for the 1993 cropping season. During the 1994, highly significant (P<0.001) treatment effect was also observed for legume, grass and total forage yields. The same was true for grain and maize residue. Variation between treatments for legume, grass and total forage yields in 1995 was also significant. During 1996, all the plots were planted to maize and for grain and residue yields, treatment differences were highly significant (P<0.001).

Significantly highest grain yield ( 7.6 t ha-1) was obtained from the maize plots which were undersown to Stylosanthes during the 1993 cropping season. Maize stover, on the other hand was highest (11.17 t ha-1) for those plots which were sown to Macrotyloma axillare. Among the forage legumes, Macrotyloma was the highest forage DM yielder (2.9 t ha-1). Natural pasture fallow plots gave the highest (4.68 t ha-1) grass DM followed by Rhodes harvested from the plots which were undersown to Rhodes/Stylo mixture. During the 1994 and 1995 cropping seasons, overall total forage yield was highest for Rhodes /Stylosanthes mixture plots (16.48 t ha-1) and for those plots which were under pure Rhodes. In 1996,



during which all the plots were planted to maize, grain yield was highest (7.13 t ha-1) for the plots which were under Desmodium intortum, followed by those which received recommended level of fertilizer (6.71 t ha-1) The same trend was also observed for maize grain yield. This study obviously suggested the possibility of exploiting short-term forage legume-cereal rotations where the farmer can gain the benefits of forage legumes to grain production. If developed in to an intervention that can be implemented, this approach could be of an immense value to the animal and crop enterprises in mixed farming systems of the sub-humid areas of western Ethiopia.

Introduction The mid-altitude western region of Ethiopia is characterized by a mixed crop and

livestock farming system (Legesse et al, 1987). As a result of rapid population growth, continuous cropping of crop lands with minimum recycling of nutrients is becoming common. Nutrients from crop lands are removed in the form of grain which s used for human consumption, and crop residues which are used for animal feeding particularly during the early months of the dry season immediately after grain harvest. This coupled with low soil improvement measures has resulted in decline of soil fertility, deterioration of soil physical and chemical properties and decrease in total agricultural productivity. As soils in densely populated monocropped mid and highlands of Ethiopia are inherently low in fertility, farmers apply inorganic fertilizers to most agricultural crops but at low and sub-optimum levels due to financial problems.

Integrating leguminous forage crops (Gryseels and Anderson, 1983: Tothill, 1986; Adugna and Said, 1992) and their mixtures with grasses in to the cereal cropping system could be used as an alternative strategy for optimizing the productivity of a given land use system (Adugna and Said, 1992; Mohammed-saleem and Otsyina, 1986; Kouame et al, 1993). Forage legumes can enhance soil fertility, improve yields and nutritive value of harvested products and sustain food and feed production (Mohammed-saleem, 1985; Garba and Renard, 1991). The approach also optimizes the use of labor and land, and reduces the cost of inputs required for establishing improved forages. It also substantially contributes towards alleviating livestock feed

Feeds and Nutrition


shortage of mixed farming systems (Kusekwa et al, 1992; Mohammed-saleem, 1986). This study was conducted with the objective of assessing the feasibility of undersowing forage crops in maize, evaluate their subsequent forage yield performance and their residual effect on maize grain and residue yields under Bako condition.

Materials and Methods The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research center from 1993-1996.

The center is located at 09o6’ N latitude, 37o09’ E longitude and 1650 masl. The mean annual rain fall is 1200 mm of whicch more than 80 % is received between may and September. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures of the area are 13.7 and 27.9oC, respectively. The soil belongs to Nitosol series, reddish brown in color, clay to sandy clay loam in texture with pH ranging from 5.3-6. Prior to its use for this study, the experimental field was under the traditional fallow for two years. This study has dealt with undersowing of perennial forage crops in maize. The maize variety used was Beletech, developed by the National Maize Research Program of Bako. Tractor drawn implements were used for land preparation at the opening of the fallow period. In the subsequent years, seed bed preparations for the plots to which maize was being planted were made using a hoe.

Pure grass (Chloris gayana), pure legumes (Desmodium intortum, Stylosanthes guianensis and Macrotyloma axillare) and the mixtures of these three legumes with Rhodes were drilled between the rows of maize after 6 weeks of maize planting. The experimental design used was randomized complete block design with four replications. Each plot measured 4.5 m * 8 m. Inter- and intra row-spacing of 75 cm and 25 cm, respectively was used for maize. For sole grass and sole legume species, a seed rate of 4 kg/ha was used. Maize plots planted to grass and legume mixtures, however, were sown to half seed rate of each forage species constituting the mixture. In forage undersown maize plots the forage seeds were drilled in two rows between the rows of maize at a spacing of 20 cm from the maize and 35 cm from each other. The grass and legume mixtures were spaced similarly but sown in an alternate rows. At the beginning of the study (1993), except the fallow plots and the one which was not fertilized continuously, all treatments received recommended



fertilizer rates for maize (75/75 N/P2O5). Diammonium phosphate (DAP) was applied at maize planting while the N source (urea) was applied in two splits; first at maize planting and half at six weeks of maize planting. In 1994 and 1995, maize was planted to the first and the second treatments and fertilizer as in 1993 was applied only in the first treatment. During the 1996 cropping season, all plots were cultivated by hoe and converted to maize. Those plots which were under the forage crops and the one to which no fertilizer was applied during the 1994 and 1995 did not receive any fertilizer. Sole maize and forage inter-planted maize plots were kept free of weeds manually by hoeing and slashing.

At grain harvest, maize plants from two middle rows were cut at about 12 cm from the ground level. Grass and legume from the traditional fallow and the undersown plots were also cut at about the same height and at 75 percent heading. Maize ears and maize residues were partitioned and weighed in the field. Grain yield was determined following shelling and adjusting the moisture level to 12.5 percent. About 50 percent heading stage was used as a benchmark to harvest the pure grass and the legumes, respectively. Grass and legume mixtures were harvested when either of them reached the above developmental stages. Sub-samples from maize residues, forage crops and traditional fallow were dried in forced draught oven at 65 o C to constant weight and used for the determination of fodder DM yield. Data on residue and DM yield of the undersown forages were subjected to the analysis of variance using MSTATC computer program and significant mean differences were separated using the LSD procedure.

Results and Discussion 1993: establishment phase of forage crops in maize

The 1993 cropping season was the year of establishment for the forage crops under-sown in maize. During this season both maize and forage biomass DM yields were recorded. Mean values for grain, residue, legume and grass DM, and total forage yields for this year are indicated in Table 2. Significantly (P<0.01) highest grain yield (7.64 t ha-1) was obtained from the plots in which maize was under-sown with Stylosanthes guianensis. And the lowest mean grain yield (5.24 t ha-1) was recorded from the control plots to which no fertilizer was applied. On the other hand,

Feeds and Nutrition


significantly (P<0.01) highest total residue DM was obtained from the treatment where maize was under-sown to Macrotyloma axillare The least value for maize residue DM was recorded from the plots to which no fertilizer was applied.

Among the under-sown legumes, highest herbage DM yield was recorded for Macrotyloma axillare followed by Stylosanthes during the 1993 cropping season (Table 2). Lowest legume DM yield was obtained from Rhodes-axillare mixture. Grass DM yield was highest for the fallow plots followed by Rhodes harvested from the plots where Rhodes-Stylosanthes mixture was under-sown to maize. Significantly lowest grass DM yield was obtained from Rhodes-Desmodium mixture plots. Highest overall total fodder yield was recorded from the treatment where maize was under-sown to Rhodes/Stylosanthes mixture; the lowest value being from the fallow ones. Forage DM yield differences between natural fallow, pure Rhodes and Rhodes and Stylosanthes mixture plots was not significant during the 1993 season indicating the possibility of obtaining comparable yield of herbage DM even during the year of establishment from the under-sown forage crops. The result of this study revealed that the performance of the legume species when planted in pure stand under maize was generally better than when their mixture with Rhodes was used which could possibly be due to the competition effect from the grass component. Yield reduction due to competition during the year of establishment might have also been aggravated by the maize crop itself under which the forage crops were sown.

1994-1995: subsequent yield evaluation period for established forages

During these two years, only the first and the second treatments were replanted to maize. The plots to which Rhodes, the legumes and the mixture of Rhodes and the three legumes were sown in 1993 were kept as a pasture. The DM yield of the legumes, the grass and total fodder in 1994 is given in Table 3. During this season, significantly highest (P<0.001) legume DM yield was obtained from the Stylosanthes guianensis plots followed by that of Desmodium intortum. The least legume DM yield value was obtained from Rhodes and Macrotyloma axillare mixture undersown to maize. Significantly highest grass DM yield was obtained from the plots of Rhodes and Macrotyloma mixture followed by the treatment where the mixture of Rhodes and



Stylosanthes was used. Significantly highest overall total forage yield in 1994 was recorded from the Rhodes/Stylo plots followed by the Rhodes/Macrotyloma as shown in Table 3. Grain and stover DM yields for treatment 1 and 2 for the 1994 and 1995 are also given in Table 3. Highest grain and residue yields were obtained from the plots which received the recommended rate of fertilizer (treatment 1). For both grain and residue yields, lower values were recorded from the control plots to which no fertilizer was applied (treatment 2).

Grass, legume and total forage DM yields for the 1995 cropping season are given in Table 3. Highest total grass DM yield was obtained from pure Rhodes plots. This was followed by the mixture of Rhodes and Stylosanthes. Significantly lowest grass DM during this season was recorded for Rhodes grass that was grown in mixture with Macrotyloma axillare. Significantly highest legume DM yield was obtained from pure Stylosanthes plots followed by that of Desmodium. This observation is in fact similar to the one observed during the 1994. The yield of the legume component was nil in the Rhodes/axillare mixture. Highest total forage DM was obtained from the pure Rhodes grass plots. The least total forage yield on the other hand was recorded from the pure Macrotyloma axillare plots.

1996: the residual effect of the different precursor crops on maize grain and residue yields

During 1996, all the plots were planted to maize. Grain and maize residue yields during this cropping season are given in Table 4. Highest grain yield was recorded from the plots that were under Desmodium. The lowest grain yield values were obtained from the plots which were under pure Rhodes grass followed by those which were continuously fertilized. As was for grain, highest stover DM was recorded from the plots which were under Desmodium. On the other hand, the lowest stover biomass was recorded for the plots which were under pure Rhodes. The low grain yield of maize observed from the plots that had been continuously cropped for four years with out fertilizer application was in fact as expected and could be explained by the fact that cultivation tends to damage soil structure by causing rapid decomposition of organic matter, subjecting the soil to accelerated erosion (Kowal and Kassam, 1978). The probable reduction in water use efficiency can also be mentioned as an important factor.

Feeds and Nutrition


In this study, the grain yield of maize in 1996 significantly varied for the different preceding forage crops. On average those plots that were planted to forage legumes gave higher mean grain yield than those plots that were under grass and grass/legume mixtures and those which were being cultivated continuously. Grain yield differences within the plots which were under different legume species were also significant, with the higher value being from those which were under Desmodium intortum followed by Stylosanthes guianensis This finding is in agreement with the reports of Vallis and Gardener (1984) who voiced the effect of a preceding legume in a forage legume-cereal rotation to depend on the performance of the legume species and its biomass production. Nutrient recycling due to death and decay of the soil vegetative cover, soil condition and management practices also play an important role (Vallis and Gardener, 1984). The higher maize grain yield on soils that had previously been under Desmodium could also be attributed to the accumulation of soil nitrogen through the legume N fixation or to improvement of soil physical properties as reported by Mohammed-saleem and Otsyina (1986) and McCall (1990).

Table 1: Description of the treatments used in the present study

Treatment Description

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Pure maize (continuously fertilized)

Pure maize (continuously unfertilized)

Maize + Chloris gayana (Rhodes)

Maize + S.guianensis (Stylo)

Maize + D. intortum (green leaf Desmodium)

Maize + M. axillare (axillaries)

Maize + Rhodes + Stylo

Maize + Rhodes + Desmodium

Maize + Rhodes + axillaries

Natural fallow

Generally, the highest total forage DM obtained from the improved forage crops than natural pasture fallow may encourage small-scale farmers to integrate improved forage crops in to maize based cropping system. Better or comparable grain yield achieved from the plots which were under the improved forage legumes as compared to those that received recommended fertilizer rate is also an important observation that makes this intervention a promising one. This obviously suggests



the possibility of exploiting short- term forage legume-cereal rotations where the farmer can gain the benefits of forage legumes to grain production. If this strategy is disseminated to the farming community, it could be of an immense value to the animal and crop enterprises in mixed farming systems of the sub-humid areas of Western Ethiopia and other areas having similar environments.

Table 2: Effect of under-sowing forage crops in maize on grain (t/ha) and residue (t/ha) yields and DM yield (t/ha) of the under-sown forage crops during the 1993-cropping season

Treatments Grain yield Residue yield

Legume yield Grass yield Total forage

Maize(fertilized) 7.5a 9.37bcd - - 9.37e

Maize (unfertilized) 5.24b 8.00d - - 8.00e

Maize+Rhoodes 6.49ab 10.23abc - 2.99ab 13.36bc

Maize+Stylo 7.64a 9.13cd 2.48ab - 11.52d

Maize+Desmodium 7.29a 9.80abc 2.28ab - 12.08cd

Maize+axillaries 7.52a 11.17a 2.90a - 14.07ab

Maize+Rhodes+Stylo 6.76ab 10.84ab 0.97b 3.29ab 15.10a

Maize+Rhodes+Desmodium 6.49ab 9.08cd 1.20ab 2.09b 12.37cd

Maize+Rhodes+axillaries 5.90ab 9.34bcd 0.96b 2.23b 12.53bcd

Traditional fallow - - - 4.68a 4.68f

P level 0.01 0.001 0.05 0.01 0.001

S. E. 0.45 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.42

S.E: standard error of treatment means; means within column followed by common letters do not significantly vary

Table 3: Dry matter yield of forage crops (t/ha) established by undersowing with maize during the following two years (1994 and 1995) after establishment.

Residue Grain Legumes Grass Total forage

Treatments 1994 1995 1994 1995 1994 1995 1994 1995 1994 1995

Maize (Fertilized) 8.36a 9.21 5.88a 5.93- - - - - 8.36d 9.21b

Maize (Unfertilized) 5.45b 6.70 3.76b 3.84 - - - - 5.45e 6.70cd

Maize+Rhodes - - - -- - - 12.23a 11.74a 12.23c 11.79a

Maize+Stylo - - - - 15.34a 6.70a - - 15.34ab 6.70cd

Maize+Desmodium - - - - 12.93b 6.05a - - 12.93bc 6.05de

Maize+axillaries - - - - 12.73b 3.88b - - 12.73c 3.88e

Maize+Rhodes+Stylo - - - - 2.71c 1.31cd 13.77a 7.54b 16.48a 8.85bc

Maize+Rhodes+Desmodium - - - - 11.37b 3.07bc 3.35b 6.75bc 14.72abc 9.82ab

Maize+Rhodes+axillaries - - - - 1.39c 0.00d 14.63a 4.39c 16.01a 4.39e

Traditinal Fallow - - - - - - 5.14b 4.83bc 5.14e 4.83de

P level 0.01 NS 0.05 NS 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

S. E. 0.36 0.60 0.45 0.58 0.54 0.43 0.64 0.72 0.64 0.56

S.E. standard error of treatment means; means within column followed by common letters do not significantly vary



Table 4: The residual effect of improved forage legumes fallow on maize grain and residue yields - 1996 crop season

Treatments Grain yield Maize residue yield

Maize (fertilized) 6.71ab 8.95ab

Maize (unfertilized) 3.76d 6.69c

Maize+Rhodes 3.70d 4.60d

Maize+Stylo 5.94abc 7.25bc

Maize+Desmodium 7.13a 9.97a

Maize+axillaries 4.93bcd 7.38bc

Maize+Rhodes+Stylo 4.78cd 4.65d

Maize+Rhodes+Desmodium 5.50abcd 6.12cd

Maize+Rhodes+axillaries 4.25cd 5.61cd

Traditinal Fallow 4.47cd 6.90c

P level 0.001 0.001

S. E. 0.47 0.47

S.E: standard error of treatment means within column followed by common letters do not significantly vary

References Adugna Tolera and A.N. Said 1992. Prospects for integrating food and feed production

in Welayita Sodo, Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of the joint feed resources networks workshop held in Gaborone, Botswana, 4-8, March, 1991.

Garba, M and C. Renard. 1991. Biomass production, yields and water use efficiency in some pearl millet/legume cropping systems at Sadore, Niger. In: Sivakumar M.V.K., Wallace J.S., Renard C., and Giroux, C., (eds). Soil-water balance in the sudano -sahelian zone: Proceedings of International workshop, Niamey, February 1991. IAHS (International Association of Hydrological Science ) Publication 199. IAHS Press, Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.pp.431-439.

Kouame C.N., J.M. Powell, C. A. Renard and K.H. Quesenberry. 1993. Plant yields and fodder quality related characteristics of millet-stylo intercropping systems in the Sahel. Agronomy Journal 85: 601-605.

Kowal, J.M. and A.H. Kassam. 1978. Soil Resources. In Agricultural Ecology: A study of West Africa, 114-149, Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Kusekwa, M.L., R.S. Kyamanywa and M.D. Ngowi. 1992. Fitting forage legumes in to the cropping systems of semi-arid Tanzania. In: Proceedings of the joint feed resources networks workshop held in Gaborone, Botswana, 4-8, March, 1991.

Legesse Dadi, Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun Degu. 1987. Diagnostic survey report No. 1. Bako mixed farming system zone, Wollega and shoa

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regions, I.A.R., Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

Mohammed -saleem, M.A. 1985. Effect of sowing time on grain and fodder potential of sorghum undersown with Stylo in the subhumid zone of Nigeria. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) 62:151-153.

Mohammed-saleem, M.A. 1986. Integration of forage legumes in to the cropping system of Nigeria's sub-humid zone. : In: proceedings of the second ILCA/NAPRI symposium held in Kaduna, Nigeria, 29 October-2 November, 1984.

Mohammed-Saleem, M.A.and R.M. Otsyina. 1986. Grain yields of maize and the nitrogen contribution following Stylosanthes pasture in the Nigerian sub-humid zone. Expl. Agric. 22, 207-214.

Tothill, J.C. 1986. The role of forage legumes in farming systems of sub-saharan Africa. In: Haque I., Jutzi S. and NeateP.J.H (eds). Potentials of forage legumes in farming systems of Sub-saharan Africa. Proceedings of a workshop held at ILCA, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. 16-19 September 1985. ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa), Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

Vallis, I and C.J. Gardener. 1984. Nitrogen inputs in to agricultural systems by Stylosanthes. In: The biology and Agronomy of Stylosanthes (eds H.M.Stace and L.A.Edye). Australia: Academic Press.


In vivo assessment of the nutritional value of cactus pear (opuntia ficus-indica) as a substitute to grass hay in sheep rations Firew Tegegne

Abstract

An experiment was carried out to determine the nutritional value of cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica), its safe level of inclusion in growing sheep diets and its contribution as water source. Twenty-four sheep were stratified and divided into six groups based on their initial weight. Each group of four lambs was then assigned to one of the six experimental diets (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, or T6 at 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100%, on a dry matter basis, of cactus inclusion) in Completely Randomised Design (CRD). Data on feed intake and water intake were subject to analysis of variance while data on weight were subject to analysis of co-variance as applied to CRD. Significant differences between treatment means were tested by Tukey's pairwise comparison. Generally, there were significant differences between treatment means (p < 0.05) in terms of daily dry matter intake and water intake due to the level of inclusion of O. ficus-indica. Sheep on T1 gained 5.65 g/day, those in T2 maintained their live weight while the rest lost body weight. From these groups, the losses in T5 and T6 were most severe.

It was concluded that, under the conditions of this study, O. ficus-indica could safely substitute grass hay to a level of 20% for sheep at maintenance. In areas where there is severe feed shortage, however, it could substitute grass hay to a level of 60%. It, in addition, has a substantial contribution in satisfying the water requirement of sheep. For a conclusive result, however, further research is recommended. In addition, as feeding O. ficus-indica in different forms may have different effects on animal performance further investigation is recommended to gear towards this.



Key words: Opuntia ficus-indica (cactus pear), dry matter intake, water intake, live weight.

Introduction Poor feed quality and inavailability are considered to be the major constraints

hampering productivity of farm animals in Ethiopia. In addition, water is so scarce in most arid and semi-arid areas of the country, animals usually get drinking water once in three days.

In an effort to alleviate the feed/water problems, looking for non-conventional potential feed resources deserves due attention. In this line cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) is known to have great potentials. According to SAERT (1994), O. ficus-indica is widely distributed in the northern arid and semi-arid parts of Tigray covering an area of 355,000 ha (about 20% of the total area Tigray region). Out of this area coverage, 49% of the area on Opuntina is naturally grown whereas 51% is planted signifying its importance as feed resource. O. ficus-indica is also found in other arid and semi-arid areas of Ethiopia.

The importance of Opuntia in arid and semi-arid regions is increasingly acknowledged not only because of its abundance and its palatability but also due to its 4-5 fold water use efficiency (Russell and Felker, 1987); its ability to grow on marginal lands (Le Houerou and Corra, 1980); its use for human consumption, especially during the period of food shortage (June-August); its ability to produce more as CO2 concentration increases; its uses in cosmetic, medical, dye, and honey industries. Due to its special tolerance to drought, it is sometimes called “camel of the plant world, nature’s fodder bank and living fodder bank” (De Kock, 1980). O. ficus-indica is consumed by almost all domestic animals (camel, cattle, sheep and goats), however, it is considered as an emergency feed. It plays significant role during drought and food and/or feed scarcity and is considered as an indicator of destitute. Recent global attention to this plant has resulted in the establishment of the Cactus Network. FAO has published one book entitled “ Agro-ecology, cultivation and uses of O. ficus-indica.” Despite these efforts, very limited research has been done on its effect(s) on animal performance. Chemical analysis results

Feeds and Nutrition


indicate that O. ficus-indica is high in its water, water soluble carbohydrate, calcium and vitamin A contents (Retamal et al. 1987).

Information on its nutritive value for animals is scarce. O. ficus-indica is moderate in crude protein, high in Ca, average in Mg, but low in Na, K and P contents in relation to ruminant requirements or to common forages. It is highly digestible and contains appreciable energy value and Total Digestible Nutrient contents (Firew, 1995). High level of O. ficus-indica inclusion causes bloat and diarrhoea (Hailu, 1998; Mengistu, 2001. However, inclusion of O. ficus-indica into feeding programs necessitates that more work is done on effect(s) on animal performance. Chemical composition studies indicated that the water portion may account for as much as 90%. This high water content of Opuntia has value when water is a limiting factor for animal production. On the other hand, high water content limits intake. Therefore, the objectives of this experiment were to determine the nutritional value of O. ficus-indica as a ruminant feed; define its level of inclusion in the diet of growing sheep; and assess its contribution as a source of water.

Materials and Methods Study area

The study was conducted on Mekelle University main campus premises, which is located at 13o 28’ N and 39o 29’ E. The soil on which the plant was grown is of litosol type (Fasil Kebede, 1998, personal communication). The altitude is about 2100 m a.s.l. and the rainfall pattern is erratic and irregular with an annual average of 600 mm.

Feeds and feeding The feeds used were mixed native grass hay and cladodes of O. ficus-indica grown

along the marginal lands in the University campus. The youngest two cladodes from each branch were taken and burned to avoid the spines, and then chopped and wilted for about four hours to reduce the moisture content to about 85 percent. A basal diet of mixed native grass hay was replaced by O. ficus-indica in diets T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, or T6 at 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% DM, respectively.

Hay and O. ficus-indica were weighed and offered separately at 9:00 a.m. and 16 p.m. separately (to avoid inter-moisture exchange and selective consumption) and



interchangeably. Common salt licks and fresh tap water were available ad libitum throughout the experimental period.

Animals and housing Twenty four highland sheep of approximately 12 to 18 months of age were bought

from a O. ficus-indica growing area. They were sprayed and de-wormed against external and internal parasites using acaricide and albondazole, respectively. The sheep were stratified into six groups according to their initial live weight before commencing a two weeks pre-trial period of adaptation to the experimental diets and to the pen environment. Each group of four lambs was then assigned to one of the six experimental diets (treatments), T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, or T6 in Completely Randomised Design (CRD). The sheep were housed in individual pens.

Measurements The effects of different levels of O. ficus-indica on animal performance and water

intake were measured in terms of daily voluntary feed intake (VFI) and water intake (WI), weight change, and feed conversion efficiency. Feed refusals were recorded daily just before morning and afternoon feeding and animals were weighed weekly for a total of 69 days on the same day just before they were fed and watered. Water left over was recorded on daily basis.

Statistical analysis Data on dry matter intake (DMI) and WI were subject to analysis of variance while

data on weight were subject to analysis of co-variance using GLM of Minitab as applied to CRD. Significance difference test to determine the differences between treatment means was conducted using Tukey’s pairwise comparison.

Results Dry matter intake (DMI) and water intake (WI)

Treatment effects on DMI and WI are presented in Table 1. Statistical analysis of the data indicated that total DMI decreased as the proportion of O. ficus-indica increased except that sheep in T2 consumed less than sheep in T3. The decrease was significant (p<0.05) except between T1 and T3, T2 and T4 and T5 and T6 (p>0.05). Compared to sheep in other treatments sheep in T1 (hay alone) consumed more DM, in

Feeds and Nutrition


contrast sheep in T6 (O. ficus-indica alone) consumed the lowest. However, there was a general tendency for O. ficus-indica intake to increase as the feeding trial progressed. Comparing, for example, T2 (80% hay) and T5 (80% O. ficus-indica), with the same proportion of hay or O. ficus-indica in the respective treatments, more hay refusal was recorded for T2 (30%) than O. ficus-indica refusal in T5 (5%).

Table 1: Mean daily DMI and WI of sheep fed diets containing different amounts of O. ficus-indica cladodes

Treatment Hay

(kg /day)

Cactus

(kg /day)

Total DMI*

(kg/day)

Mean WI* (l/day)

% hay refused

% cactus refused

1 0.575 - 0.575a 0.80a 24 -

2 0.399 0.142 0.541b 0.65b 30 0.1

3 0.331 0.233 0.564a 0.51c 12 0.4

4 0.228 0.297 0.525b 0.48c 14 3.0

5 0.133 0.369 0.502c 0.11d 1 5.0

6 - 0.484 0.484c 0.03e - 8.0

Pooled s.d. 0.420 0.081 14.07 1.670

*Means with different superscript are significantly different (p<0.05)

Significant differences in the level of water intake were recorded between treatments (p <0.05), but T3 and T4 were not significantly different (p> 0.05). The highest water intakes were recorded on diets having 80% (T2) and 100% (T1) hay with a mean water intake of 0.65 l/day and 0.80 l/day, respectively. That is, as the proportion of O. ficus indica was increased there was a decline in water intake. Thus, water intake was negatively correlated with O. ficus-indica consumption (r = -0.62). The result in Table 1 showed that sheep fed on 100% O. ficus-indica would practically take insignificant amount of water (only 0.03 l/day).

Live weight (LW) change Treatment effect on live weight change is indicated in Table 2. Until mid of the

experimental period there was a general tendency for live weight gain when O. ficus-indica replaced up to 60% of the basal diet suggesting that Opuntia can safely substitute native grass hay as high as 60%. Sheep on hay-only tended to show higher live weight gain (daily gains of 5.65 g) than other treatments. During the overall experiment period, however, the live weight loss increased from 0 to 29 g/day as the level of O. ficus-indica increased from 20 to 100%, respectively and a marked decrease in weight was observed on animals in T6.



Table 2: Mean daily live weight change of sheep fed diets containing different amounts of O. ficus-indica cladodes

Treatments Body weight

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

Initial mean (kg) 21.30 20.33 17.88 17.20 17.43 19.83

Final Mean (kg) 21.69 20.33 17.87 17.06 16.73 17.80

Change (kg) +0.39 0.00 -0.01 -0.14 -0.70 -2.00

Average daily change (g/day) +5.65 0.00 -0.14 -2.03 -10.14 -29.00

Pooled s.d. 1.10

Live weight change was more positively correlated (r= 0.52) with water intake than with total dry matter intake (r=0.26). It was, however, negatively correlated with O. ficus-indica intake (r=-41). The regression equation (LW = 17.4 + 0.052 total FI + 0.560 WI - 0.795 O. ficus-indica intake) showed a negative response to increasing proportion of O. ficus-indica in the diet (r2= 0.51).

(Strange) observations All sheep in T6 (100% O. ficus-indica) show pilophagia that they pluck out each

other's wool or their own to the extent that two sheep were left almost bare. Two veterinarians were consulted and confirmed that those sheep have neither skin disease nor external parasites. Though not unexpected, it was also observed that sheep in T5 and T6 were suffering from diarrhoea; however, there was clear indication of bloat.

Discussion Dry matter intake (DMI) and water intake (WI)

The finding that sheep in T2 consumed less than sheep in T3 might be an experiment error. Highest DMI recorded for hay alone (T1). In contrast, the lowest DMI was recorded for O. ficus-indica alone (T6), which could possibly be due to the high moisture content of O. ficus-indica. Because level of water exceeding 780 g/kg fresh forage is claimed to have a detrimental effect on voluntary intake (Minson, 1990). Fortunately, this effect may be small and of no disadvantage during dry seasons and in arid and semi-arid areas, when and where water is limiting for animal production. The general decrease in the total DMI observed disagrees with other findings, which indicated that cactus supplementation increases DMI (Hailu, 1998;

Feeds and Nutrition


Mengistu, 2001). However, there was a general tendency for O. ficus-indica intakes to increase as the feeding trial progressed. Comparing T2 (80% hay) and T5 (80% O. ficus-indica), with the same proportion of hay or O. ficus-indica in the respective treatments, more hay refusal was recorded for T2 (30%) than O. ficus-indica refusal in T5 (5%). The low level of refusal in treatment groups with high O. ficus-indica level might be seen as an attempt to satisfy their dry matter requirements or the plant is highly palatable.

The water requirement of a sheep weighing about 20 kg and kept under an environmental temperature of greater than 20oC is reported to be 3 kg water per kg DM consumed (McDonald et al., 1995). From Table 1 above, sheep in T6 consumed 0.484 kg DM (3.22 kg cactus with 85% moisture content). These sheep, therefore, obtained about 2.74 litres of water from the feed, which is enough to satisfy their daily water requirement. The significant differences in the level of water intake recorded between treatments (p <0.05), except between T3 and T4 (p> 0.05) agrees with the work reported by Ben-salem et al. (1996) who observed total absence of water intake as the level of Opuntia in the diet of sheep increased beyond 300 g/day. De Kock (1980) showed that penned sheep could do without water for more than 500 days if they have daily access to sufficient quantities of O. ficus-indica cladodes. The single most important factor responsible for the difference in water intake, therefore, is the level of O. ficus-indica.

Live weight (LW) change The increase in live weight loss with an increase in the proportion of Opuntia in

the diet may be explained by the higher moisture content, which limits the total DMI (Minson, 1990) and low protein and mineral contents (particularly phosphorus) of Opuntia (Rematal et al. 1987; Gregory and Felker, 1992; Firew, 1995). Wild cactus is generally poor in its crude protein content (De Kock, 1980; Gonzalez, 1989; in Mengistu, 2001). The basal diet, grass hay, could also be a poor source of phosphorus (Fleming, 1973; Verma and Jackson, 1984; Minson, 1988); Mc Donald et al., 1995); worsening the development of abnormal feeding behaviour on sheep fed on 100% Opuntia. The general tendency to increase in live weight gain when O. ficus-indica replaced up to 60% of the basal diet, until mid of the experimental period, is of



paramount importance as maintaining the live weight of animals is the major strategy in dry season feeding of livestock. The decline in body weight during the second half of the trial period could be attributed to the heavy rain in July.

(Strange) observations Pilophagia, which was observed in all sheep in T6 (100% O. ficus-indica) might be

due to mineral deficiency and possibly phosphorus which O. ficus-indica is deficient for (De Kock, 1980; Hanselka and Paschal, 1990). This seems justified as sheep in T6

consumed more salt licks than any other group. It was also observed that sheep in T5 and T6 were suffering from diarrhoea. This agrees with the level reported by Mengistu (2001) that feeding O. ficus-indica at levels up to 55% of the DM does not seem to cause digestive disturbances. Oxalate, which is found at 130 g/kg DM concentration in O. ficus-indica, is reported to be the possible cause of diarrhoea (Nefzaoui and Ben Salem, 2000; in Mengistu, 2001). Reports show that the organic acid concentration in the plant may vary during a day (Teles et al., 1984). Thus, time of collecting O. ficus-indica for feeding should be considered to minimise the antinutritional effect of these acids. The diarhoea may also be caused by the extremely high moisture content of the plant and it has mucilage, a hydrophilic mucus-like compound that has high water-holding capacity, which accounts for 14% of the cladode dry weight (Goldstein et al., 1991). In contrast to the survey results of Hailu (1998) bloating was not observed in sheep in T5 and T6 for no obvious reason.

Conclusions/implications and recommendations The results of this study indicated that the different rates of inclusion of O. ficus-

indica had an effect on DMI, WI and live weight change. Under the conditions of this study, it is possible to conclude that O. ficus-indica can safely substitute hay up to 20%. This is of paramount importance as maintaining the live weight of animals is the major strategy in dry season feeding of livestock. In addition, O. ficus-indica has a substantial contribution as water source.

Further research is recommended especially on form of feeding and in selecting the right feed resources, which can be combined and effectively used with O. ficus indica; serving as a source of protein and minerals, especially phosphorus.

Feeds and Nutrition


Acknowledgement I gratefully acknowledge the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission for

the financial support.

References Ben-salem, H; Nefzaoui, A; Abdovli, H; and Orsko, E.R. 1996. The effect of increasing

level of spineless cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica var-intermis) on intake and digestion by sheep given straw based diets. Record 203 of 217-CAB Abstracts 1/96 - 10/96.

De Kock, G.C. 1980. Drought resistant fodder shrub crops in South Africa. In: Le Houerou, H.N. (ed.). Browse in Africa. The current state of knowledge. ILCA, Ethiopia. pp. 109-114.

Felker, P. 1995. Forage and Fodder utilisation. In: Barbera, G., Inglese, P. and Pimienta-Barrios, E. (eds.). Agro-ecology, cultivation and uses of cactus pear. FAO plant production and protection paper-132

Firew Tegegne, 1995. The potential of Opuntia sp. as a ruminant feed with particular reference to its in vitro didestibility. MSc. Thesis, University of Wales, UK.

Fleming, G.A. 1973. Mineral composition of herbage. In: Butler, G.W. and Railey, R.W. (eds.) Chemistry and biochemistry of herbage. London Academic Press. vol. 1, pp. 529-566.

Goldstein, G., Andrede, J.L. and Nobel, P.S. 1991. Differences in water relations parameters for the chlorenchyma and the paranchyma of the Opuntia ficus-indica under wet versus dry conditions. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology. 18, 95-107.

Gonzalez, C.L., 1989. Potential of fertilisation to improve nutritive value of prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica). In: Mengistu Woldehana. 2001. Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) as feed to ruminants. M.Sc. Thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Uppsala.

Gregory, R.A. and Felker, P. 1992. Crude protein and phosphorus contents of eight contrasting Opuntia forage clones. Journal of Arid Environment. 22, 323-331.

Hailu, H. 1998. Survey of cactus utilisation in Gantha-Afeshum Woreda, Eastern Tigray, and evaluation of cactus as feed and water source for sheep. M.Sc. Thesis. Alemaya University, Ethiopia.

Hanselka, C.W. and Paschal, J.C. 1990. Prickly pear cactus: an important rangeland resource . Progress report. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. Beef Cattle research in Texas. (Abstracts).



Le Houerou, H.N. and Corra, M. 1980. Some browse plants of Ethiopia. In: Le Houerou, H.N. (ed.). Browse in Africa. The current state of knowledge. ILCA, Ethiopia. pp. 109-114.

McDonald, P., Edwards, R.A., Greenhalgh, J.F.D. and Morgan, C.A. 1995. Animal nutrition. 5th ed. pp. 607. Longmans. New York.

McDowell, L.R. 1985. Nutrition of grazing animals in warm climates. pp. 443. Academic Press.

Mengistu Woldehana. 2001. Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) as feed to ruminants. M.Sc. Thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Uppsala.

Minson, D.J. 1988. The chemical composition of nutritive value of tropical legumes. In: Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and Riveros, F. (eds.) Tropical forage legumes. FAO Rome.

Minson, D.J. 1990. Forage in ruminant nutrition. Academic press, Inc. New York, London.

Nfezaoui, A. and Ben Salem B., 2000.Spineless cactus: a strategic fodder for west Asia and north Africa arid zones. In: Mengistu Woldehana. 2001. Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) as feed to ruminants. M.Sc. Thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Uppsala.

Retamal, N; Duran, J.M and Fernadez, J. 1987. Seasonal variation of chemical composition of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indrca). Journal of science of food and Agriculture. 38,303.

Russell, C.E. and Felker, P. 1987. The prickly pear (Opuntia spp., Cactaceae): a source of human and animal food in semi-arid regions. Economic Botany. 41, 433-445.

Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation in Tigray (SAERT), 1994. Survey report, Mekelle, Ethiopia. Vol II, 1-65.

Tallowin, J.R.B. and Jefferson, R.G. 1999. Hay production from lowland semi-natural grasslands: a review of implications for ruminant livestock systems. Grass and forage science, 54, 99-115.

Teles, F.F.F., Stull, J.W., Brown, W.H. and Whiting, F.M. 1984. Amin and organic acids of the prickly pear cactus (O. ficus-indica L.). Journal of Science of Food and Agriculture. 35, 421-425.

Verma, M.L. and Jackson, M.G. 1984. Straw in practical rations for cattle and buffaloes with special reference to developing countries. In: Sundstol, F. and Owen, E. (eds.). Straw and other fibrous by-products as feed. Elsevier, Amsterdam.


Determination of optimum nursery soil mixture and pot size for propagation of leucaena pallida: a promising browse species at Bako Abebe Yadessa and Diriba Bekere

Bako Agricultural Research Center, Agroforestry Research Division, P.O. Box 03, Bako, Oromia, Ethiopia

Abstract

A pot experiment was conducted on Leucaena pallida Britton and Rose at Bako tree nursery. Three different pot sizes together with four different soil mix ratios were combined and compared to determine optimum nursery soil mixture and pot size that can serve as a basis for successful propagation of this promising browse species in the area. Treatments were polyethylene pots of different sizes (8 cm, 10 cm and 12 cm width when flat – all with 15 cm length) and soil mixtures of different proportions (3 part local soil: 2 part sand:1 part forest soil; 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part forest soil; 3 part local soil:2 part sand:1 part farm yard manure; and 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part farmyard manure on volume basis). The treatments were handled as 3*4 factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Results revealed that seedling growth was significantly affected by both pot size and soil mixture, but the interaction between them was not significant for the considered parameters except for germination rate. Accordingly, the performance of L. pallida seedlings was significantly higher for the larger pots (10 cm and 12 cm) than for that of the smaller (8 cm). Moreover, seedling growth was significantly higher for soil mixtures containing farmyard manure than for those with no farmyard manure, but seedling survival was significantly higher for the latter than for the former. This leads to the need for trading off between survival and seedling growth. The 10 cm pot size is the optimal size both economically and biologically. Therefore, it is advisable to use the medium sized pot (10 cm) and soil mixture without farmyard manure but with more sand and some forest soil (3 part local soil:2 part sand:1 part forest soil) as this was the best combination



for optimal seedling performance in the nursery. But the case might be different under field condition after outplanting, and hence further study is suggested in this area.

Introduction Trees and shrubs have provided valuable forage to man's herbivorous animals

since the time of their domestication (Robinson, 1985: as cited in Gutteridge and Shelton, 1994)). They are sources of protein, vitamins and frequently mineral nutrients which are lacking in grassland pastures during the dry seasons, or when little forage except browse trees is available because of drought (Le Houerou, 1980; Cook, 1972). In addition to their sizeable contribution to animal feeds, browse trees in rangelands also protect and improve soil characteristics (Abebe, 1998), provide fuel and supply the raw materials for family utensils, building nuts, and for medicines (Rocheleau et al., 1988). Trees can survive under difficult environmental conditions so difficult for grasses and herbs by various adaptation mechanisms, and hence play a valuable role in supplementing the low nutritional value of standing grasses during the dry season (Mckell, 1980). And hence they often serve as a buffer to overcome feed gaps that arise from seasonal fluctuations in the productivity of other feed resources.

There are many species of forage tree legumes in use through out the tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Gutteridge, 1994), of which Leucaena pallida Britton and Rose is one among others. The species is native to central Mexico, and it grows well at elevation ranges from 1600 - 2100, to which Bako area belongs. It shows tolerance to low temperatures and Leucaena psyllid, which is currently devastating the popular Leucaena species (Leucaena leucocephala) in different countries. L. Pallida also yields well under cutting (Bray, 1994).

After introduction and evaluation of several tree legumes from abroad, L. pallida is found out to be the promising browse species at Bako. The plant spacing and cutting management study for this species is underway at Bako Agricultural Research Center by the Animal Feeds and Nutrition Research Division, but information on nursery management like potting mixture and pot size for successful propagation of this valuable browse species is lacking.

Feeds and Nutrition


There are a number of factors that can affect seedling growth and which, of course, can be manipulated to improve seedling growth rates. Amongst these is the inherent vigor of the seedlings, which is determined by the genetic potential, environmental characteristics of the site and the level of amendment of the soil (Shelton, 1994). These factors must be optimal to produce a healthy and vigorous seedling (Jaenicke, 1999). In nursery, the most important factors for seedling health and vigor are good soil and suitable container. Preferred soil mixes and pot sizes vary with species (Briscoe, 1989). But soil properties normally vary from place to place, and also different tree species do have different environmental requirements.

Many authors reported that a balanced soil mixture and suitable pot size should be determined for every species at each nursery prior to any field planting program to ensure good root and shoot development for the planting stock (Evans, 1992; Jaenicke, 1994; Doran, 1997; Husnia, 1997). At Bako, appropriate soil mixes and pot sizes for use with the major trees and shrubs growing in the area except for Eucalyptus camaldulensis (3 local soil: 2 farmyard manure: 1 sand; 8 cm pot size) and Acacia mearnsii (3 local soil: 2 sand: 1 farmyard manure; 10 cm pot) (Abebe et al, in press) is lacking, and simply a soil mixture with 3 part local soil: 2 forest soil: 1 sand and any available pot size have been in use for all tree species without any scientific background. And this study was, therefore, initiated to determine optimum soil mixture and pot size for L. pallida at Bako.


A pot experiment was conducted at the tree nursery of Bako Agricultural Research Center from April to July 2000. The Center is situated at an altitude of 1650 m above sea level with a mean annual rainfall of about 1270 mm and temperature of 20oC. The dominant soil type is Nitosol with soil pH of 5-6 and clay dominated texture (Legesse et al, 1987; Abebe, 1998).

Source of materials The seeds of L. pallida were obtained from the Animal Feeds and Nutrition

Research Division, Bako Agricultural Research Center. The polyethylene bags were purchased from market. The forest soil was collected from the remnant patches of



natural forest dominated by Acacia tortilis and Albizia gummifera at Maqi Bafano (nearby area of Bako Agricultural Research Center), the sand along Gibe river, the farm yard manure (fairly decomposed) from the Livestock Research Department of the Center, and the local soil directly from the agricultural land of the Center. The soil was sieved, mixed in different proportions and then filled into different pots. Seeds were treated with hot water before sowing, and then directly sown into the pots. Some chemical and physical properties of the substrates used for the experiment are indicated in Table 1.

Table 1: Selected chemical and physical properties of substrates used for pot filling at Bako tree nursery, 2000.

Soil property Local soil Forest soil Sand Manure

Organic C, % 2.174 5.426 0.279 15.162

Total N,% 0.196 0.448 0.028 1.589

Available P, ppm 7.88 4.7 5.7 136

C:N 11 12 10 10

Na, meq/100g 0.86 0.34 0.09 2.14

K, meq/100g 2.82 1.13 0.13 8.47

Ca, meq/100g 14.17 17.51 2.17 32.39

Mg, meq/100g 5.41 7.83 0.92 45.9

CEC, meq/100g 31.4 43.4 5.2 58.04

BS (%) 74 62 64 153

pH(H20 6.9 5.86 6.82 6.07

Clay 56 34 6 8

Silt 26 40 2 18

Sand 18 26 92 74 CEC = Cation exchange capacity BS = Base saturation percentage

Treatments and experimental design Three different pot sizes together with four different soil mix ratios were combined

and compared to determine optimum nursery soil mixture and pot size that can serve as a basis for successful propagation of this promising browse species in the area.

The treatments were:

i. 8 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil: 2 part sand:1 part forest soil ii. 8 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part forest soil iii. 8 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:2 part sand:1 part farm yard manure iv. 8 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part farmyard manure

Feeds and Nutrition


v. 10 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:2 part sand:1 part forest soil vi. 10 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part forest soil vii. 10 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:2 part sand:1 part farm yard manure viii. 10 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part farmyard manure ix. 12 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:2 part sand:1 part forest soil x. 12 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part forest soil xi. 12 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:2 part sand:1 part farm yard manure,

and xii. 12 cm pot filled with 3 part local soil:1 part sand:2 part farmyard manure

The pots were all with 15 cm length and the soil mixtures were based on volume basis. The treatments were handled as 3*4 factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications.

Data collection and analysis Germination rate, number of leaves per seedling, seedling height, root collar

diameter, percent survival, shoot dry matter, root dry matter, and root length were assessed. Each plot contained 40 seedlings (8*5). Seed germination rate was determined from the number of seeds germinated expressed as percentage of number of seeds sown per plot (80 seeds per plot, 2 seeds per pot). All the seedlings were assessed for determining percent survival, but 18 seedlings (6*3) from the inner of the plot were assessed for average number of leaves, height growth and root collar diameter. And these inner 18 seedlings were used for destructive sampling to determine average shoot biomass, root biomass and root length. Number of leaves per seedling was determined by simple counting, seedling height and root length measured by using ruler and root collar diameter by caliper. The seedling biomass was partitioned into shoot and root components and their fresh weights taken. Each component was oven-dried and then weighed by using sensitive balance. Germination rate and percent survival were first log transformed before subjected to analysis of variance. All data were analyzed using MSTAT-C computer software, and mean separation for those treatments that showed significant difference by F-Test was made by using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT).



Results and Discussion Germination rate

Unlike variation in pot size, soil mixture significantly affected seed germination. The interaction between soil mixture and pot size also significantly affected seed germination (Table 2). More L. pallida seeds were germinated (82%) when more sand and some forest soil was used for pot filling, less seeds germinated (34%) in substrates containing higher farmyard manure, especially when larger pots were used (48% in the 8 and 10 cm, 34% in the 12 cm). In other words, the effect of pot size on seed germination was apparent when farmyard manure was added to the soil mixture. Increasing farmyard manure in the potting substrate apparently decreased germination rate, and vice versa (Table 4). This may be related to soil temperature and aeration and/or seed damage by some organisms in the farmyard manure. And increasing the pot size increases the amount of farmyard manure per pot, and this might have comparatively aggravated the problem.

Seedling growth There was a significant difference in number of leaves per seedling, root collar

diameter and root length due to difference in pot size (volume of the potting substrate), but seedling height was not considerably affected. The variation in soil mixture (quality of the potting substrate) significantly affected both height growth and root collar diameter, but no apparent difference was noticed in number of leaves and root length (Table 2). Influence of pot size observed more on root length, whereas quality of soil mixture on seedling height. But root collar diameter responded to both treatments. The non-significant effect of soil mixture on number of leaves but its significant effect on seedling height suggests that substrate quality increases the length of the internode rather than increasing the number of nodes (where leaves emerge). This was evidenced by non-significant correlation between number of leaves per seedling and its height. Root length was significantly higher in larger pots (10 and 12 cm) than smaller pots (8 cm) regardless of the quality of the potting substrate. On the other hand, seedling height was significantly higher when farmyard manure was used regardless of the pot size (Tables 3 and 4). Abebe et al (in press) also reported a significant effect of soil mixture on seedling growth of Acacia mearnsii and Eucalyptus camaldulensis, but no effect of pot size for both species.

Feeds and Nutrition


Seedling survival rate Survival rate was not significantly affected by difference in pot size, but it was

significantly affected by difference in soil mixture. Survival rate of L. pallida seedlings was significantly higher (95%) in soil mixtures having no farmyard manure than soil mixtures having higher farmyard manure (66%) (Table 4). Though survival rate was very low in soil mixtures with higher farmyard manure, the survived seedlings grew very vigorously. This was evidenced by significantly higher root collar diameter and seedling height (Table 4). Survival rate and germination rate were strongly and positively correlated (r = 0.916; p = 0.000), and about 83% of the germinated seeds survived as seedling (R2 = 0.834), suggesting that poor survival of the seedlings in substrates containing higher farmyard manure was more of germination related problem. The interaction between pot size and soil mixture was not significant; that is, the influence of pot size doesn't depend on the type of soil mix composition, and vice versa.

Since there was no marked variation in seedling survival among the 8, 10 and 12 cm pots, it is better to use the smaller pot (8 cm) from the economic point of view. But this might not be true when other growth parameters were considered. Evan (1992) also notes that it is good to aim for the smaller container size compatible with satisfactory survival and growth to reduce handling and transportation costs. Noble (1993) also noted the importance of potting mix for increasing the survival of tree seedlings. But Abebe et al (in press) reported no significant effect of pot size on survival of Eucalyptus camaldulensis, but significant difference on Acacia mearnsii seedlings.

Dry matter yield Unlike the interaction effect, there was a statistically significant difference in

seedling shoot and root dry weight between the different pot sizes and soil mixture. Shoot/ root ratio was affected only by soil mixture (Table 2). Seedling shoot dry matter was significantly higher when higher farmyard manure was used though seedling survival was lower. Root dry matter also exhibited the same pattern except that it was also better when some forest soil was used instead of farmyard manure (Table 4). This necessitates the need for making compromise between survival and shoot/root ratio. Smaller shoot /root ratio was obtained when more sand was used together with some



forest soil (3 local soil: 2 sand: 1 forest soil). This may be the best combination for L. pallida since survival, shoot/root ratio and seedling growth were optimal with this soil mixture (Table 4). As indicated in Table 3, higher shoot and root dry weight was obtained in larger pots (10 and 12 cm) than the smaller pot (8 cm) with no apparent effect on survival.

Table 2: Observed significance level of F (p value) for the performance of Leucaena pallida seedlings at Bako

Variables Pot size (P) Soil mix ratio (S) P x S interaction

Germination rate NS 0.0000 0.0136

No. of leaves 0.0316 NS NS

RCD 0.0002 0.0002 NS

Height NS 0.0382 NS

Shoot DM† 0.0029 0.003 NS

Root DM 0.0028 0.0121 NS

Root length 0.0328 NS NS

Shoot/root ratio‡ NS 0.0410 NS

Survival NS 0.0009 NS

† The shoot and root dry matter were calculated per seedling, not per plot ‡ Shoot/root ratio was based on dry matter yield DM = Dry matter RCD = Root collar diameter

Table 3: Effect of pot size on different parameters measured for L. pallida seedlings at Bako tree nursery.

Pot size

(cm) Germination rate

(%) No. of leaves per

seedling RCD (cm) Height (cm) Shoot DM (gm/seedling)

Root DM

(gm /seedling) Root length (cm) Shoot/Root ratio Survival (%)

8 67.917 6.542ab 0.433b 35.300 1.576b 0.360b 27.610b 4.459 87.037

10 67.500 6.667a 0.507a 41.114 2.515a 0.546a 30.809a 4.537 81.481

12 66.736 6.383b 0.510a 37.476 2.505a 0.575a 30.932a 4.387 80.185

Mean 67.384 6.531 0.483 37.963 2.199 0.494 29.784 4.461 82.901

SE ± 2.112 0.071 0.012 1.745 0.194 0.042 0.941 0.205 4.2964

CV (%) 10.86 3.74 8.69 15.92 30.56 29.34 10.94 15.89 17.95

Table 4: Influence of soil mixture on different parameters measured for L. pallida seedlings.

Soil mixture Germination rate (%)

No. of leaves per seedling

RCD (cm) Height (cm) Shoot DM (gm/seedling)

Root DM (gm/seedling)

Root length (cm) Shoot/Root ratio Survival (%)

3LS:2SD:1FS 81.759a 6.556 0.456ab 36.107ab 1.821b 0.453ab 26.731 3.991b 93.83a

3LS:1SD:2FS 81.481ab 6.500 0.438b 33.760b 1.651b 0.366b 25.164 4.593ab 95.06a

3LS:2SD:1FYM 62.593bc 6.600 0.505a 40.262a 2.463ab 0.588a 29.649 4.277ab 76.54ab

3LS:1SD:2FYM 43.704c 6.467 0.535a 41.724a 2.860a 0.568a 28.898 4.984a 66.17b

Mean 67.384 6.531 0.483 37.963 2.199 0.494 29.723 4.461 82.90

SE ± 2.438 0.081 0.014 2.015 0.224 0.048 1.087 0.236 4.96

CV (%) 10.86 3.74 8.69 15.92 30.56 29.34 10.94 15.89 17.95

LS = Local soil FS = Forest soil SD = Sand FYM = Farmyard manure



Conclusion and Recommendation The present finding demonstrated that seedling growth was considerably affected

both by pot size and nursery soil mixture, but survival rate was affected only by variation in soil mixture. Seedling height and root length responded differently to the pot size and soil mixture; that is, root length was more influenced by the volume of the potting substrate (pot size), but seedling height was more influenced by the quality of potting substrate (soil mixture). However, root collar diameter responded to both treatments.

Generally, increasing the farmyard manure content of the potting substrate increased the growth rates of seedlings; but increasing the farmyard manure significantly decreased the survival rate. This may be because of seed damage caused by some organisms coming into the potting substrate along with the animal manure. The poorest survival was obtained with the 3 part local soil: 1 part sand: 2 part farmyard manure. Therefore, it may not be advisable to use farmyard manure for potting substrate to grow L. pallida seedlings in the nursery under Bako site condition.

As the effect of pot size was not significant for survival, it looks better to use smaller pot for raising seedlings in the nursery. Though this is economically important, seedling growth was significantly higher in larger pots. This necessitates the need for making a compromise between these factors. Accordingly, the 10 cm pot size is the optimal size both economically and biologically. and hence it is recommendable to use in the nursery for raising L. pallida

A soil mixture with more sand together with some forest soil (3 part local soil: 2 part sand: 1 part forest soil) is better for growing L. pallida seedlings at Bako since optimal growth and survival was achieved with this combination. This may be due to the biological nitrogen fixation capacity of L. pallida and hence its capacity to compensate for N in soils with less soil total N. And hence the species can thrive on less fertile soils.

It is also better to observe the performance of this species under poorer nursery soil situations (no farmyard manure and no forest soil) to make use of the biological

Feeds and Nutrition


nitrogen fixation potential of L. pallida and use the less available substrates (manure, forest soil and fertilizer) for more demanding species like Eucalyptus camaldulensis.

As indicated by present finding, the contribution of both soil mix composition and container size to the seedling performance was apparent under the nursery environment. But the effect might be different under field condition after out planting. Therefore, further study on this issue is also required under field conditions to evaluate the field performance of seedlings raised under different nursery soil conditions.

Acknowledgement We would like to thank the staff of Agroforestry Research Division at Bako for

their continuous follow-up of the experiment and data collection, and Animal Feeds and Nutrition Research Division for the provision of L. pallida seed.

References Abebe Yadessa, Diriba Bekere and Benti Tadesse (in press). Determination of

optimum soil mixture and pot size for Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia mearnsii at Bako. In: Nutrient Management for Improving Soil /Crop Productivity in Ethiopian Agriculture. Proceedings of the Fifth Biennial Conference of Ethiopian Society of Soil Science (ESSS), March 30-31, 2000, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Abebe Yadessa. 1998. Evaluation of the contribution of scattered Cordia africana Lam. trees to soil properties of cropland and rangeland ecosystems in western Oromia, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis from Swedish University of Agricultural sciences, Sweden.

Bray, R.A. 1994. Diversity of Tropical Tree and Shrub Legumes, Pp. 111-119. In: Gutteridge, R.C. and Shelton, H.M. (Eds.) Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture. CAB international, UK.

Briscoe, C.B. 1989. Field trials manual for multipurpose tree species. Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development.

Cook, C.W. 1972. Comparative nutritional value of forbs, grasses and shrubs. In: McKell, C.M, J.P. Blaisdell and J.R. Goodin (eds.), Wildland shrubs, their biology and utilization. USDA, Forest Service and General Technology Report INT-1. Ogden, Utah.



Doran, J.C. 1997 Seed, nursery practice and management. In: J.C. Doran and J.W. Turnbull (eds.), Australian trees and shrubs: Land rehabilitation and farm tree planting in the tropics. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research, Australia.

Evans, J. 1992. Plantation forestry in the tropics: Tree planting for industrial, social, environmental and agroforestry purposes. Oxford University Press, New York.

FAO. 1981. Eucalyptus for planting. Italy.

Gutteridge, R.C. and Shelton, H.M. 1994. The role of Forage Tree Legumes in Cropping and Grazing Systems, pp. 3-14. In: Gutteridge, R.C. and Shelton, H.M. (Eds.) Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture. CAB international, UK.

Husnia Ibrahim, 1995. Effect of soil mixture and fertilization for growing seedlings, pp. 35-40. In: Amare Getahun and Girma Balcha (eds.), Research on seed and nursery technology at the Forestry Research Center. Forestry Research Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Jaenicke, H. 1999. Potting substrates: What do seedlings need to grow well? Agroforestry Today, 11: 31-33.

Le Houerou, H. N. 1980. Some browse plants in Ethiopia, pp. 109-114. In: Le Houerou, H. N. (ed.), Browse in Africa: The current state of knowledge. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Legesse Dadi, Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun Degu. 1987. Bako mixed farming zone, Wellega and Shewa regions. Diagnostic survey report No. 1. Institute of Agricultural Research, Department of Agricultural Economics and Farming Systems Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

McKell, C.M. 1980. Multiple use of fodder trees and shrubs: A world perspective, pp. 141-149. In: Le Houerou, H.N. (ed.), Browse in Africa: The current state of knowledge. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Noble, P. 1993. Effect of potting mix on farm tree seedling survival in heavy soils. Agroforestry systems, 21: 75-78

Rocheleau, D, Weber, F, and Field-Juma, A. 1988. Agroforestry in dryland Africa: Science and practice of agroforestry 3. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya.

Shelton, H.M. 1994. Establishment of Forage Tree Legumes, pp. 120-131. In: Gutteridge, R.C. and Shelton, H.M. (Eds.) Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture. CAB international, UK.


Grain and forage yield responses of maize genotypes intercropped with lablab purpureus under Bako condition, Western Ethiopia Diriba Geleti, Lemma Gizachew and Adane Hirpha

Bako Research Center, P.O.Box 3, Wsetern Shoa, Ethiopia

Abstract

The trials were laid out in a split plot design with four replications where cropping systems (with or without Lablab purpureus) was assigned to the main plots and maize varieties to the subplots during 1995 - 1998 cropping seasons at Bako Agricultural Research Center. During the 1995 and 1997 Lablab was grown with maize until 10 percent flowering stage was reached and the biomass was the chopped and incorporated in to the soil to evaluate the residual effect during the subsequent years. Thus the 1996 and 1998 seasons were the years during which the residual effect of the incorporated Lablab biomass was assessed. For maize grain yield and other yield components, the effect of cropping system was not significant (P>0.05). Grain yield was higher (86.0 q ha-1) for the intercropping system as compared to the sole cropping. Significantly (P<0.01) higher mean grain yield and total forage were recorded for the hybrid variety, BH-660. Highest percentage values for harvest index (87.34 %) was recorded for BH-140. During the 1996, except for the leaf component, no significant difference (P>0.05) between the two systems was observed for all traits. The effect of cropping system was not significant for all parameters during the 1997. Varietal differences were not significant (P>0.05) for all traits except for total forage (P<0.01). When averaged over the two cropping systems, higher grain yield and other plant fractions were recorded for BH-660. During the 1998, the effect of system, variety and their interaction was not significant (P<0.05). Comparatively higher (59.48 q ha-1) grain yield was obtained from the plots to which chopped biomass of Lablab was incorporated in 1997. The same was also true for leaf and total forage yields. The amount of forage biomass harvested from the legume component and incorporated in to the soil varied from 1.7 - 1.8 t ha-1 in 1995 and



1 - 1.25 t ha-1 in 1998. Generally no appreciable yield reduction was observed during the years when Lablab was concurrently grown with maize and the yield variation observed between those plots which received the recommended level of fertilizer and those to which chopped biomass of Lablab was incorporated was not wide indicating the possibility of using this strategy to ensure stability of both grain and forage production for maize based system of Bako area and other areas having similar environments.

Introduction The sub-humid climate of western Ethiopia is characterized by a mixed crop and

livestock farming system (Legesse et al, 1987). Currently, arable farming is expanding at the expense of traditional grazing land. This is putting pressure on grazing resources resulting in inadequate feed resource for livestock both in terms of quality and quantity (Lemma and Diriba, 1996). Under these situations, development of integrated forage-cereal-livestock systems offers a method of accommodating and improving both crop and livestock production systems.

Integration of forage legumes into the cereal based cropping systems is one of the alternative strategies towards that goal (Mohammed-saleem and Otsyina, 1986). This approach also enhances efficient utilization of land, labor and other input costs (Kusekwa et al, 1992). As they fix N, forage legumes enhance soil fertility (Kouame et al, 1991) and improve cereal yields when used as green manure (Kelsa, 1986; Tadesse, 1989). This strategy also improves yield and nutritive value of harvested crop residues that can be used as important feed resource particularly after grain harvest (Mohammed-saleem, 1985).

Compatibility between the forage legume and cereal component species is very important if stable and productive system is to be developed. If grain yield is significantly reduced due to forage legume integration, the system may not be attractive to the farmer as the product that is used for food by farm family could significantly be affected. If growth and forage legume bio-mass is suppressed by the cereal crop, the benefit obtained from the legume component may not be realized perhaps due to the reduction in aerial bio-mass. This necessitates a search for

Feeds and Nutrition


compatible combination of a potential forage legume and available cereal varieties for inter-cropping system.

Maize is a dominant cereal crop in western Ethiopia and its area of production is increasing from time to time more than any other crop. As a result, the contribution of maize residue to animal feed resource is also increasing specially in early months of the dry season. Many improved varieties of maize are released by the National Maize Research Program of Bako Research Center for dissemination to the farming community. Information on differential grain and residue component yield responses of these varieties to forage legume inter-cropping system and associated technologies like green manuring is very important to identify system compatible varieties that can go with the strategy of integrating forage legumes and cereal crops, and perhaps contribute significantly to total available forage. This study, therefore, was conducted with the objective of evaluating residue DM and grain yield of maize genotypes as influenced by variety, cropping system and the interaction of the two and determine the biomass production performance of the legume component under three maize genotypes.

Materials and Methods The trial was laid out in a split plot design with four replicates where cropping

system (with or without Lablab) was assigned to the main plots and maize varieties to the subplots. The gross plot size for the sub plot was 18 m2. Open pollinated maize variety, Beletech, and two hybrids, namely BH-140 and BH-660 were planted for two consecutive cropping seasons (1995 and 1996) at one field; and replicated for another consecutive seasons (1997 and 1998) at another field in sole crop or as an inter-crop with Lablab at Bako Research Center. At planting, two maize seeds were placed per hill, which later thinned to one plant. For all maize varieties, an intra and inter-row spacing of 25 and 75 cm was maintained. In plots where Lablab was intercropped with maize, the forage legume was drilled mid way between the rows of maize on the same date of maize planting. Lablab was sown at a seed rate of 30 kg per hectare.



Figure 1: Description of events and aspects of the experimental protocol

Year Description of the events

1995 • inter-cropping of Lablab in maize and at about 10 percent flowering

stage the biomass of the legume component was chopped and

incorporated in to the soil

1996-residual effect year • the plots to which Lablab was incorporated during the 1995 did not

receive any commercial fertilizer while the recommended level of N and

P for maize was applied to those plots which were under sole maize

1997 • as described for 1995 cropping season but replicated at a separate field

1998-residual effect year • as described for 1996 cropping season

For all plots, diammonium phosphate (DAP) was applied at planting while the N that was applied during the second weeding came from urea. Fertilizer rate of 75/75 N/P2O5 was used. The P source was applied at planting and for N half was applied at planting and half was applied at knee height. For the plots in which Lablab purpureus was grown in an inter-cropping system with maize, the biomass of the legume was cut at about 10 percent flowering stage. The cut biomass was chopped in to small length using a cut lace and incorporated in to the soil. Sub-samples of the legume component were taken and dried in a forced draught oven at 60 o C for 72 hours to determine the DM yield. During the years when the residual effect was evaluated (1996 and 1998), the plots to which Lablab was incorporated during the previous year did not receive any fertilizer source while the sole plots received the same rate of N and P205 as for the previous years. Brief description of the experimental protocol is given hereunder.

At grain harvest, maize plants from the middle two rows were cut at ground level. Following this, maize ears and maize residues were partitioned and weighed separately. Grain yield was determined following shelling and adjusting the moisture level to 12.5 percent. Sub-samples from maize residue that were dried in forced draught oven at 650 C to constant weight were used to determine total residue DM yield. Grain yield, maize residue and Lablab bio-mass DM data were subjected to analysis of variance using MSTATC computer program. Average yield differences, when found significant, were separated using LSD procedure. As the

Feeds and Nutrition


interaction term between the two factors was found to be non significant, the average effects of the two factors were presented separately for all years.

Results and Discussion 1995

The effect of cropping system on maize grain yield and residue components during the 1995 cropping season is given in Table 1. For maize grain yield and other yield components, the effect of cropping system was not significant(P>0.05). Grain yield was higher (86.01 q ha-1) for the inter-cropping system as compared to the sole cropping. This could be attributed to the additional N fixation by the legume and its transfer to the cereal crop. The mean values for leaf, husk, total forage and harvest index were higher for the sole system as compared to the inter-cropping system. In fact the yield gap between the two systems was not wide. Mean grain yield and other yield components of the three varieties of maize is indicated in Table 1. Significantly (P<0.01) highest mean values for grain and total forage yields were recorded for the hybrid variety, BH-660. Percentage values for harvest index was highest (87.34%) for BH-140 followed by BH-660 and Beletech. The highest grain and other yield components obtained from the hybrid varieties as compared to the open pollinated, Beletech, is as expected because these hybrids are genetically superior to the open pollinated ones with regard to grain yield and biomass DM accumulation (Mossisa Worku, 2000, personal communication). Similar observations were also recorded by Lemma et al (1998).

1996 During the 1996 cropping season, the plots which were under Lablab purpureus

and maize inter-cropping and to which the bio-mass of the legume component was incorporated during the previous crop year did not receive any commercial fertilizer source. On the other hand those which were under sole maize during the 1995 season received the recommended level of fertilizer. Except for the leaf component, there was no significant difference (P>0.05) between the two systems for all other traits. Grain, leaf, husk and total forage yields were higher for the plots that received the recommended level of fertilizer though the yield gap was not as such large. This slight differences observed for this traits suggest the possibility of obtaining grain and



residue bio-mass yields from the green manured plots that is comparable with the plots to which the recommended level of commercial fertilizer was applied (Table 2). Varietaal differences were significant (P<0.05-0.01) for all traits except for husk (P>0.05). When averaged over the two systems, highest grain yield was obtained from BH-140 followed by BH-660. For leaf and total forage yields, the highest mean value was recorded for BH-660 (Table 2).

1997 During the 1997 cropping season, an experiment which is similar to the one

planted during the 1995 was replicated at another field. During this year, Lablab pupureus was planted as described for the 1995 and its boi-mass incorporated in to the soil for evaluating its residual effect during the 1998 season. Analysis of variance revealed that the interaction effect of cropping system and variety was not significant for all traits. Taken separately, the effect of cropping system was not significant for all parameters. Varietal differences were not significant (P>0.05) for all traits except for total forage (P<0.01). In fact though variation between cropping system was not significant statistically when averaged over varieties, highest grain, leaf, husk and total forage yields were recorded for the cropping system where Lablab and maize were grown together compared to the sole planted plots (Table 3). When averaged over the two cropping systems, higher grain yield values and other plant fractions were recorded for BH-660 (Table 3). This is due to the higher grain and bio-mass yielding nature of this hybrid variety and the finding is in agreement with the reports of Lemma et al (1998). Next to BH-660, higher grain yield, leaf and husk components was obtained from BH-140. The total forage obtained from BH-140, however, was lower than the one recorded for Beletech (Table 3). Lower harvest index was recorded for BH-660. This can be attributed to the comparatively higher total above ground bio-mass recorded for this variety (Table 3).

1998 During the 1998 cropping season, as was true for the 1996 season, the plots to

which Lablab was incorporated during the 1997 did not receive any commercial fertilizer source. The residual effect of the incorporated bio-mass was compared to those plots to which the commercial fertilizer was applied. The analysis of variance

Feeds and Nutrition


revealed that the effect of system, variety and their interaction was not significant for grain, husk, total forage yields and harvest index. On the other hand, differences between the two systems was significant for leaf (P<0.05) Comparatively higher (59.48 q ha-1) grain yield was obtained from the plots to which the chopped bio-mass of Lablab was incorporated in 1997 (Table 4). The same was also true for leaf and total forage yields. Though differences between varieties were not significant for all yield components when averaged over the two cropping systems, lower mean grain yield values were obtained from Beletech and the variation between BH-140 and BH-660 was very narrow. Leaf fraction was observed to be higher for BH-660 and lower for Beletech (Table 4).

Generally, in the present study, during the years when the legume component was grown concurrently with maize (1995 and 1997) and during which the effect of the chopped and incorporated legume bio-mass was compared with the commercial fertilizer sources (1996 and 1998), the yield variation between the two cropping systems was not significant indicating the beneficial aspect of using the green manuring strategy as an alternative to the commercial fertilizer sources with out the resultant yield reduction of the food crop. This system obviously reduces the cost of fertilizer, enhances forage production from both component species and ensures availability of quality residue for grazing after grain harvest

No wide yield differences were observed in most cases and the general observation was that the grain yield of maize was better under Lablab/maize inter-cropping system. This was especially true during the years when Lablab was concurrently grown with maize. This finding is not in agreement with the reports of Nnandi and Haque (1986), and Shelton and Humphreys (1975a; 1975b) who reported the grain and residue yields of a given crop in forage legume/cereal inter-cropping system to be less than the yield that can be achieved when the same crop is grown alone. In fact, in this particular study the legume was not with maize during the whole growing season as it was harvested at about 10 % flowering stage for green manuring purpose. This might have also lessened the yield gap that is expected due to the competition effect of the legume on the cereal component.



Gardner and Boundy (1983) also observed yield depression of cereals when grown in mixture with Lupins. Trends of yield reduction have also been reported in the inter-crops of Lablab with maize and sorghum which is also in contrary to the results obtained in the present investigation. Generally, no appreciable yield reduction was observed during the years when Lablab was concurrently grown with maize and the yield variation observed between those plots which received the recommended level of fertilizer and those to which chopped bio-mass of Lablab was incorporated was not wide indicating the possibility of using this strategy to ensure stability of both grain and forage production for maize based system of Bako area and other environments having similar climatic and edaphic features.

Table 1: Effect of cropping system and variety on grain (q ha-1) and other yield components (t ha-1) of maize - 1995 cropping season

Cropping system Grain and other yield components

Grain Leaf Husk Total forage Harvest index (%)

Sole 80.092 0.273 0.253 1.407 84.379

Residual 86.008 0.249 0.175 1.328 83.687

SEM 4.1959 0.0154 0.0487 0.0699 0.7373

Significance NS NS NS NS NS

Variety

Beletech 75.55b 0.239 0.18 1.40ab 84.28b

BH-140 78.81ab 0.256 0.19 1.13b 87.34a

BH-660 94.79a 0.289 0.27 1.66a 84.75ab

SEM 4.11 0.021 0.06 0.07 0.84

Significance ** NS NS ** * SEM: staandard error of treatment means; *: significant at 5 % level; **: significant at 1% level; NS: not significant

Feeds and Nutrition


Table 2: Effect of cropping system and variety on grain (q ha-1) and other yield components (t ha-1) of maize during the residual effect year- 1996 cropping season



Sole 94.16 3.67 2.19 11.09 45.78

Residual 93.05 2.43 1.77 8.95 50.88

SEM 2.68 0.16 0.13 0.57 1.06

Significance NS *** NS NS NS

Variety

Beletech 77.24b 2.64b 1.82 9.07b 45.88b

BH-140 108.00a 2.91ab 2.20 9.52b 52.41a

BH-660 103.13a 3.61a 1.92 11.48 46.70ab

SEM 6.73 0.17 0.15 0.57 1.36

Significance * ** NS * ** SEM, standard error of treatment means; NS, not significant; **, significant at 1% level; *, significant at 5% level

Table 3: Effect of cropping system and variety on grain (q ha-1) and other yield components (t ha-1) of maize -.1997 cropping season

Cropping system Grain yield and other yield components


Sole 59.40 2.49 1.31 7.16 45.44

Intercropped 60.46 2.76 1.45 7.45 45.13

SEM 1.44 0.07 0.14 0.37 1.13

Significance NS NS NS NS NS

Variety

Beletech 57.42 2.39 1.23 6.84b 45.37

BH-140 58.74 2.59 1.41 6.45b 48.08

BH-660 63.64 2.90 1.49 8.63a 42.39

SEM 4.23 0.21 0.13 0.36 2.17

Significance NS NS NS ** NS SEM, standard error of treatment means; NS, not significant; **, significant at 1% level;



Table 4: Effect of cropping system on grain (q ha-1) and other yield components (t ha-1) of maize during the residual effect year - 1998 cropping season



Sole 55.19 1.47 1.11 4.69 55.52

Residual 59.48 1.92 0.60 5.19 53.06

SEM 2.71 0.07 0.42 0.35 1.91

Significance NS * NS NS NS

Variety

Beletech 51.99 1.55 1.09 5.47 49.98

BH-140 60.56 1.64 0.91 4.45 57.11

BH-660 59.45 1.93 0.56 4.91 55.78

SEM 4.21 0.12 0.29 0.55 2.64

Significance NS NS NS NS NS SEM, standard error of treatment means; NS, not significant

Tabe 5: Mean DM yield of Lablab purpureus produced under different maize varieties and incorporated in to the soil for residual effect evaluation

Maize variety Lablab DMY (t ha -1)

1995 1997 mean

Beletech 1.70 1.00 1.35

BH-140 1.80 1.13 1.47

BH-660 1.80 1.25 1.53

References Gardener, W.K.and K. A. Boundy. 1983. The acquisition of phosphorus by Lupinus

albus L. IV. The effect of interplanting wheat and white Lupins on the growth and mineral composition of the two species. Plant and Soil 70: 391-402.

Kelsa Kena 1986. Fertilizer requirement studies for maize (Zea mays L.) production in Ethiopia. In: Desta Beyene (ed.). A review of soil science research in Ethiopia. Proceedings of the first soil science review workshop, 11-14 February 1986, IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

Legesse Dadi, Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun Degu. 1987. Diagnostic survey report No.1. Bako mixed farming system zone, Wollega and Shoa regions, I.A.R, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

Lemma Gizachew and Diriba Geleti. 1996. Research on feed resources of western Ethiopia: achievements and future directions. Paper presented on technology generation, transfer and gap analysis workshop in Nekemte, 12 - 14, November

Feeds and Nutrition


1996.

Lemma Gizachew, Solomon Abegaz and Abubeker Hassen. 1998. Relationships of grain yield with residue for maize genotypes and tef in subhumid western Ethiopia: In: Kidane Giorgis and Yohannes Degagao (eds). Crop Management Options to Sustain Food Security, Proceedings of the third annual conference of Agronomy and Crop Physiology Society of Ethiopia (ACPSE), 29 - 30 May 1997, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

Nnandi, L.A. and I. Haque. 1986. Forage legume - cereal systems: Improvement of soil fertility and agricultural production with special reference to Sub-saharan Africa. In: Haque I., S. Jutzi and P.J.H. (eds). 1986. Potential of forage legumes in farming systems of sub-saharan Africa, proceedings of a workshop held at ILCA, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, 16-19, Sep.1985, ILCA, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

Okigbo, B. N., 1984. Cropping systems and rotations for improving shifting cultivation and related intermitant production systems in tropical Africa. In: Improved production systems as an alternative to shifting cultivation. FAO Soils Bulletin 53: 121-140.

Shelton, H. M. and L. R. Humphreys. 1975a. Undersowing rice (Oryza sativa) with Stylosanthes guianensis. II. Delayed sowing time and crop variety. Experimental Agriculture 11: 97 - 101.

Shelton, H. M. and L. R. Humphreys. 1975b. Undersowing rice (Oryza sativa) with Stylosanthes guianensis. III.Nitrogen supply. Experimental agriculture 11. 103-111.

Tadesse Yohannes. 1989. Effect of green manuring on soil fertility and grain yield of maize. Sebil 2 (1-2), Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.


The effect of improved forages and/or concentrate supplementation on live weight of horro lambs and growing bulls Melese Abdisa, Diriba Geleti, Lemma Gizachew, Temesgen Diriba and Adane Hirpa

Bako Research Center, P. O. Box 3, Western Shewa, Ethiopia

Abstract

Two feeding trials were conducted at Bako Research Center (BRC). Lambs feeding tial was done from 13-05-1999 to 30-06-1999 while growing bulls feeding trial was conducted from 23-06-2000 to 06-06-2000. Both trials were performed with an objective to evaluate the effect of improved forages and/or concentrate supplementation on live weight of Horro lambs and growing bulls. A total of thirty-two ram lambs with similar initial live weight with mean 21.8±0.55kg were allotted to four dietary treatments. Similarly, thirty-two growing Horro bulls with mean live weight of 174±1.71kg were systematically grouped in to four and randomly assigned to four dietary treatments.

For both trials, experimental animals were kept in individual pen and individual feeding was practiced. DMI intake was recorded daily for each individual from the difference of feed offered and refused. Individual animal live weight change was measured every fortnight. Average daily gain (ADG) and dry-matter intake (DMI) data were analyzed as for completely randomized design. Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was calculated from ADG and DMI ratio.

The range of average daily gain, dry-matter intake, and feed conversion efficiency were 30-121g/d; 274.2- 522g/d; 6-44% for lambs, respectively. The ADG of lambs fed on improved forage and concentrate supplements (T2, T3, and T4) gave significantly (p < 0.05) higher mean when compared to lambs fed on the control diet (T1).

Likewise for growing bulls the range of average daily gain, dry-matter intake, and feed conversion efficiency were 125-299g/d; 2641.5-4246.1, and 3-11%,



respectively. Mean ADGs were significantly (p < 0.05) differed with respect to all treatments.

Introduction Despite a relatively high cattle and sheep population in Ethiopia, animal

performance and the return obtained has been low mainly due to poor nutrition. Several experiments with sheep and cattle have shown that animal performance can be improved by supplementation of protein sources (O’Donovan et al., 1978; O’Donovan, 1979 and Mtenga and Nyaky, 1985). The demand for high quality animal protein along with subsistence production of cereal grains calls for an improved forages and by-products which offer the best supplement so that the productivity of animals may be improved.

One of the likely ways of alleviating the problem of insufficient meat production is that of increasing productivity of the native breeds through improved feeding management. Thus, this study was initiated with an objective of evaluating live weight change of Horro lambs and growing bulls through supplementation of different levels of improved forages and /or concentrates.

Materials and Methods Two feeding trials were conducted at Bako Research Center (BRC). Lambs feeding tial was done from 13-05-1999 to 30-06-1999 while growing bulls feeding trial was conducted from 23-06-2000 to 06-06-2000. Bako Research Center is located at about 260 km west of Addis Ababa adjacent to the main road to Nekemte. It is situated at 90 07‘ N longitudes and 370 05‘ E latitudes. An average of thirty-eight years’ meteorological data indicates that the center receives an annual rainfall of 1196 mm with the minimum and maximum temperatures of 140c and 280c respectively. The altitude of the center is 1650m above sea level and the area experiences hot-humid climatic condition.

Trial 1 A total of ninety-two ram lambs were purchased from local market and brought to

BRC where they were housed in individual pen. Among these, thirty-two ram lambs with similar initial live weight with mean 21.8±0.55kg were selected and used as

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experimental units while the remaining sixty ram lambs were used as foundation stock. The experimental animals were systematically grouped into four and randomly assigned to the treatments. This trial was conducted for 114 days and data was analyzed as for Completely Randomized Design (CRD). During the experimental period, ram lambs were fed Cynodon dactylon hay, used as basal diet. Among the eight control ram lambs, four were died due to unidentified health problem. All treatments were formulated in such a way that the nitrogen concentration in total diet is constant. The chemical composition (DM, N, CP) of the experimental diet was as indicated in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Chemical composition of treatment feeds offered to Horro lambs and growing bulls

Feed type DM (%) N (g/kg) CP (%)

Desmodium unicinatum hay 91.59 2.15 13.44

Ground maize 98.38 1.22 7.63

Nouge seed cake 91.97 5.13 32.06

The treatments were:

i. 620g Cynodon dactylon hay ii. 676g (310g Cynodon dactylon hay + 216g ground maize + 150g nuge seed

cake) iii. 812g (310g Cynodon dactylon hay + 216g ground maize + 286g Dolicos

lablab hay) iv. 692g (310g Cynodon dactylon hay + 382g Dolichos lablab hay)

Trial 2 Thirty-two growing Horro bulls, purchased from local market were brought to BRC

and placed in loose tie barn with cemented floor and individual pen. These animals were used as experimental units. They had estimated age of 2 years with mean initial live weight of 174±1.71kg. The growing bulls were systematically grouped into four treatment groups based on their initial live weight, and were randomly assigned to the treatments resulting in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) for data analysis. The four treatments were intended to meet the nitrogen requirement of the groups, isonitrgenous concentration across the treatments, and conducted for 77 days. Accordingly, the four treatments consisted the following proportion of improved forage and/or concentrate supplements:



i. 4910g Chloris gayana hay ii. 3268g C. gayana hay + 1240g ground maize + 393g nuge seed cake iii. 2700g C. gayana hay + 1249g ground maize + 960g D. unicinatum hay iv. 3233g C. gayana hay + 1667g D. unicinatum hay

For both trials, individual feeding was practiced for the adaptation period of 15 days and for the total period of experimental weeks. Water was offered free choice. Supplementary feeds were divided into two halves and offered in the morning and evening. The amount of feed offered and refusals were measured and recorded daily. Daily feed intake was calculated and hence daily dry matter intake (DMI) of the group per treatment was recorded. Animals were individually weighed once in every 14th day and the weight of each was recorded and used in the analysis.

Statistical analysis was carried out using the General Linear Model (GLM) Procedure of SAS (1998). Significant Least Square Mean differences were separated using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test of SAS (1998). Treatment was included as classification variable while initial weight was incorporated as covariate in the model.

Results and Discussion Trial 1

The dry matter intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG), initial live weight (ILW) and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) performances of Horro lambs were shown in Table 2. Mean DMI of lambs varied from 274.2g/d to 522g/d and the mean ADG of lambs ranged from 30g/d to 121g/d.

The greatest mean DMI was observed for control groups (T1) but higher mean ADG was achieved when ground maize was incorporated into the supplements. Feed conversion efficiency of the lambs followed the logical trend of their ADG.

Lambs fed on improved forage and concentrate supplements (T2, T3, and T4) gave significantly (p < 0.05) higher mean ADG when compared to lambs fed on the control diet (T1). The lambs assigned to the second and third treatments showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher mean ADG than on the fourth treatment. On the other hand, no significant mean ADG difference was observed between lambs fed

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diet from treatments two and three. Initial live (ILW) weight as a factor affecting ADG showed no significant difference across all treatments.

The ADG observed in the present trial on Horro lambs under indoor condition was lower than the range 90 to 131 g/d in the same breed lambs under grazing conditions as reported by Solomon (1996) and Melese (2000).

The probable reason why greatest mean ADG increased for lambs on the third treatment when contrasted with their lower mean DMI was the inclusion of ground maize into the supplements indicating that energy is the primary limiting factor for the ADG by the lambs. Such evidence is achieved from the reports of Hai (1998 as cited by Mtenga and Madsen, 1990) who observed the effect of increased supplementation of energy diet on ADG of kids without changing the protein content.

Trial 2 The effect of supplementing improved forage and/or concentrate on ADG of

growing Horro bulls along with mean DMI, ILW and FCE performances were given in Table 3. Growing bulls fed on the first treatment consumed 38%, 30%, and 22% more DM than those bulls on third, fourth and second treatments, respectively. Although animals on treatment one (T1) consumed more DM, highest ADG was recorded for bulls fed on the remaining treatments. This is evidenced by the relatively higher FCE. Non significant effect of ILW on ADG was observed.

Mean ADGs were significantly (P < 0.05) differed with respect to all treatments. The magnitude of the difference ranged from 4 g/d (T3-T2) to 174g/d (T3-T1). This trend may have followed the need of animals for nutritional quality. As animals were supplemented with carbonaceous and proteinaceous concentrate, relatively low DMI but higher ADG was recorded. Highest FCE was observed for the growing bulls fed on T3 while lowest FCE was recorded for the animals fed on T1

In the present trial, addition of concentrate supplements significantly increased ADG over those offered C. gayana alone. This is in agreement with reports of Amsalu and Tesfaye (1997) who evaluated the effects of supplementing urea molasses block and concentrate supplementation on growing Arsi bulls under



grazing condition. Supplementing more concentrate significantly increased the growth rate of the growing bulls although the increase was at a decreasing rate. The improved ADG of bulls fed supplement justify its use in preventing live weight loss during critical dry season period.

Table 2. Mean DMI, ADG, ILW and FCE of Horro lambs fed improved forage and/or concentrate supplements.

LSM±SE Treatment N

DMI (g/d) ADG (g/d) ILW FCE

1 4 522±15.3 30c±10 21.9a±2.5 0.06

2 8 321.8±84 121a6 21.8 a ±0.1 0.38

3 8 274.2±11.4 120a±8 21.8 a ±1 0.44

4 8 312.5±21.2 86b±3 21.8 a ±1 0.27 * Means having different letters within column are significantly different at p < 0.05 *LSM = Least Square Means

Table 3. Mean DMI, ADG, ILW and FCE of growing Horro bulls fed improved forage and/or concentrate supplements

LSM±SE Treatment N

DMI (g/d) ADG (g/d) ILW

FCE

1 8 4246.1±28.3 125d±0.02 173.9 a±3.5 0.03

2 8 3312.8±7.5 295 b ±0.03 174 a±2.9 0.09

3 8 2641.5±16.6 299 a ±0.02 173.9 a±3.7 0.11

4 8 2984.6±11.7 292 c ±0.05 174 a±4.2 0.10 * Means having different letters within column are significantly different at p < 0.05 *LSM = Least Square Means

References Amsalu Sisay and Tesfaye Alemu Aredo. 1997. The effect of Molasses Urea Block and

Concentrate Supplementation on Growth Rate of Arsi Bulls. Proceeding of the 5th National Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 15-17 May 1997. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 228-232.

Melese Abdisa. 2000. Estimation of milk yield and composition, effect of lactation and lamb allowance on pre-weaning performances of Horro lambs. M. Sc. Thesis Submitted to Alemaya University, Alemaya, Ethiopia. pp 74.

Mtenga, L. A. and F. P. Nyaky. 1985. Effect of supplementation on performance of Blackhead Persian and Red Masai lambs. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa. 33(1):43-49.

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Mtenga, L. A. and Madsen, A. 1990. Experiences in protein supplementary feeding of weaned lambs and goat kids in Tanzania: The issue of dietary energy. Small Ruminant Research and Development in Africa. Proceedings of the first Biennial Conference of the African SRRN. 10-14 December 1990. ILRAD, Nairobi, Kenya. pp 387-399.

O’Donovan, P. B. 1979. Fattening crossed and zebu cattle on local feeds and by-products in Ethiopia. World Animal Review. 30: 23-29.

O’Donovan, P. B.; Alemu Gebre-Wold; Beyene Kebede and E. S. E. Galal. 1978. Fattening studies with crossed Ethiopian (zebu) bulls. I. Performance on diets of native hay and concentrate. J. Agri. Sci. 90:425-429.

SAS (Statistical Analysis System). 1998. SAS Languages and Procedures. Introduction, Version 6, First Edition. Cary, N. C.: SAS Institute Inc.

Solomon Abegaz .1996. Performances of ewes lambing at two different periods of rainy season. Proceedings of the 4th National Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 18-19 April 1996. ESAP. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp 86-92.

Acknowledgment The authors would like to extend their heart felt thanks to Mrs. Faked Getachew

and Wagari Keba for their unreserved technical assistance during the experimental period. We are also grateful to Mr. Alemgena Kuri for his cooperation and handling of field activities of the trial.


Herbaceous species composition, dry matter production and condition of the major grazing areas in the mid rift valley of Ethiopia Amsalu Sisay1, Robert Baars2 and Zinash Sileshi3

1Adami Tulu Research Center, P. O. Box 35, Ziway, Ethiopia.

2Alemaya University, P. O. Box 138 Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

3EARO, P.O Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia..

Abstract

A vegetation inventory was conducted in the Mid Rift Valley of Ethiopia to determine the herbaceous species composition, dry matter production and range condition of different grazing areas so as to recommend the possible management option to improve grazing areas of the Valley. The valley was stratified in three altitude zones: bottom (1500-1700 m), medium (1700-2000 m), and top-land (2000-2500 m). Each altitude zone was in turn stratified into 4 or 5 differently grazed areas

Highest proportion of decreasers (48%) and lowest proportion of invaders (8%) were observed in the bottomland. This implies that the bottom-land was less affected by grazing. On the other hand, the high proportion of increasers (71%) and invaders (24%) in the medium altitude showed that grazing areas of the region were heavily grazed and their condition is declining. The unpalatable Pennisetum schimperi was the most dominant grass (30%) in the top land, particularly along roadside and communally grazed areas.

The bottom-land was the highest (P<0.05) in terms of its species composition score and the least (p<0.05) in its total bio-mass indicating that forage production in the region was more affected by moisture stress than grazing pressure. Medium altitude was the lowest (P<0.05) of all in its species composition score. Grazing areas of the top-land with relatively high total biomass (1400 kg/ha) and very low proportion of more palatable grasses (3%)



were affected more by grazing pressure. Range condition in the valley, decreased from good condition to poor as grazing pressure increased from less grazed enclosures to highly grazed lake shore areas. Introduction of improved forages and establishment of fodder banks on seasonally grazed (privately owned) areas will directly or indirectly improve the range condition of the valley.

Introduction In the Mid Rift Valley of Ethiopia the majority of animals are kept by agro-

pastoralist. Cattle are fed mainly on natural pastures. At present, with an increasing cropping activity the grazing pressure increases in the Valley. It is a custom for each owner to aim at keeping as many animals as possible, irrespective of the condition of the animals or availability of pasture. This is partly because livestock are regarded as wealth, and a man's social position and prestige depends on the number of stock he owns, rather than on money or other possessions.

Livestock grazing can have profound impact on vegetation. The general pattern of grazing-induced vegetation change is well documented (Stoddart et al., 1975). It is known that less palatable plants increase at the expense of more palatable species. Community structure is vastly altered when improper grazing continues for long period. Some range research and development works were conducted in the Southern and Eastern rangelands of Ethiopia (Coppock, 1993; SERP, 1995 and Ayana, 1999).

Russell (1984) gave a general description of modal plant community of the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. According to Russell (1984), the Rift Valley has an arid and semi-arid agro-ecology with Acacia bush-land to Acacia wood-land vegetation types which are potential to range production. The report of Russell focused only on the woody, not on the herbaceous composition and range condition. Much less is known about the herbaceous composition and range condition of the Rift Valley in general and that of Mid Rift Valley in particular.

The objectives of this study were, to identify the herbaceous composition; determine the current condition and bio-mass production; and to recommend possible management option to improve the current condition of grazing areas in the Valley.

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Materials and Methods Study Area

The Mid Rift Valley (MRV), sometimes called the lakes region, lies in the central part of Ethiopian Rift Valley extending from 70 05' to 80 00' N and from 380 20' to 380 50' E. The altitude ranges from 1500-2500 m, and the average annual rainfall varies from 600 mm to 1500 mm (EMA, 1999). Rainfall increases with altitude along the Rift Valley escarpment to an approximate annual average of 1600 mm at the 3000 m contour (Russell et al., 1984). The mean minimum and maximum temperatures are 11.4 0C and 26 0C, respectively.

In the MRV, 49 % of the land is used for crop production, 23 % for grazing and 28 % for other purposes (CSA, 1995). Important components of the grazing land of the area are; communal grazing lands (75%), seasonally grazed areas (12%), roadsides (6%), lake shores (5%) and enclosures (3%) (CSA, 1995).

Sampling Procedure Vegetation samples were collected by stratifying the valley in to three altitude

zones: bottom (1500-1700 m), medium (1700-2000 m), and top-land (2000-2500 m). The sampling method used was 'Systematically Stratified Random Sampling Technique". The top-land and the medium altitude were each stratified into four sampling areas: communal grazing, roadside, seasonally grazed and enclosure areas. The bottom-land was stratified into five sampling areas because lake shores, absent in the other two altitude were added. Enclosures are protected and relatively less grazed areas for at least 30 years (National parks, Ranches and Research Centers). These protected and relatively less grazed areas were used as benchmarks for comparison with other grazing areas in their respective altitude zones. A total of 19, 11, and 12 sampling sites were selected from bottom-land, medium altitude and top-land respectively. Each sampling site was further divided into three randomly selected sub-sites. Four samples from each sub-site were randomly sampled using 0.5 x 0.5 m quadrant. Sampling was done from the 15 of August to 15 of September 1999 when almost all the pasture plants were fully-grown to their flowering stage.



Herbaceous Composition Assessment Vegetation within the quadrant was cut at ground level. Then the cut samples

were weighted, and the species composition was determined by hand separating. Almost all the species were identified at the field with the help of guide book (CADU, 1974) and technical personnel. For some others, a representative full plant of each species from each sample was pressed, leveled, and transported to the National Herbarium of Addis Ababa University (AAU) for identification. Vegetation samples from each site were classified into legumes and grasses and thereafter into different species. DM of each species was determined in an oven (60 0C for 72 hr.). Percent composition of each species was determined on DM weight basis.

Range Condition Assessment The factors considered and the criteria for scoring were based on Tainton, (1981)

and Baars (1997). The maximum possible score was 50 points. The rating were interpreted as excellent (41 to 50 points), good (31 to 40), fair (21 to 30), poor (11 to 20) or very poor (3 to 10).

For grass species composition 1 to 10 points were considered. Grasses were divided into decreasers, increasers and invaders according to the succession theory (Dyksterhuis, 1949; Tainton, 1981). Classification of grasses was done by conducting a short and detailed interview with herdsmen about the palatability and distribution of each identified grass species in relation to the intensity of grazing, and cross checking with the list of grasses of the region (CADU, 1974)

For basal and litter cover 0 to 10 points were considered. A representative sample area of 1 m2 was selected for detailed assessments of basal and litters cover. For both cases the m2 was divided into eight. All plants in the selected 1m2 were removed and their basal/litter cover transferred to the eighth in order to facilitate visual estimations. The rating of basal cover for tufted species was considered excellent if the eighth was completely filled (12.5%) or very poor if the cover was less than 3%. The maximum score was given to creeping grasses such as Cynodon dactylon.

Number of seedlings (0 - 5 points) and age distribution (1 - 5 points) The number of seedlings were counted using three areas equal to the size of an A4 sheet of paper

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chosen at random. The category, ' no seedlings', was given 0 points, and more than 4 seedlings, was given the maximum score of 5 points.

For the age distribution scoring, if all age categories, young, medium and old plants of the dominant species are present, the maximum score of 5 points was given. If there were only young plants then, the minimum score (1) was given.

For soil erosion (0 - 5 points) and compaction (1 - 5 points) were considered. Soil erosion was evaluated based on the amount of pedestals (higher parts of soils, kept together by plant roots, with eroded soil around the tuft) and in severe cases the presence of pavements (terraces of flat soil, normally without basal cover, with a line of tufts between pavements). Soil compaction was assessed based on the amount of capping (crust formation).

Statistical Analysis The design used was completely randomized (CRD). The data with 126

experimental units and 15 variables was subjected to analysis of variances using the general linear model (GLM) procedure of SAS. Linear regression procedure was used to determine the relationship of bio-mass with altitude and range condition rating. Duncan's Multiple Range Test was used for mean comparison.

Results Floristic Composition

A total of 36 grass species, 3 legume species, 2 sedge species, 15 shrub/weeds and 31 species of trees were identified. Certain species of grasses fell within a specific altitude range while others appeared in all the three altitude zones (Table 1).

Indicators of heavy grazing such as Cynodon dactylon, Dactyloctenium aegypticum, Eragrostis tenuifolia and Sporobolus pyramidalis were identified along roadsides, communal grazing and lake shores of the bottomland. Specially Cynodon dactylon, which is tolerant to heavy grazing because of its creeping nature was found dominantly (94%) along the roadsides and (54%) in communal grazing areas. Cenchrus ciliaris, a climax species in the arid region and relatively highly palatable was dominantly found in enclosure areas (54%) and seasonally grazed areas (47%).



Out of the total herbaceous species identified in bottom land 91% were grasses, of which 48% were highly palatable and 45% were moderately palatable grasses.

In the medium altitude, the most dominant grass species was Hyparrhenia rufa dominantly found in enclosures (49%) and seasonally grazed (19%) areas. The percentage of Eleusine floccifolia (71%) and Cynodon dactylon (38%) were relatively highest in heavily grazed roadsides and communal grazing areas in the medium altitude. Hyparrhenia species in general and H. rufa and H. tuberculata in particular, were the dominant grass species in the enclosures and seasonally grazed areas of medium altitude. The proportion of highly palatable grasses was relatively low (26%).

Pennisetum schimperi was the most dominant grass (30%) of all herbaceous species identified in the top-land. Heavily grazed areas (communally grazed and roadsides) of the top-land were highly invaded (80% and 99.9% respectively) by densely tufted perennial Pennisetum schimperi, which is not grazed by cattle. In the top land the proportion of highly palatable grasses was very low, only 3% of the total herbaceous species.

Range Condition Analysis Bottomland (1500-1700 m)

The species composition score of enclosure areas, which were dominated by increaser and decreaser such as Cenchrus ciliaris (54%) Chloris gayana (5%) and Pennisetum stramineum (24%) was significantly (p<0.05) higher than all other grazing areas. Seasonally grazed areas which were also dominated by climax species, but moderately palatable (increasers) such as Cynodon dactylon, Eragrostis tenuifolia, Sporobolus pyramidalis and Cenchrus ciliaris, were significantly lower (p<0.05) compared to enclosures and higher (p<0.05) compared to other grazing areas in their species composition score (Table 2)

The basal cover of less grazed (enclosure) areas and heavily grazed (roadside) areas were significantly (p<0.05) higher than communally grazed areas. The species composition, litter cover, number of seedlings per unit area and age distribution of enclosures were significantly (p<0.05) higher than other grazing areas. Seasonally

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grazed areas were, in their number of seedlings per unit area, significantly (p<0.05) higher than lake shores and roadsides. The least (p<0.05) soil erosion score was observed in lake shore areas.

Range condition was good only in enclosures and it was significantly poor in case of lake shores. Range condition score of communal grazing areas was not different (p>0.05) from that of the roadsides and both grazing areas were classified as fair and poor ranges based on their total score. The condition score of seasonally grazed areas was higher (p<0.05) than that of roadsides and lake shores and it was classified as fair condition class. The total condition score or range condition increased from 16.7 (poor condition) to 32.5 (good condition) as grazing pressure decreased from heavily grazed lake shore areas to less grazed enclosures.

Medium altitude (1700-2000 m) In the medium altitude, species composition scores of seasonally grazed,

communally grazed and enclosure areas were similar (p>0.05). Roadsides, which were dominated by Eleusine floccifolia, were significantly (p<0.05) lower than seasonally grazed and communally grazed areas in their species composition scores (Table 3).

The difference between grazing areas in basal and litter cover were significant (p<0.05). The highest (p<0.05) basal and litter cover was observed in enclosures. Roadsides were the lowest (p<0.05) of all in their basal cover. Seasonally grazed areas were higher (p<0.05) in their soil erosion and compaction scores than roadsides and communally grazed areas.

The range condition of seasonally grazed areas with a total score of 23.6 was higher (p<0.05) than that of communally grazed and roadsides. In general the range condition of different grazing areas in the medium altitude decreased from the good condition class to poor condition class as grazing pressure increases from less grazed (enclosure) areas to heavily grazed (roadside) areas.

Table 1: Grass species categories and their distribution in (%) per grazing area and per altitude En = enclosure, Sg = seasonal grazed, Cg = communal grazed, Rs = roadside, Ls = lake shore, D = decreaser, I = increaser, P = pioneer grass species

Grass Species Bottmland

(1500-1700 m) Medium altitude (1700-2000 m)

Top-land (2000-2500 m)

En Sg Cg Ls Rs En Sg Cg Rs En Sg Cg Rs Andropogon chrysostachys Steud. P - - - - - 11.1 3 - 4.9 - - - - Aristida adoensi Hochsts P - 0.2 - - - - 7 - - 0.4 - - - Brachiariamutica (Forsk) Sapf D - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 - - Brachiaria dictyonuera (Fig) I - 1.7 - - - - - - - 1.7 0.3 - - Brachiaria ruziensis Germain. D - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 - - Cenchru ciliaris (L.) Paniceae D 54.4 47.3 16 - - - - 28 - - - - - Cenchruspennisetiformis Hochst. D 0.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - Chloris gayana Kunth. D 4.8 - - - - - - - - 0.3 - - - Chloris pycnothrix Trin. I - - - 2 - - - - - - - - - Cynodondactylon (L..)Pers I - 10.4 54.3 53.4 94 5 0.7 37.6 0.4 - - 4.2 -

Dactylocteniumaegypticum Beau I 2.6 1.8 - 9.2 6 - - - - - - - - Digitaria abyssinica Stapf. I - - - - - - 1.4 - 5.7 - - - - Digitaria adscendes Hener D 0.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - Digitaria gazensis Rendle. I - - - - - - - - - - 0.2 - - Digitaria milanjiana Rendle. D - 1.2 - - - - 3.3 - - - 5.5 - - Digitaria scalarum Chiov. I - - - - - - - - - 11 - - - Digitaria ternata Stapf. I - - - - - 0.2 - - - - 3.3 - - Eleusine floccifolia Spereng. P - - - - - 6.8 9.9 - 71.1 - 0.1 - - Eragrostis atrovirens Steud. I - - - - - - - - - 22 - - - Eragrostis botryodes Clyton I - - - - - - - - - - 1.5 - - Eragrostis paniciformis Steud. I - - 0.2 - - - - - - - - - - Eragrostis tenuifolia Steud. I - 6.8 14.2 - - 21.3 1.5 10.5 11.5 - 2 - - Harpachne schimperi A. Rich. P 0.2 3.8 - - - - - - - - - - - Heteropogon contortus Roen. P 3.2 - - - - - - - 1.2 - - - -

Table1: Continued.

Grass Species Bottmland

(1500-1700 m) Medium altitude (1700-2000 m)

Top-land (2000-2500 m)

En Sg Cg Ls Rs En Sg Cg Rs En Sg Cg Rs Hyparrhenia filipendula Stapf. I - - - - - - - - - 19.4 - - - Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf. I - - - - - - 8.5 - - - - - - Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf. I 3.1 - - - - 48.6 18.7 - - 12 2 10.5 - Hyparrhenia tuberculata Clyton. I - - - - - - 28 - - - - - - Hyparrhenia variabilis Stapf. I - - - - - - - - - - - 2.5 - Microchloa kunthii Desv. P - - 1 - - - - 1.4 - - - - - Panicum maximum Jacq. D - 0.6 - - - - - - - - - - - Pennisetum adoense Steud. I - - - - - - - - - - 52 - - Pennisetum schimperi A. Rich. P - - - - - - 0.3 - - 29.5 4.4 80 99.9 Pennisetum stramineum Peter. I 24 1.5 - 1 - - - - - - - - - Shopae (Oromifa) P - - 24.1 - - - - - - - - - Sporoboluspyramidalis P. Beauv. I 2 6 - 1.4 - - 3.4 - - - 2.6 - - Legumes - - - - - 1.3 - 0.8 - 1 - - Others 5.5 18.7 14.3 8.9 - 7 13 22.5 4.4 3.7 24.5 2.8 0.1



Table 2: Range condition scores (LSM and SE) of different grazing areas in Bottom -land (1500-1700 m).

Enclosures Seasonally grazed

Communally grazed Roadside Lake shore

N 12 9 9 9 18

Basal cover 9.58 ± (0.06)ab 8.55± (0.07)abc 7.88± (0.07)c 9.77 ± (0.07)a 8.38± (0.05)bc

Litter cover 2.00 ± (0.12)a 0.00 ± (0.00)b 0.22 ± (0.14)b 0.00 ± (0.00)b 0.00 ± (0.00)b

No of seedling 3.16 ± (0.05)a 0.66 ± (0.06)b 0.33 ± (0.06)bc 0.00 ± (0.00)c 0.00 ± (0.00)c

Age distribution 5.00 ± (0.00)a 4.00 ± (0.01)b 2.00 ± (0.01)c 2.11 ± (0.01)c 2.00 ± (0.00)c

Soil erosion 3.50 ± (0.04)a 2.88 ± (0.05)b 3.44 ± (0.05)ab 3.11±(0.05)ab 1.88 ± (0.03)c

Soil compaction 3.00 ± (0.06)bc 2.55 ± (0.07)c 4.22 ± (0.07)a 3.33 ± (0.07)b 2.50 ± (0.05)c

Spp composition 6.25 ± (0.10)a 5.88 ± (0.12)b 3.33 ± (0.12)c 2.00 ± (0.12)c 1.83 ± (0.08)c

Total score 32.50 ± (1.04)a 24.55 ± (1.20)b 21.44 ± (1.2)bc 20.33 ± (1.2)c 16.66± (0.85)d

Range condition Good Fair Fair Poor Poor Means with the same letter in a row are not significantly different (p>0.05).

Table 3: Range condition scores (LSM and SE) of different grazing areas in medium altitude (1700-2000 m).

Enclosures Seasonally grazed Communally grazed Roadside

N 6 9 9 9

Basal cover 9.83 ± (0.01)a 9.11 ± (0.1)b 6.00 ± (0.01)c 5.00 ± (0.01)d

Litter cover 4.00 ± (0.00)a 0.00 ± (0.00)b 0.00 ± (0.00)b 0.00 ± (0.00)b

No of Seedlings 1.50 ± (0.09)a 1.00 ± (0.07)a 0.00 ± (0.00)b 0.00 ± (0.00)b

Age distribution 5.00 ± (0.00)a 4.44 ± (0.02)b 2.00 ± (0.02)c 2.00 ± (0.020c

Soil erosion 4.66 ± (0.03)a 3.00± (0.02)b 2.00 ± (0.02)c 2.00 ± (0.02)c

Soil compaction 5.00 ± (0.00)a 3.44 ± (0.02)b 2.00 ± (0.02)c 2.00 ± (0.02)c

Spp composition 1.83 ± (0.12)bc 2.55 ± (0.10)b 4.66 ± (0.10)a 1.33 ± (0.10)c

Total score 31.83 ± (0.43)a 23.55 ± (0.35)b 16.66 ± (0.35)c 12.33 ± (0.35)d

Ranger condition Good Fair Poor Poor Means with the same letter in a row are not significantly different (p>0.05).

Top-land (2000-2500 m) The species composition of roadside areas in the top-land with 99% of unpalatable

Pennisetum schimperi was the least (P<0.05) of all other grazing areas. Though, there were no significant differences in species composition scores among seasonally grazed, communally grazed and enclosures, the differences in total range condition scores of the different grazing areas were highly (p<0.01) significant. Accordingly, enclosures were the highest (P<0.05) in their total score followed by seasonally grazed areas (Table 4).

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The basal cover of roadsides and communally grazed areas were significantly (P<0.05) lower than that of enclosures. Litter cover, vegetation age distribution, soil erosion and compaction scores of seasonally grazed areas were lower (P<0.05) than that of the enclosures.

Table 4: Range condition scores (LSM and SE) of different grazing areas in top-land (2000-25000 m).

Enclosures Seasonally grazed Communally grazed Roadside

N 9 9 9 9

Basal cover 9.33 ± (0.04)a 9.66 ± (0.04)a 7.44 ± (0.04)b 7.00 ± (0.04)b

Litter cover 7.33 ± (0.13)a 3.33 ± (0.13)b 0.00 ± (0.00)c 0.00 ± (0.00)c

No of Seedlings 5.00 ± (0.00)a 2.22 ± (0.11)b 0.22 ± (0.11)c 0.00 ± (0.00)c

Age distribution 5.00 ± (0.00)a 4.33 ± (0.03)b 2.55 ± (0.03)c 3.00 ± (0.03)c

Soil erosion 5.00 ± (0.00)a 3.00 ± (0.06)b 2.66 ± (.06)b 2.00 ± (0.06)c

Soil compaction 5.00 ± (0.00)a 4.11 ± (0.05)b 3.44 ± (0.05)c 3.00 ± (0.05)c

Spp composition 2.00 ± (0.06)a 2.44 ± (0.06)a 2.00 ± (0.06)a 1.00 ± (0.06)b

Total score 38.66 ± (1.09)a 29.11 ± (1.09)b 18.33 ± (1.09)c 16.00 ± (1.09)c

Range condition Good Fair Poor Poor Means with the same letter in a row are not significantly different (p>0.05).

Biomass In bottom-land, the total bio-mass, grass and palatable grass bio-masses were

significantly affected by grazing (Table 5). The total bio-mass orderly decreased from 1470 kg/ha to 61 kg/ha as the range condition goes down from good in enclosures to poor along roadsides. Total bio-mass, total grass, and palatable grass bio-mass of enclosures were the highest (p<0.05) followed by seasonally grazed areas in the medium altitude. In the top-land, seasonally grazed areas, with fair range condition class, produced the highest (p<0.05) total bio-mass. Enclosures, with good range condition class, produced the highest (p<0.05) bio-mass of palatable grasses.

From the linear regression analysis, a positive and significant (P<0.05) relationship was observed between altitude and total herbaceous bio-mass (Y=0.5X–19) but the R-square value was very low (0.15). The relationship of total herbaceous bio-mass and range condition rating was also positive and significant (P<0.01) (Y=0.05X+19) with better R-square value (0.34). A highly significant (p<0.01) and positive (Y=0.09X+17) relationship with higher R-square value of 0.56 was found between palatable grass bio-mass and condition scoring.



Table 5: Biomass (kg/h) as sampled in the mid-wet season of different grazing areas in three altitude zones in the Mid Rift Valley of Ethiopia.

Enclosure Seasonally grazed

communally grazed

Roadside lake shore

Bottom land (1500-1700 m).

Number 12 9 9 9 18

Decreases 871.8 ± 10.6a 282.2 ± 12.3b 41.7 ± 3.0b 0.2± 0.3b 0.00 ± 0.0b

Increasers 466.2 ± 5.5a 161.5 ± 6.3b 179.8 ± 6.4b 61.0 ± 6.4b 179.9 ± 4.5b

Invaders 53.0 ± 1.8ab 23.1 ± 2.1ab 2.1 ± 2.1b 0.0 ± 0.0b 67.8 ± 1.4a

Grass total 1391.1 ± 8.9a 466.9 ± 10.4b 223.7 ± 10.4bc 61.4 ± 2.2c 247.9 ±7.3bc

Legumes 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0

Others 79.2 ± 1.5ab 107.2 ± 1.8a 39.9 ± 1.3bc 0.0 ± 0.0c 25.0 ± 1.2c

Total biomass 1470.3 ± 8.9a 574.1 ± 10.4b 263.7 ± 10.4c 61.4 ± 1.4c 273.0 ± 7.3c

Medium altitude (1700-2000 m).

Number 6 9 9 9

Decreases 0.0 ± 0.0b 41.9 ± 1.6ab 83.5 ± 1.6a 0.0 ± 0.0b

Increasers 1299.0 ± 19.3a 782.9 ± 16.3b 143.8 ± 12.3c 37.0 ± 10.3c

Invaders 317.1 ± 13.8 252.2 ± 11.3 4.2 ± 1.3 161.8 ± 10.3

Grass total 1616.2 ± 22.2a 1079.3 ± 18.0a 232.0 ± 13.0b 198.8 ± 18.0b

Legumes 0.0 ± 0.0 16.2 ± 0.6 0.0 ± 0.0 1.6± 0.2

Others 118.2 ± 3.0ab 167.5 ± 3.0a 67.9 ± 2.0bc 9.4 ± 0.1c

Total biomass 1734.4 ± 24.5a 1263.1 ± 20.0a 299.9± 10.0b 209.8 9.0b

Highland (2000-2500 m).

Number 9 9 9 9

Decreases 0.1 ± 1.0b 160.9 ±4.2a 0.0 ± 0.0b 0.0 ± 0.0b

Increasers 1659.6 ± 19.2a 653.0 ± 1.8b 834.4 ± 8.0b 0.0 ± 0.0c

Invaders 9.5 ± 2.1b 1231.4 ± 31.5a 23.7 ± 5.2b 381.0 ± 7.3ab

Grass total 1670.2 ± 10.3ab 2040.9 ± 31.5a 858.1 ± 9.2bc 381.0 ±3.5c

Legumes 0.0± 0.0 27.5 ± 1.3 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0

Others 64.4 ± 2.1b 561.8 ± 13.4a 0.0 ± 0.0b 0.0 ± 0.0b

Total biomass 1734.6 ± 12.1ab 2629.6 ± 35.4a 858.1± 7.3bc 381.0 ± 2.5c a,b,c,d Means with different superscript in a row are statistically different (p<0.05)

Discussion Bottomland (1500-1700 m )

The orderly change of species composition from highly palatable to less palatable with the increase of grazing pressure agrees with the reports of many researchers

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(Dyksterhuis, 1949; Baars et al, 1996 and Ayana, 1999). As grazing is continued, palatable plants (decreasers) die and with the death of decreasers less palatable plants (increasers) become abundant. As grazing pressure further increases the climax plants may disappear and the invasion of new species comes (Stoddart, 1975).

The possible reason for higher basal cover along the roadsides of the bottomland could be due to increased grazing presser. As grazing pressure increases to a certain limit, the most palatable, tall, erect species (Cenchrus ciliaris) were replaced by creeping, spreading and grazing resistant species such as Cynodon dactylon. Similarly, Stoddart (1975) reported that, often, percent of cover increases as the condition of the range declines, due to the replacement of tall, erect species with low growing, spreading species.

The least soil erosion and compaction score observed in the lake shores indicates that lake shores are used not only as communal grazing but also as watering points. As a result, the trampling effect may be greater in lake shore compared to any other grazing areas in the region. Pluhar et al (1987) reported that over stocking aggravates the hoof effect, which increases the soil bulk density resulting in reduced infiltration.

Medium altitude (1700-2000 m) Similar (P>0.05) species composition scores were observed among different grazing

areas in the medium altitude. This could possibly be due to the fact that under moderate grazing, in enclosures and seasonally grazed areas, the tall growing but less palatable, increasers (H. rufa and H. tuberculata) were dominant. Under heavy grazing, in communal grazing lands, the tall Hyparrhenia species were replaced by Cynodon dactylon, which are also increasers. The above explanation is in line with the report of Harrington and Pratchett (1974) who stated that, under heavy stocking, Hyparrhenia species dominated pasture had been changed to a shorter grasses such as, Cynodon dactylon, Heteropogon contortus and Microchloa caffra dominated pasture.

Range condition score of enclosures was the highest (p<0.05) of all the other grazing areas, but the species composition score which was dominated by invaders



and increasers was not different (p>0.05) from seasonally grazed and even communally grazed areas in the medium altitude. This is likely to happen as enclosures are relatively ecologically stable, in terms of their soil, litter and basal cover, number of seedling per unit areas and age structure. But probably they might have been disturbed some times in the past and their climax plant community might have been changed. That is why, among the dominant species found in the enclosures 18% were invaders such as Andropogon chrysostachys and Eleusine floccifolia and 75% were increasers such as Cynodon dactylon, Eragrostis tenuifolia and Hyparrhenia rufa.

The relationship between bio-mass and range condition in the bottomland and medium altitude agrees with the assumption that forage production is lower in lower condition classes (Dyksterhuis, 1949). He found that poor range condition had lower forage production with less palatable forage than good range condition.

Top-land (2000-2500 m) The possible explanation for the similarity (P>0.05) of species composition scores of

enclosures, seasonally grazed and communally grazed areas is that, in the top-land, where there is good rainfall, under light grazing in enclosures, Hyparrhenia species were dominant as the result of plant-plant competition (Tainton, 1981). Under heavy stocking, the less palatable (increasers) Hyparrhenia species which were dominant in the enclosures were replaced by shorter and more palatable (decreasers) Digitaria species in seasonally grazed areas, and by Cynodon dactylon in Communally grazed areas.

The above explanation is in line with the report of Harrington and Pratchett (1974). They stated that under heavy stocking the Hyparrhenia species dominated pasture had been changed to a pasture dominated by short grass species such as Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria setivalva, Heteropogon contortus, Microchloa caffra and Brachiaria decumbens, which are more palatable.

From the result of species composition score and range condition rating in the top-land , it is possible to say that range condition of a given site cannot be judged by considering only the species composition of the site. This is in line with the reports

Feeds and Nutrition


of Anderson (1985) and James et al (1991), who stated that the method of rating range condition by species composition appears to be not reliable for assessing range condition. Other parameters such as soil condition, ground cover and age structure should be included. Similarly (RISC, 1983) reported that, range monitoring must incorporate 3 components of assessment, the herbaceous layer and soil, and the tree/shrub layer, where it is present.

In the top-land, seasonally grazed areas, with fair range condition class, produced the highest (p<0.05) total bio-mass. On the other hand the bio-mass of palatable grasses was the highest (p<0.05) in enclosures with good condition class. This is because of the higher proportion (80%) of unpalatable Pennisetum schimperi in seasonally grazed areas or lower condition classes. Similarly, James (1991) reported that as the composition of climax species increases in rangeland of good condition, the total herbaceous bio-mass decreases and most of the total bio-mass from the poor condition rangeland is from the unpalatable species.

Conclusion In general, from the result of this study, the bottom-land, with a very good (climax)

grass species composition and fair range condition was found to be potential to range production. Since the palatable grass composition was less affected, it can be said that the region is ecologically at a sub-climax stage of plant succession.

The result of the study showed that in the top-land and medium altitude species composition of grazing areas were poor. In other words more palatable grasses were replaced by less or non palatable invaders. This is the result of high grazing pressure in the highlands resulted from the shortage of grazing land.

This study also showed that range conditions of communally grazed areas in all the three altitude zones were poor while the conditions of seasonally grazed areas were fair. Managerial improvement like introduction of improved forage and establishment of fodder banks can be implemented on seasonally grazed areas, which are privately owned and managed. Improving the quantity and quality of forages and carrying capacity of seasonally grazed areas indirectly improves the condition of communally grazed areas by reducing grazing pressure. in fact some



scientist recommend de-stocking as one option of range improvement. This management option works only in an equilibrium range ecology where all physical factors are predictable, like that of temperate zone.

References Anderson, E. W. 1985. Percent composition versus absolute units of measure-a view

point. Rangeland 7:247-248.

Ayana Angassa. 1999. Range condition and traditional grazing management in Borana. M. Sc thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture. Alemaya, Ethiopia.

Baars, R. M. T; Chileshe, E. C., Kalokoni, D. M. 1996. Range condition in high cattle density Areas in the Western province of Zambia. Tropical Grasslands, 31:569-573.

Central Statistical Authority (CSA). 1995. Agricultural sample survey (1994/95). Report on livestock, poultry and bee hives population. CSA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Chilalo agricultural development unit CADU). 1974. An illustrated guide to the grasses of Ethiopia. CADU, Asella.

Coppock, D. L. 1993. The Borana plateau of southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of pastoral research, development and change, 1980-91. Executive summary. ILCA Systems study 5, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Dyksterhuis, E. J. 1949. Condition and management of rangeland based on quantitative ecology. J. Range management. 2:104-115.

Ethiopian Mapping Agency, 1999. National Atlas of Ethiopia. Pp. 8-9. Addis Ababa Ethiopia.

Harrington, G. N. and D. Pratchett. 1974. Stocking rates in Ankole Uganda. II Botanical changes and the results of esophageal sampling. J. Agri. Sci. 82:507

James, A. T, B. Reldon, and E. Robin Vanhorn Ecret. 1991. Dependence of standing crop on range condition rating in New Mexico. J. Range Management 44:602-5.

Pluhar, J. J., R. W. Knight, and R. K. Heitschmidt. 1987. Infiltration rates and sediment Production as influenced by grazing systems in Texas Rolling Plains. J. Range Management. 40: 240-243.

Range Inventory Standardization Committee (RISC). 1983. Guidelines and terminology for range inventory and monitoring.

Feeds and Nutrition


Russell-Smith, A. 1984. The environment of Ethiopian Rift Valley compared to other areas of Africa. In: Richard Stewart, (ed). ILCA Bulletin. No, 17. ILCA. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

South East Rangeland Project (SERP). 1995. Report of range monitoring and evaluation specialist.Vol. 1 Main report Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.

Stoddart, L. A, A. D. Smith, and T. W. Box. 1975. Range management 3rd edn.. McGraw-Hill, New York, 532pp.

Tainton, N. M. 1981. The ecology of the main grazing lands of South Africa. In: Veld and pasture management in South Africa (ed. N. M Tainton). Shuter and Shooter, Pietermarizburg.


Panicum coloratum and stylosanthes guianensis mixed pasture under varying relative seed proportion of the component species: yield dynamics and intercomponent interaction during the year of establishment Diriba Geleti

Bako Research Center, P.O.Box 3, Western Shewa , Ethiopia

Abstract

The study was conducted at Bako Research Center during the long rainy season of 1999. Seeds of the grass, Panicum coloratum (PC) and the legume, Stylosanthes guianensis (SG) were mixed at varying relative proportions of 100% PC + 0%SG, 75%PC+25%SG, 50%PC+50%SG, 25%PC+75%SG and 0%PC+100%SG. The base seed rate used was 10 kg for Panicum, and 14 kg for Stylosanthes. Two harvests were taken. The first cut was made 71 days after planting and the second cut of the regrowth as well was harvested 71 days after that of the first cut. The traits considered include total herbage DM yield and percent composition of the two species in total forage. Intercomponent interactions were assessed by calculating the relative yield total (RYT) and aggressivity index (Axy). Changes in the botanical composition of the legume component between the two cuts within the main growing season was also assessed by calculating the relative reproductive rate of the species. Low proportion of the grass component in the mixture favored yield and percentage botanical composition of the legume. The percentage contribution to the total DM yield of the grass component was higher during both first and second harvests showing its dominance in the mixture. This was also reflected by the calculated indices of inter-specific competition and dynamics of herbage growth. Planting pattern and climatic and edaphic factors being similar, the mixture in which PC and SG contributed 25 and 75 to the total seed mass, respectively was observed to be optimum



Introduction The study on describing changes in interacting populations over time using

differential equations was started in the early years of the 20th century with applications to animal ecology (Smith, 1980). The analysis of interaction between plant species in mixed stand was also well reviewed (Donald, 1963). De Wit (1960) successfully applied these equations to interacting plant populations. He illustrated his analysis with experiments on an inter-crop of oats and barley grown in a replacement series. In such series, mixtures range from one mono-culture to the other in such away that the sum Z1 +nZ2 are the seed proportions of the two species and “n’’ is a constant by which one species replaces the other in the series. De wit and Van der Bergh (1965) characterized the performance of species in a replacement series by the relative yield (RY). The relative yield describes the response of a particular species to the competition imposed by another species in a mixed stand. The sum of the relative yields of species X and Y has been defined by De Wit and Van der Bergh (1965) as a relative yield total (RYT). The RYT describes the resource complementarity between species in a binary mixture (De Wit and Van der Bergh, 1965). The value assumed by this index indicates whether the species are performing better in a mixture than in mono-culture. Three situations can be identified; RYT =1, RYT>1 and RYT<1, respectively indicating the absence of biological yield advantage, compelementarity in resource use between the two species and the highly aggressive nature of one of the components to the extent that one species poisons the other.

The competitive ability of species X against species Y in a binary mixture is described by the aggressivity index (A), as used by McGilchrist and Trenbath (1971) and changes in botanical composition of the species in the mixture between cycles of harvest can be described by calculating the relative reproductive rate designated as α (De Wit and Van der Bergh, 1965).

Attempts to describe these fluctuations in perennial grass-legume mixtures (Frankow-Lindberg, 1987) and annual or perennial Stylosanthes (Torsell, 1975; Torsell et al, 1975) has been made using this parameter. The objective of this study was to assess the complementarity and competitiveness of the component species

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and yield dynamics across two cycles of herbage harvest using the stated models of plant interaction in Panicum and Stylosanthes mixture.

Materials and Methods Location

The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center (BARC) during the long rainy season of 1999. The BARC is located at 09o6` N latitude and 37o09` E longitude; about 260 km west of Addis Ababa. The altitude is 1,650 m above sea level (IAR, 1991).

Climate Bako area is characterized by a sub-humid mixed farming system. The area

experiences one main rainy season extending from March to October, and the effective rain is from May to September (IAR, 1991). The mean annual rainfall is about 1280 mm with a peak in July. Mean annual temperature is 20 o C, with a mean minimum temperature of 13 o C and with a mean maximum temperature of 27 o C (BARC, meteorological station).

Establishment of plots Seeds of Panicum coloratum (PC) and Stylosanthes guianensis (SG) were mixed

in a replacement series manner (75 % PC + 25 % SG, 50% PC + 50 % SG, and 25 %PC + 75 % SG). The pure stand of each species was also included. These were row planted in plots of 12 m2 area at 30 cm inter-row spacing in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The base seed rates used were 10 kg/ha PC and 14 kg/ha SG. The seeds of SG were scarified by using a sand paper to remove the external coat that may interfere uniform seed germination. The experimental plots were uniformly fertilized with DAP (46 % P2O5 and 18 % N) at planting at a rate of 100 kg/ha.

Determination of the DM yields of the components Two harvests were taken during the long rainy season of 1999. For DM yield

determination, two randomly selected middle rows were harvested. The harvested biomass was separated in to grass and legume components. The fresh weight of each was recorded just after partitioning. Sub-samples of each component were dried in



forced draught oven at 65 0c for 72 hours to determine the DM percent. This percentage DM was used to determine herbage yield on DM basis.

Calculation of the interaction indices The DM yield of PC grown in association with SG (DMps) and SG grown with PC

(DMsp) in a replacement series mixture (75 PC + 25 SG, 50 PC + 50 SG, and 25 PC + 75 SG) were compared to those in their respective monocultures (DM pp) and (DM ss) by calculating the relative yield (RY) of PC and SG (De Wit, 1960):

( ) ( ) ( ) DM DM = ppps ÷PRY

( ) ( ) ( ) DM DM = sssp ÷SRY

The relative yield total (RYT) was calculated according to the formula of De Wit (1960):

( ) ( ) SRY PRY = +RYT

The competitive ability of PC against SG in a mixture was described by calculating the aggressivity index (Aps) as described by McGilchrist and Trenbath (1971):

( ) ( )( )

( )( )ssDMspDM -

ppDMpsDM = psA

The proportional change of the component species between the first and the second cut was assessed by calculating the relative reproductive rates (αsp) of the component species. This parameter was calculated for SG according to the formula of De Wit and Van der Bergh(1965):

⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛÷⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛

1

1

2

2

X-1X

X-1

X = spα

and that of PC was obtained as

spps

αα 1

=

where: X2 = proportion of SG during the second harvest and X1 = proportion of SG during the first harvest.

Statistical Analyses Analysis of variance for the DM yield was done using MSTATC computer software.

Significant mean differences were declared using least significant difference (LSD) test.

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Results and Discussion The total DM and the percentage composition of the two species is given in Table 1.

During the first harvest, highest total DM was obtained from the 50% PC: 50% SG proportion. During the second harvest, highest total fodder yield was recorded from the 25 : 75 mixture. The percentage contribution of Panicum coloratum to total forage was generally high indicating its dominance in the mixture. For both harvests, higher legume proportion was observed for the 25% PC and 75% SG mixture.

Relative yields (RY) of both species and relative yield totals (RYT) are given in Table 2. During the first harvest, the relative yields of both PC and SG were less than one indicating that the yields obtained in the pure stands were greater than those obtained from the mixed stands. Mean values of the RYT were also less than one except for the 25% PC and 75% SG mixture suggesting no herbage yield advantages from the remaining combinations. The RYT of 1.41 obtained from this mixture indicates that there is a yield advantage of 41 percent over the sole grown stands. It also implies that the two species were, at least, partly complementary in resource use. This may happen when the growth periods of the two species are partly overlapping or when they are using plant growth resources from varying soil depths. This observation is in agreement with what was reported by Daniel (1990) for Rhodes grass and Lucerne mixed pasture . This scenario could also be attributed to the efficient utilization of plant growth factors by species in the mixture due to either temporal or spatial differences of their demands. In situations where the RYT is greater than one, there is a biological yield advantage in mixed cropping.

The RY values of PC during the second harvest were all greater than one which suggests the higher yield for PC in the mixture than those obtained from the pure stand plots. This may suggest the occurrence of biological N fixation in the root nodules of the legume and its transfer from the legume component to the grass that might have supported the growth of the grass. For SG, yields from the pure stand plots were higher than those obtained from the mixed stand plots as indicated by the relative yield values in Table 2.

The mean values of the RYT during the second harvest (Table 2) were all greater than one implying the presence of some yield advantages from the mixture



treatments. This suggests that the two species were not strictly competing for the same factor of growth. The higher yield advantage of 77 percent was obtained from the mixture treatment where PC contributed 25 percent and SG 75 percent to the total seed mass of the mixture (Table 2).

Aggressivity index values shown in Table 3 for PC during the first and the second harvest reflected the dominance of PC in the mixture and in all treatments SG was observed to be the dominated component. Aggressivity indices obtained for PC during the second harvest were higher than those obtained during the first harvest indicating greater aggressivity of PC during the second phase of development.

The relative reproductive rates of PC (Table 4) in the replacement series treatments were greater than one except in the treatments where 75 PC and 25 SG were mixed indicating a higher proportion of PC in the second for the rest treatments. Similarly, the values of the relative reproductive rates of SG (Table 4) were greater than unity indicating the higher proportion of SG during the second harvest as compared to the first harvest. This is an indicator of the improvement in the performance of Stylosanthes in the mixture during the second phase of growth although the aggressivity index values of the grass were even higher than the first growing season.

Conclusion In conclusion, Dm yield trends inter-component competition and aggressivity

indices reflected the dominance of the grass component in the mixture. The parameter for the dynamics of proportional change of the component species in the mixture indicated the improvement in the proportion of Stylosanthes during the second harvest as compared to the first harvest.

When the proportion of the grass component was reduced to 25 percent of the total seed mass of the mixture Stylosanthes guianensis exhibited better performance. In the same token, relative yield totals for the first and the second harvests reflected a respective biological yield advantage of 41 and 77 percent for 25% PC and 75% SG proportion. Given the planting pattern in the present study and similar climatic and

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edaphic features, the proportion in which PC and SG contributed 25 and 75 percent to the total seed mass, respectively could be considered optimal.

Table 1: Total herbage DM yield (t/ha) and the percentage composition of the two species during the first and the second harvest in Panicum and Stylosanthes mixed pasture

Seed proportion Total DM yield Percent Panicum Percent Stylosanthes

PC SG First Second First Second First Second

75 5.55 5.08 82.28 73.23 5.08 4.73c

50 6.12 4.38 66.49 74.23 3.94 10.82bc

25 6.07 5.93 79.86 82.79 11.69 11.55b

Significance NS NS NS NS NS ***

S.E.M. 1.18 0.58 10.11 6.05 0.16 1.50

S.E.M., standard error of a mean; NS = non significant; *** significant at P<0.001

Table 2: Relative yields (RY) and relative yield totals (RYT) of Panicum coloratum and Stylosanthes guianensis during the first and the second harvests

Seed proportion

First Harvest Second Harvest

PC : SG RY(P) RY(S) RYT RY(P) RY(S) RYT

75 :25 0.784 0.045 0.830 1.256 0.070 1.327

50 : 50 0.816 0.100 0.918 1.165 0.166 1.331

25 : 75 0.765 0.647 1.412 1.541 0.230 1.771

Significance NS NS NS NS NS NS

S.E.M 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.02 0.22

S.E.M, standard error of the mean;NS = non significant



Table 3: Aggressivity index of Panicum coloratum during the first and the second harvest for Panicum and Stylosanthes mixed pasture

Seed proportion Forage harvesting cycle

PC : SG First harvest Second harvest

75 : 25 0.739 1.186

50 : 50 0.717 1.000

25 : 75 0.117 1.300

Plevel NS NS

S.E.M. 0.28 0.24

S.E.M, standard error of the mean; NS = not significant

Table 4. Relative reproductive rates for Stylosanthes guianensis and Panicum coloratum at varying relative seed proportions of the component species

Seed Proportion Forage species

PC : SG Stylosanthes Panicum

75 : 25 5.24 0.29

50 : 50 7.52 2.16

25 : 75 1.03 4.80

Significance. NS NS

S.E.M. 3.45 1.84

S.E.M, standard error of the mean; NS = non significant;

References Daniel K. 1990. Effect of developmental stage at harvest, N application and moisture

availability on the yield and nutritional value of Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana Kunth) - Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) pastures. Ph.D. Thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.

De Wit, C. T. 1960. On competetion. Vers. Landbouwk. Onderz. 66: 8.

De Wit, C. T. and J. P. Van der Bergh. 1965. Competetion between herbage plants. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 13: 212 - 221.

Donald, C. M. 1963. Competetion among crop and pasture plants. Adv.Agron. 15: 1-118.

Frankow-Lindberg, B.E. 1987. Lucerne-grass swardswith different nitrogen application and grass components. 3: Botanical composition at different times. Swedish J, Agric. Res. 17: 193-197.

IAR (Institute of Agricultural Research). 1991. Meteorological data for IAR centers, subcenters and trial sites. IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Miscellaneous Publications No. 1.

Feeds and Nutrition


McGilchrist, C. A. and B. R. Trenbath. 1971. A revised analysis of plant competetion experiments. Biometrics 27: 659 - 677.

Smith, R.L. 1980. Ecology and Field Biology. Harper and Row publishers, New York.

Torsell, B.W.R. 1975. Stability of the Townsville Stylo-annual grass pasture ecosystemon cleared Tippera clat loam. Aust. J. Exp.Agric and Anim. Husb. 15: 671-678.

Torsell, B. W. R. , J.R. Ive and R.B. Cunningham. 1975. Competition and population dynamics in legume - swards with Stylosanthes hamata (L.) Taub (Sens.Lat.) and Stylosanthes humilis (H. B. R.). Aus. J. Agric 27: 71-83.


Effect of seed rate proportion of panicum coloratum and stylosanthes guianensis on forage dry matter yield, yield components and nutritional quality of the mixture Diriba Geleti

Bako Research Center, P.O.Box 3, Western Shewa, Ethiopia

Abstract

The study was conducted to determine optimum seed proportion of Panicum coloratum (PC) and Stylosanthes guianensis (SG) when planted together for the purpose of developing a balanced mixture with higher herbage yield and quality. The seed proportion treatments studied were: 100% PC + 0%SG, 75%PC+25%SG, 50%PC+50%SG, 25%PC+75%SG, 0%PC+100%SG and 100%PC + 100% SG. The base seed rate used was 10 kg/ha and 14 kg/ha for Panicum and Stylosanthes , respectively. The data recorded include seedling count (SC), total and component species dry matter yield (DMY), leaf yield (LY), stem yield (SY), panicle yield (PY), plant height (HT), stand density (STD), leaf to stem ratio (LSR) and number of lateral branches per main stem (NOB) for Stylosanthes. The concentration of crude protein, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), cellulose, hemicellulose, in vitro DM digestibility (IVDMD), calcium and phosphorus in forage samples were also determined. Significant effect of seed proportion treatments was observed for DMY of Stylosanthes and weed, STD for Panicum, HT for Stylosanthes, SC for Stylosanthes and Panicum and NOB for Stylosanthes. On the other hand, total DMY, percentage composition of Panicum, Stylosanthes and weed, HT, LY, SY and LSR for Panicum were not significantly influenced by seed proportion treatments. No appreciable inter treatment variability was observed for the chemical composition and IVDMD values and the crude protein percentage did not generally fall below the critical dietary levels required for maintenance in ruminant animals. The percentage contribution to the total DM yield of the grass component was higher indicating the dominance of the grass in



the mixture. This situation resulted in decrement of yield and percentage composition of the legume component. Considering the percentage contribution to total forage yield of the two species and over all total yield, the treatment in which the grass and the legume contributed 25 and 75 percent to the total seed mass, respectively resulted in optimal forage yield.

Introduction Development of grass and legume mixed pasture is one of the recognized strategies

for enhancing the quality and quantity of feed resources. Forage quality and seasonal distribution from grass and legume mixtures are superior to that of sole grown stands (Daniel, 1990). With the recent emphasis on low input production system, such forage production strategy could play an important role in maintaining high forage yield without the addition of N fertilizer. Results of research works in the tropics (Daniel, 1990; Lemma et al, 1993) have indicated that grass and legume mixtures significantly contribute to total herbage yield and quality. The DM yield and animal output from natural pasture reinforced by Stylosanthes guianensis was found to be promising (Lemma et al, 1993) in sub-tropical areas of Western Ethiopia.

The persistency and contribution to total forage yield of the legume component in a mixed stand depends, among other factors, on the relative seed proportion of the component species. Onifade (1994), for example, has reported a progressive increase in the contribution of the legume component to total forage mass as the seed proportion of the legume increases. Nevertheless, the same author indicated an optimum seed proportion for Rhodes-Stylosanthes mixture to be 3:7 kg, respectively. To establish a balanced grass and legume mixed pasture, determination of an optimum seed proportion, therefore, is indispensable. The cost of establishment due to high seed rates and poor stand and delayed establishment that result from low seed rates can be avoided by first investigating the performance of the mixture at varying seed proportions. The objective of this study was to determine optimum seed proportion of Panicum and Stylosanthes for the development of balanced and productive mixture.

Feeds and Nutrition


Materials and methods Location

The study was conducted at Bako Agricultural Research Center (BARC) during the long rainy season of 1999. The BARC is located at 09o6` N latitude and 37o09` E longitude; about 260 km west of Addis Ababa. The altitude is 1650 m above sea level (IAR, 1991).

Climate Bako area is hot and receives a high rainfall. The area experiences one main rainy

season extending from March to October, but the effective rain is from May to September (IAR, 1991). The mean annual rainfall is about 1280 mm with a peak in July. Mean annual temperature is 200C, with a mean minimum temperature of 130C and with a mean maximum temperature of 270C (BARC, meteorological station). The soil of the area is dominantly reddish brown Nitosols. They are generally clay dominated and characterized by a low available phosphorus with a pH ranging from 5.3 to 6. Insurface soils (Dawit and Legesse, 1987).

Treatments and experimental design Seeds of Panicum coloratum (PC) and Stylosanthes guianensis (SG) were mixed at

different relative seed proportions (75 % PC + 25 % SG, 50% PC + 50 %, 25 % PC + 75 % SG and 100 % PC + 100 % SG). The pure stands of each species were also included for comparison purposes. These were row planted in plots of 12 m2 area at 30 cm inter-row spacing in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The base seed rates used were 10 kg/ha for PC and 14 kg/ha for SG. The base seed rates for the two species were observed to be optimum for herbage production from the observations made earlier at Bako Research Center. The seeds of SG were scarified by using a sand paper to remove the external coat that may interfere uniform seed germination. The experimental plots were uniformly fertilized with DAP (46 % P2O5 and 18 % N) at planting at a rate of 100 kg/ha.

Data collection procedures Seedling count (SC)

Two quadrants (0.25m * 0.25 m ) were randomly placed in each plot and the seedlings within these quadrants were counted and the average of the two quadrants



was recorded for each plot two weeks after planting. This was done with the intention to assessing the variation in number of growing plants that can be achieved under the different seed rate proportions at least at the early growth stage of the pasture.

Plant height (HT) The plant height for each species was determined by measuring the height of ten

randomly selected plants from ground level to the tip of the main stem to assess any differential response of the two species to the seed proportion treatments used. The average of the ten plants was taken for each plot.

DM yield Herbage biomass was cut from the middle rows of the plots when the grass

component reached 50% flowering stage. The harvested biomass was then separated into grass, legume and weeds. The fresh weight of each component was recorded just after mowing. Sub-sample of each treatment was dried in the oven at 650C for 72 hours to determine the DM percent. A composite sample of the dried forage material for each treatment was saved for laboratory analyses after grinding to pass through 1mm sieve in a Willey mill.

Botanical composition (%PC and %SG) Percentage contribution to the total DMY of the sown grass, sown legume and

weed components were determined by dividing the dry matter yield of each of the components by the total DMY obtained for each treatment.

Leaf (LY), stem (SY) and panicle yields (PY) The LY, SY and PY were determined by harvesting a section of a row from

randomly selected middle rows. Two samples of 25 * 30 cm area were harvested, stored in a plastic bag and transported to Animal Feeds and Nutrition Laboratory of BARC. The harvested samples were separated into leaf, stem and panicle components on a neat canvas sheet in the laboratory. The sheath was lumped with the leaf and hence the leaf proportion is composed of these two plant parts. Fresh weight of the component was weighed using an electronic sensitive balance. Composite sample for each was oven dried at 60 o C for 72 hours and the DM content was determined. The leaf to stem ratio (LSR) was determined by dividing leaf DM to that of stem.

Feeds and Nutrition


Stand density at harvest (STD) The stand density at harvest was determined by counting the number of plants

from a sampling area of 0.6 m2. This sampling units were randomly selected and permanently marked using wooden stakes during the early age of the pasture. During herbage harvest for DMY determination all plants within the marked unit were mowed and stand counts were made for PC. The stand density at harvest for Stylosanthes guianensis was determined by counting successfully established and surviving plants at herbage cut.

Number of lateral branches per main stem (NOB) The NOB growing out from the main stem buds for Stylosanthes during the first

growing phase of the mixture study was determined by counting the number of branches per plant from 10 randomly selected plants per plot.

Analysis of forage samples Weighing of feed samples for chemical analysis was done by the “hot weighing”

procedure. The concentration of N was analyzed using the Kjeldhal procedure and crude protein was determined by multiplying percent N by the factor 6.25. Analysis of neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) followed the the procedures described by Goering and Van Soest (1970). Hemicellulose was determined by subtracting ADF from NDF. Cellulose was determined by subtracting ADL from ADF. The determination of Ca was done using the atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer, 1982). The concentration of P was determined by the autoanalyzer (Chemlab, 1978). A modified two stage in vitro Tilley and Terry technique (1963) was used to determine in vitro DM digestibility.

Statistical Analyses Analysis of variance was done using MSTATC computer software. Significant

mean differences were declared using least significant difference (LSD) test procedure

Results and Discussion Effect of seed proportion on DM yield and other yield components

Variance ratios and levels of significance from the analysis of variance for different yield and yield components of Panicum (PC) and Stylosanthes (SG) mixed pasture during the first harvest are summarized in Table 1. The total DM yield (TDMY), DMY



of PC, percent composition of PC, SG and weeds and plant fraction yields of PC were not significantly affected by seed proportion during the first harvest. Significant treatment effect on DMY of SG and weed, STD of PC and SG and LSR of PC was also observed

The total DMY and the botanical composition of the component species are given in Table 2. Though the mean values were not significantly different, higher TDMY for the first cut was obtained from the mixture where 100 percent PC was planted with 100 percent SG. In all mixture treatments, PC was observed to be the dominant species and the highest percentage composition value was obtained from the treatments where 100 percent PC was planted with 100 percent SG. No statistically significant difference of percentage composition, however, was observed. Weed yield for pure stand plots was low. At the same time, percentage composition of SG did not significantly vary with varying levels of SG in the mixture (Table 2) and the trend was not consistent.

Except for the treatments in which proportion of SG was 75 percent in total seed mass, botanical composition values of less than ten were obtained for the mixture treatments with the least value being from 100 percent PC and 100 percent SG combination. This may be due to interspecies competition. The generally lower percentage values of SG was apparently due to the aggressivity of the grass component which affected the performance of SG by competing for plant growth resources. From the observations made during the experimental period, it was clear that the grass component was highly aggressive and had a fast growth rate as compared to the legume component. Results reported elsewhere for grass-clover mixed stands do also agree with this observation. A vast number of studies on grass legume mixtures (Frame and Newbould, 1986; Schwank et al, 1986; Woledge, 1988) have revealed that the fast growth rate and aggressivity of the grasses do result in yield reduction of the legume. The important factor in most of the reported cases was the change in the light environment particularly at the canopy level of the legumes (Thomson and Harper, 1988; Solangaarachchi, 1987; Schwank et al, 1986), which might have resulted in reduced photosynthesis. Although weeds were being removed by hand weeding, their percent contribution to the total DM yield was

Feeds and Nutrition


found to be high. This was specially true for those treatments in which the seeds were mixed in a replacement series manner. In the mixture in which both SG and PC mixed at 100 percent proportions, the percentage value of weed was lesser.

Mean values of SC, DMY and other yield components of PC are given in Table 3 for the different seed proportion treatments. There was a significant treatment effect on seedling count. A decreasing trend was observed with decreasing seed proportion in the mixture. The effect of seed proportion on DMY was not significant. This lack of variation could be attributed to the ability of the grass to develop productive tillers that filled the gaps as described by Boonman (1993). The LY, SY, PY and LSR were not significantly influenced by the proportion of the seed in the mixture. The effect of seed proportion in the mixture on the STD at harvest was highly significant.

The DMY and yield components of SG in pure stands and mixtures during the first harvest are given in Table 4. Seed proportion significantly influenced SC, DMY, HT, STD and number of lateral branches per main stem (NOB). Mean SC showed an increasing trend with increasing seed proportions. The highest DMY for SG was obtained from the sole plots followed by the plots in which the mixture constituting 75 percent SG and 25 percent PC was used.

Plant height for SG was generally high in those treatments where it was grown in mixture with PC as compared to the sole grown plots, the highest being when grown with 25 percent PC. The taller height observed for SG in the mixture treatments as compared to the sole plots could be attributed to the reduction in photosynthetically active radiation that reaches the legume component. Woledge (1988) reported taller height exhibited by a less dominant component in a mixed stand to be a photocontrolled morphological reaction which he evidently suggested as a response that serves the less competent species by elevating the photosynthetically active leaves to more well-lit parts of the canopy.

The number of lateral branches developing from the main stem buds was nil or low for those treatment combinations in which the seed proportion of the grass component was higher in the mixture (Table 4). This is in agreement with what was



reported for Trifolium repens grown with Timothy (Phleum pratense) in a situation where the grass component was dominant (Dennis and Woledge, 1987; Devies and Evans, 1990). The depressive effect of the grass component on the number of lateral branches could be ascribed to radiation induced changes in the assimilate partitioning pattern within as suggested by Soussana et al (1995), Thompson (1993), and Thompson (1996).

Effect of seed proportions on chemical composition and in vitro DM digestibility

The percentage chemical composition and in vitro DMD values of PC in pure stand and in mixtures with SG at different relative seed proportions is given in Table 5. Wide variations among treatments were not observed. The percentage crude protein ranged from 8.31 to 9.56. All values were above the critical level of 7.5 percent reported to be required for optimal rumen function (Van Soest, 1982) and posetive N balance (Milford and Haydock, 1965). Norton (1982), on the other hand, has indicated a critical crude protein level required to support lactation and growth to be 15 percent. This suggests the need for supplementation in dairy cattle management.

The NDF content of the samples ranged from 71.98 to 75.12 percent with a mean value of 73.41. All values lie above the critical level of 60 percent which was reported to result in decreased voluntary feed intake, feed conversion efficiency and longer rumination time (Shirley, 1986; Reed and Goe, 1989). According to Van Soest (1965), the critical level of NDF which limits intake was reported to be 55 percent. All samples of PC contained an NDF value above this critical level. The ADF values ranged from 43.79 to 47.69 with an average value of 45.81. Percentage lignin composition varied between 5.98 to 6.65 and no appreciable variability was observed with varying seed density treatments. Cellulose was found to be the dominant component of the cell wall followed by hemicellulose. The values ranged from 37.67 to 41.12 for the former and from 25.69 to 28. 75 for the latter.

The in vitro DM digestibility values in the samples of PC varied from 55.74 to 60.0 percent. All samples had values which are less than the percent reported to be adequate for optimal digestion (Mugerewa et al, 1978). The P content of the feed samples ranged from 0.16 to 0.19 percent. Except the treatments in which the

Feeds and Nutrition


species were combined in 100 percent each and the one grown in a pure stand, the P values were found to be adequate for the requirements of beef animals (NRC, 1980). For all the samples, concentration of Ca was almost equal. The concentration of Ca ranged from 0.57 to 0.66 percent. The values were higher than those critical figures reported for a lactating animal (Flaming, 1973; McDowell, 1985), beef cattle (NRC, 1984) and small ruminants (NRC, 1975; NRC, 1981).

Percentage chemical composition and in vitro DMD values for SG are given in Table 6. The crude protein content of SG ranged from 17.6 to 19.81 percent. These values are higher than the threshold level reported to be optimal for production or growth (Norton, 1982). The NDF ranged from 55.85 to 57.61. The limitation of NDF to the nutritive value becomes critical when its concentration exceeds 60 percent in the DM of forages (Shirley, 1986; Reed and Goe, 1989). The NDF values observed in this study were below this threshold level. The concentration of cellulose in the samples ranged from 33.58 to 36 percent. Among the cell wall components, cellulose had a higher contribution to total cell wall. The hemicellulose component varied from 5.53 to 6.43 percent. The concentration of lignin ranged from 15.24 to 17.83. Senescened leaves from the lower canopy layer might have contributed to the higher lignin concentration in some samples of SG. Stressful environmental conditions during the growing season have also been reported to result in higher lignin concentration in plant tissues (Akin,1977; Akin et al, 1983).

The in vitro DM digestibility values ranged from 59.28 to 63.16 percent. The P concentration ranged from 0.18 to 0.29 percent with an average value of 0.22 percent. The values of P were observed to be greater than the minimum value required for beef cattle (NRC, 1984) and higher than that required for small ruminants (NRC, 1975; NRC,1981; ARC,1980). The concentration of Ca was observed to range from 1.82 to 1.96 percent with a mean value of 1.88. This level of Ca is higher than the amounts reported to be sufficient for dairy and beef animals and small ruminants (ARC, 1980; NRC, 1984; 1975; 1987).

Conclusion The percentage contribution to the total DM yield of the grass component was

higher indicating the dominance of the grass in the mixture. This resulted in the



reduction of yield and percentage composition of the legume. Wide variation between treatments was not observed on the chemical composition of Panicum. Crude protein content did not fall below the maintenance requirement. The neutral detergent fiber was high and the in vitro DM digestibility values were low. Similar observations wera made for Stylosanthes but the crude protein concentration was high, the neutral detergent fiber was comparatively low and the DM digestibility was satisfactory when compared with reported critical dietary levels. Considering yield and other quality parameters, a 25:25 proportion of Panicum to Stylosanthes was found to be a promising combination for developing a balanced mixed pasture. Finally, as cutting regime is one of the most important factors affecting the growth dynamics of species in a mixed stand, a comprehensive study is required in the future.

Table 1: Variance ratios and levels of significance as a result of the analysis of variance with total dry matter yield (TDMY), component species yield, yield of plant components, and percent composition of the component species.

Variable description F-values and level of significance

Total DMY 0.80NS

DMY for PC 0.84NS

DMY for SG 30.64***

DMY for weed 8.28***

Percent PC 1.22NS

Percent SG 1.61***

Percent weed 1.93NS

HT for PC 0.80NS

LY for PC 1.93NS

SY for PC 2.74NS

PY for PC 0.62NS

STD at harvest for PC 18.32***

STD at harvest for SG 10.22***

HT for SG 21.38***

SC for SG 15.28***

SC for PC 3.73*

NOB for SG 112.40***

LSR for PC 4.17*

* = significant at 5 %; *** = significant at 0.1 %; NS = not significant

Feeds and Nutrition


Table 2: Total dry matter yield (TDMY) and percentage composition of the component species (% PC, % SG, and %W) for Panicum/Stylosanthes mixed pasture

Proportion

PC : SG TDMY (t/ha) % PC % SG % W

100: 0.00 6.98 95.54 ---- 3.46

75 :25 5.55 82.28 5.08b 16.18

50 :50 6.12 66.49 3.94b 29.56

25 : 75 6.07 79.86 11.69b 8.46

0.00 : 100 1.34 ----- 100a ----

100 : 100 8.25 92.89 2.24b 4.86

Prob#. NS NS *** NS

s.e.m. 1.18 10.11 0.16 0.17 # levels of probability; NS = not significant; s.e.m.= standard error of the mean

Table 3: Seedling count (SC), dry matter yield (DMY), plant height (HT), leaf yield (LY), stem yield (SY), panicle yield (PY), leaf to stem ratio (LSR) and stand density (SD) of Panicum coloratum in pure stands and in mixtures

Proportion SC

(no./0.265 m2)

DMY (t/ha)

HT

(cm)

LY (t/ha) SY (t/ha) PY (t/ha) LSR STD (no./0.6

m2)

PC : SG

100: 0.0 100 6.70 116.65 2.41 2.04 0.23 1.21 295.8ab

75 :25 64 4.73 114.43 1.76 1.85 0.26 1.15 223.0bc

50 : 50 60 4.99 106.8 2.01 0.76 0.15 2.15 202.5cd

25 : 75 41 4.82 102.15 1.45 1.86 0.23 0.98 155.5d

100 :100 80 7.17 115.38 2.35 1.68 0.18 1.75 338.0a

Prob.# * NS NS NS NS NS NS ***

s.e.m 11.52 1.20 7.06 0.31 0.31 0.07 0.51 0.04

* = significant at 5 %; *** = significant at 0.1 %; NS = not significant; s.e.m. = standard error of the mean; Ψ means within column followed by common letters are not significantly different from each other; # levels of probability



Table 4: Seedling count (SC), dry matter yield (DMY), plant height (PH), stand density (STD) and number of lateral branches (NOB) for Stylosanthes guianensis in pure stand and in mixtures during the first harvest

Proportion

PC : SG SC

(no./0.265m2) DMY

(t/ha)

HT

(cm)

STD

(no./0.6m2) NOB (no./stem)

75 : 25 16.38bΨ 0.10b 30.35cd 29.50d 0.00b

50 : 50 27.13b 0.13b 43.71ab 43.00cd 0.18b

25 : 75 47.13b 0.48b 48.38a 125.25ab 0.90b

0.0 : 100 57.50a 1.34a 26.81d 271.00a 5.65a

100 : 100 56.00a 0.17b 36.43bc 104.25bc 0.00b

Prob#. *** *** *** *** ***

s.e.m. 4.68 0.025 1.94 30.11 0.23 *** = significant at 0.01 %; s.e.m. = standard error of the mean; Ψ means within column followed by common letters are not significantly different; # probability levels

Table 5: Percentage chemical composition and in vitro DMD (% DM) of Panicum coloratum grown in mixture with Stylosanthes guianensis at varying relative seed proportion

PC : SG CP P NDF ADF Lignin Cell. HC DMD Ca

100 : 0.0 8.69 0.17 73.83 47.36 6.65 40.71 26.47 55.74 0.57

75 : 25 9.13 0.18 73.38 47.69 6.57 41.12 25.69 57.68 0.65

50 : 50 8.69 0.19 72.69 43.84 6.17 37.67 28.75 60.00 0.66

25 : 75 9.56 0.18 71.98 43.79 5.98 37.81 28.19 59.76 0.60

100 : 100 8.31 0.16 75.12 46.38 6.17 40.21 28.74 56.44 0.60

Mean 8.88 0.18 73.40 45.81 6.31 39.50 27.57 57.79 0.62

Cell., cellulose; HC, hemicellulose; P, phhosphorus; Ca, calcium

Table 6: Percentage chemical composition and in vitro DMD (%DM) of Stylosanthes guianensis grown in mixture with Panicum coloratum at varying relative seed proportions

SG:PC CP P NDF ADF Lignin Cell. HC DMD Ca

25:75 17.62 0.22 57.48 51.82 17.83 33.99 5.66 60.19 1.96

50:50 18.87 0.21 56.20 49.77 15.24 34.53 6.43 61.49 1.90

75:25 19.81 0.21 57.61 50.78 15.52 35.27 6.82 60.51 1.82

100:0 19.56 0.29 55.85 50.21 16.63 33.58 5.64 63.16 1.82

100:100 17.75 0.18 57.20 51.67 15.67 36.00 5.53 59.28 1.91

Mean 18.72 0.22 56.87 50.85 16.18 34.67 6.02 60.93 1.88

Cell.: cellulose; HC: hemicellulose; P: phosphrous; Ca: calcium

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Shenkute Tessema .1972. Nutritinal Value of Some Tropical Grass Species Compared to Some Temperate Grass Species . Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell Univ. Ithaca, New York.

Shirley, R. L. 1986. Nitrogen and Energy Nutrition of Ruminants. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, Florida, U.S.A.

Soussana, J. F., F. Vertes and M. C. Arregui. 1995. The regulation of clover shoot growing point density and morphology during short-term clover decline in mixed swards. European Journal of Agriculture. 4: 205 - 215.

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Feeds and Nutrition


Thompson, L. 1996. Sites of photoreception in white clover. Grass Forage Sci. 50: 259 - 262.

Thomson, L. and J. L. Harper. 1988. The effect of grass on the quality of transmitted light and its influence on the growth of white clover, Trifolium repens. Oecologica 75: 343 - 347.

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ANIMAL HEALTH AND REPRODUCTION


Testicular growth and its relationship with linear body measurements in Borana-Friesian crossbred bullcalves at different ages

Yohannes Gojjam1, Azaage Tegegne2, Alemu G/Wold1, Mengistu Alemayehu1 and Zelalem Yilma1

1Holetta Agricultural Research Center, P.o.box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

2ILRI, Debre-Zeit

Abstract:

Measurements on testis and linear body size, scrotal circumference (SC), testis diameter (TD), hearth girth (HG), height at wither (HTW) and body length (BDL) at the age of 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 21 months was taken. Thirteen Borana Friesian (BoXF) crossbred bull calves born at Holetta Agricultural Research Centre (HARC) during the year 1998/99 calving season were used. The objective of the work was to determine the testis and body size of the bullcalves and their relationship at different ages to consider as criterion for early selection of breeding bulls. Statistical analysis indicated that significantly different (P<0.001) rate of increase in testis and body size of measured variables between age groups. However the magnitude of increase in size of TD, SC, HG, HTW, and BDL was not significant (P< 0.05) in the age group between 18 & 21 months. Body weight (Wt) have influenced the increase of SC (P<0.001) and TD, HTW and BDL (P<0.05). HG, BDL and HTW were positive and significantly (P<0.001) correlated to TD and SC respectively, r = 0.94, 0.92 and 0.68 respectively. It appears evident from the results of this study, that sexual maturity could be attained in BoxF from closer to 15 months of age, since the increasing rate of testis size was lower and steady after this age. Even if the determination of sexual maturity in male needs detail examination and is complex, at field level the steady change in testis and body size may indicate the inclination of the animal to physiological maturity. The result also



suggests that testis size could be described in terms of body size. Further study in this line may deal with determination of quality and quantity of semen at different ages of bullcalves for indigenous and different genotypes, since the information available is quiet insufficient.

Introduction Genetic progress in cattle herd can be enhanced through selecting proper breeding

bulls. Breeding bulls play a major role in improving the productive and reproductive performances in cattle herd. They are also fundamental bases for genetic improvement. Despite the key role that bulls play in cattle improvement, little or no attention has been given to it in the National Agricultural Research system, to improve the management level for optimum productivity. Despite the role that bulls play in influencing herd fertility and genetic progress under both natural mating and artificial insemination, aspects of bull reproduction have been ignored or remain largely unknown in cattle in Ethiopia (Azage T. et-al 1995). Consequently, data on some important parameters, related to dairy bull performance and fertility, which could help as baseline information for improvement, are scanty in Ethiopia.

The relationship between body weight and testicular parameters are available for most of the exotic breeds in developed countries, and are found to be important in setting criteria for selecting dairy bulls. Parameters such as testicular size, weight, and circumference are more related to age and management factors of the animal. Testicular consistency and measurement of scrotal circumference are reported to be important parts of bull examination. Scrotal circumference is well accepted as a measure of testicular size and is correlated with sperm production (Waites et-al 1969)

Testis or testicles as a primary reproductive organ in the male, is responsible for the sex drive (libido) leading to the mating act necessary for reproduction under natural mating system. It also plays similar role in the process of semen collection for preservation in the artificial mating system.

In Ethiopian condition, where in most cases controlled breeding is not practised, selecting breeding bulls at the earlier possible age could minimise the risk of

Animal Health and Reproduction


inbreeding and rearing cost among the herd. Genetic progress in the herd could be brought about through utilisation of young bulls ((Mc Graw-Hill, 1979), this will give a better chance of progeny testing for selection of genetically superior herd. Hence, proper management of bullclves could improve their productivity in terms of growth, production of good quality semen and libido.

Collection of male reproductive data for different indigenous breeds and crossbred bulls will help to develop a National database that could be used for improving and selection of breeding bulls. This work was designed to determine testicular size and linear body measurements of Borana Friesian crossbred bullcalves at different ages and to study their relationships, for further use in early selection of breeding bulls for maximum reproductive efficency.

Materials and methods Animals

Thirteen Borana Friesian (BoxF) crossbreed male calves born at Holetta Agricultural Research Centre (HARC) during 1998/99 calving season were used in the study. Testicular measurements (SC, TD) and linear body measurements (HG, HTW, BL) were taken at intervals of three months starting from nearly two weeks after the birth of the calf.

Pre and Post -weaning management During the pre-weaning period calves were fed on colsutrum from birth to four

days and there after were supplied with whole milk at different rates according to their age. Average whole milk consumption during the pre-weaning period was 3.0 ± 0.2 kg ranging from 2.8 to 3.2 kg a day. Starting from three weeks of age, calves were supplied with solid feed (native grass hay and concentrate), flat rate of 1kg concentrate and 2 kg hay and were weaned at 98 days of age.

After weaning, all calves were fed on a ration of concentrate mixture composed of 30% wheat bran, 33% wheat middling, 30% noug-cake, 3% meat meal, 3% bone-meal and 1% salt as formulated by small scale feed industry for weaned calves. The concentrate mixture and the native grass hay (92 % dry matter) was offered at the ratio of 30: 70 % concentrate to hay at the rate of 3% of their body weight as feed.



Calves were weighed monthly with the rest of the herd. Testis measurement on (SC, TD) was taken at the interval of three months in the same week when the body weight was taken. Scrotal circumference was measured using tape meter. Testes diameter was measured by holding the testis firmly to the bottom of the scrotum by grasping the neck of the scrotum with one hand while the animal is in standing position in a holding crush. Calipers with the accuracy of 0.05 cm were used to measure testis diameter and plastic tape meters was used to measure the scrotal circumference. Linear body measurements were also taken following standard procedures using flexible plastic tape meter.

Data management and statistical analysis The data was arranged in eight age groups (Treatment) with 12 – 13 bullcalves in

each age group. The least square procedures of Harvey 1990 model one was used to analyse the data. The eight age groups (<1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21) months were fitted in the model as independent variables. All measured variables; testis and linear body measurements were included as dependant variables. Birth weight, age and body weight of bull-calves were fitted as regression input in the model and were analysed as covariance to see their effect on the dependent variables.

Results and Discussion Testis Measurements

The measurements of the testis and linear body sizes at different ages are presented in table 1 and 2 respectively. The increase in size of testis diameter and scrotal circumference starting from the age of one month to fifteen month was higher and statistically (P< 0.001) different from the age group of eighteen and twenty-one month. Testis diameter increased from 1.92 cm at the age of one month to 5.67 cm at the age of fifteen months, while the SC increased from 9.38 cm to 21.83 at the same age. In both cases the increase in size of testicles beyond this age was not higher and statistically not significant (P< 0.05). There was a tendency for the testis size to increase with the age of bull calves. the magnitude of increase in size of testis diameter and scrotal circumference was not significantly (P< 0.05) higher in the age group of bullcalves between after the age of fifteen months. (Table 1). This might be associated with the physiological maturity of the bullcalves. Determination of sexual



maturity in male is a complex factor, which needs further analysis. However the result of this study may indicate that selection of bullcalves for future bull could be started between the age of 12 to 15 months age.

Similar results were reported in previous works dealt with Borana Friesian crossbred bullcalves in the country (Azage 1991 and 1992). According to these studies, changes in scrotal circumference of matured BoxF crossbred bulls were from 16.5 to 26.7 cm and from 19.2 to 28.1 cm respectively between 6 to 23 months of age under grazing management conditions is in line with results obtained in this study. A plane of nutrition as a important factor to have a great influence on bull reproduction performances has been reported (Short et-al 1988, Tops J.H, 1977). Dry season supplementation of crossbred bullcalves (Azage et-al 1992) increased SC from 0.31mm to 0.38 mm/day. The crossbred bullcalves used in this study were treated under improved station management as described in the methodology. Hence, the higher increased rate in testis size might have been associated with the interaction between improved nutritional influence and the active growth period. Changes in testicular development have something to do with tubular components. As sited by Azage 1992, testicular development is due to increase in the proportion of tubular components (Fossland et-al 1961). As it has been reflected in the result of this study, the increasing rate in testis size and linear body measurements in the later age was lower and steady. This might be attributed to the inclination of the bullcalves to sexual maturity. Eventhough, it is difficult to determine puberty in the male than in the female, criteria like testis size, expressed in SC as has been described by Lunstra et-al 1978 could be the easier method of detecting sexual maturity in young bull calves. Therefore the SC closer to 21 cm and TD above 5 cm may serve as an indicative testis size for sexual maturity in BoxF crossbred bullcalves.

Linear body measurements Similar trends like that of testis size was followed in the changes of linear body

measurements of bullcalves at different ages. The magnitude of increase in linear body size was much higher in younger ages (between birth to fifteen) months than in later age. i.e., between eighteen to twenty-one months. The HG, HTW and BL



increased from 73.85 to 137.85, 73.84 to 115.25, and 64.00-to121.00-cm. between the age of one and fifteen months respectively. The average rate of increase in linear body size between birth to 15 months ranged from 21 to 11 % while it is between 4 and 2% after the age of 15 and 21 months.

Table1: Least-squares mean ± se for testicular measurements at different ages of Borana Friesian crossbred bullcaves

Testis Measurements (cm) Age N

TD SC

Overall 96 3.44 ±0.04 18.13 ± 0.19

< a month 13 1.92 ± 0.13a 9.38 ± 0.52a

Weaning 13 2.90 ± 0.13b 10.38 ± 0.52b

Sixth month 11 3.54 ± 0.13c 11.91 ± 0.56c

Nine month 12 3.91 ± 0.13 c 15.50 ± 0.54d

Yearling 12 4.80 ± 0.15 d 21.20 ± 0.59e

Fifteen months 12 5.67 ± 0.13e 21.83 ± 0.54e

Eighteen months 12 6.00 ± 0.13f 26.50 ± 0.54f

Twenty one months 13 6.38 ± 0.13 f 27.38 ± 0.52 f

Table 2: Least squares mean ± se for linear body measurements at different ages of BoxF crossbred bullcaves

Linear Body measurements (cm) Age N

HG HTW BDL

Overall 96 116.69 ± 0.78 104.25 ± 1.47 102.06 ± 0.8

< a month 13 73.85 ± 2.12a 73.84 ± 3.98a 64.00 ± 2.25a

Weaning 13 89.61 ± 2.12b 85.00 ± 3.98b 78.15 ± 2.25b

Sixth month 11 101.36 ± 2.30c 102.54 ± 4.33c 89.00 ± 2.45c

Nine month 12 112.41 ± 2.20d 101.25 ± 4.14c 98.41 ± 2.35d

Yearling 12 128.80 ± 2.41e 111.40 ± 4.54d 113.80 ± 2.57e

Fifteen months 12 137.58 ± 2.20f 115.25 ± 4.14e 121.00 ± 2.34f

Eighteen months 12 143.41 ± 2.20g 126.33 ± 4.14f 126.00 ± 2.34g

Twenty one months 13 146.46 ± 2.11g 128.38 ± 3.98 f 126.15 ± 2.56g

Tegegne A.1992, reported a whither height of 111.4 cm for Borana Friesian crossbred bulls at puberty. This height was obtained at yearling age in this study. However data on heart girth and body length for similar genotypes are not available to contrast the results obtained in this study.



Influence of birth weight and body weight Birth weight and body weights of the bullcalves were included in the model and

were analyzed as co-variates. Birth weight did not have any influence on the measured parameters (P>0.05) at all ages, which reflects the importance of postnatal management of animals to bring changes in body sizes. Body weight seem to have influenced the increase in SC (P<0.001) and linear body measurements (P<0.05) Table 3 and 4. This implies that impacts to bring about retardation in growth and development of body size at earlier ages could be removed in the later ages through compensatory growth during the successive periods if better nutritional environment is established. (Arinze G. Ezekewe, 1994).

Table 3: Analysis of variance and covariance for the effects of age birth weight and weaning weight on testis measurements

Measurements Traits df ms F P CV % R2

Total 96

Age 7 23.73 113.78 0.0000 13.33 0.92

Bwt 1 0.0286 0.137 0.7120

Wt 1 0.6561 3.146 0.0799

TD

Error 86 0.2086

Total 96

Age 7 526.88 167.631 0.0000 9.82 0.94

Bwt 1 1.1062 0.352 0.5546

Wt 1 32.1747 10.237 0.0019

SC

Error 86 3.1431



Table 4: Analysis of variance and covariance for the effects of age birth weight and weaning weight on linear body measurements

Measurements Traits Df ms F P CV % R2

Total 96

Age 7 7540.6439 133.779 0.0000 6.46 0.93

Bwt 1 34.6880 0.615 0.4349

Wt 1 266.1815 4.772 0.0325

HG

Error 86 56.3666

Total 96

Age 7 2875.57 15.329 0.0000 13.20 0.65

Bwt 1 348.9617 1.860 0.1762

Wt 1 633.8428 3.379 0.0695

HTW

Error 86 187.5914

Total 96

Age 7 5678.4783 89.244 0.0000 7.85 0.90

Bwt 1 1.5454 0.024 0.8765

Wt 1 281.3275 4.421 0.0384

BDL

Error 86 63.6284

Table.5: Correlation (r) of Testicular Measurements and linear body measurements in crossbred bull calves at different ages

Testicular Measurements

Testis diameter Scrotal circumference Linear Body measurements

Linear Quadratic Linear Quadratic

Heart girth 0.94 -0.10 0.94 -0.01

Height at whither 0.68 -.019 0.71 -0.07

Body length 0.92 -0.01 0.92 -0.03

Birth weight 0.28 0.04 0.32 0.06

Body weight 0.38 -0.03 0.41 0.05

Age -0.08 -0.72 -0.36 0.35

Relationship between testicular size and linear body measurements

The correlation coefficients (r) between testicular sizes and linear body measurements is presented in table 5. Heart girth, BDL and HTW were positively correlated to TD and SC respectively, r = 0.94, 0.92 and 0.68 respectively. A positive and close association of SC and body weight of Borana, Borana X Friesian and Arsi bulls has been reported (Tegene A. et-al 1992). It is generally accepted that HG can best describe weigh estimates of animals. Hence, the close association of HG with



the TD and SC is the reflection of the body frame of the animal. Therefore, HG and BDL of crossbred bull calves can also well describe the testis size. Data on HTW to describe the testis size are not available.

Conclusions and Recommendations The results of this study have shown data on testicular sizes and the linear body

measurements of Borana Friesian crossbred bullcalves at ages between birth and 21 months under improved on station management. It also showed the relationship of testis sizes with other linear body measurements. These will definitely contribute to the scarce database in the country regarding bull reproduction. Such data are also important for various improvement programs to be initiated in the future.

Although the procedures adopted in this study could not pinpoint the exact age that puberty of sexual maturity is reached in the bullcalves used, it appears evident from the present study that, the rate of increase in testis size presumably indicates the age at which sexual maturity could be assumed. The present result has indicated that sexual maturity might begin from the age of nearly 15 months. Therefore, selection regarding genetic performance except physical fitness may be done before this age. The rate of testicular development was lower and steady after this age. Perhaps this indicates the physiological maturity bullcalves.

The fact that body weight of the bullcalves to have influenced the SC, HG and BDL suggests importance of proper management of bull calves that are intended for future bulls throughout the growth and development stages.

The positive association of HG and BDL with SC and TD suggests that testis size could be considered as an important parameter for selection of breeding bulls to support the existing selection practice. Further study in this line may incorporate determination of quality and quantity of semen at different ages of bullcalves for indigenous and different genotypes under different management practices.

Acknowledgment The assistance of Ato Molla Shumiye (senior technical assistant) during the

process of measurement data collection and animal management is highly acknowledged



References Arinze G. Ezekewe, 1994. The effect of season of birth on age and body weight at

puberty in Muturu Bulls. In the proceeding of Animal reproduction Niamey, Niger 17-21 January 1994

Azage Tegene Tesfu Kassa and E. Mukassa Mugerewa 1995. Aspects of bull reproduction with emphasis on Cattle in Ethiopia. I. Sexual development and onset of puberty. In the proceedings of Ethiopian society of animal Production (ESAP) 27-29 April Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 43- 55

Fossland R.G. and Schultz, A.A. 1961. A histological study of the postnatal development of the bovine testis. Nebraska Exp. Station Research bulls. 199: 3-16.

Lunstra D. D., Ford J.J and Echternkamp, S.E 1978. Puberty in beef bulls: hormone concentrations, growth, testicular development, sperm production and sexual aggressiveness in bulls of different breeds. J. of animal science 46: 1054 – 1062.

Mc Graw-Hill, 1979. Breeding and Improvement of farm Animals, TATA MC Graw-Hill Publishing Company LTD, NewDelhi.

Tegene A., Entwistle, K.W and Mukassa Mugerewa 1992, Seasonal influence on gonadal and extragonadal sperm services in mature small East African Zebu (Bos indicus) Tropical animal health and production 24: 216-222

Waites G.M.H and Setchell B.P (1969) physiology of the testis, epidedmis and scrotum. In: advanced in Reproductive Physiology. Vol. 4. Anne McLaren, edits. Logos press LTD


Experience on field AI management in Ethiopia Tsegaye Shiferaw, Mureja Shiberu and Tesfaye Cherinet1

1National AI Centre, Department of AI Coordination, Extension and Training, Kallitti, Ethiopia.

Abstract

It is considered that effective artificial insemination (AI) service is a serious issue requiring trained man power, facility, follow-up and linkage with those involved with animal management and breeding. A lack in one of these would result in a failure in the extension of the service or in its effect. Therefore, this paper indicates practical constraints and opportunities, which have been observed and reviewed, in the field AI service so that concerned individuals or organizations can have a clear vision on how to improve the effectiveness of the service.

Introduction Artificial insemination is a technique used to disseminate the genetic material of

known useful male animals to wider area in a given time. It is a short cut and quicker method than the conventional natural mating. Using AI it became possible to test males on their progeny records, to preserve the genetic material over many years, to use potential bulls which cannot mount, to reduce bulls pressure on less weighed cows, avoiding reproductive diseases using properly screened bulls, and avoiding cost of bulls for natural mating.

The history of artificial insemination of cattle in Ethiopia goes back to 1938 by the veterinary institute in Asmara. In late 1950’s teaching institutes of agriculture started AI for teaching and research purposes. In 1960’s the Dairy Development Agency (DDA) provided the service to dairy farms around Addis Ababa.

The AI service was effectively provided and utilized by Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit in late 1960’s first by importing semen and liquid nitrogen. Later on bull station and semen laboratory were constructed in Assela. In the early 1973, semen freezing and distribution of frozen semen and liquid nitrogen became effective.



In view of the need for organizing and coordinating the overall AI activity, the National AI Center (NAIC) was established in 1981 with the objective of improving milk productivity of indigenous herds through cross breeding. Within the Centre, there are 3 technical departments. These are Semen and Liquid Nitrogen Production and distribution Department, Field AI Coordination, Extension and Training Department, and Milk Recording and Analysis Service.

Milk recording and Analysis service. Milk recording and analysis service (MRAS) was established in 1984 to serve as source of information for bull and bull dam selection. MRAS in the last few years used to collect lactation records and milk samples for fat test from farms of Dairy Development Enterprise and those of urban and peri-urban private dairy farms. The service collects and analyses data using appropriate parameters to select dams of AI bulls. Bull management and semen production. In order to implement the above activities of NAIC semen is produced from different breeds of bulls at NAIC. Semen from the Friesian breed is widely used for upgrading the local cattle. Because of certain valuable traits of Jersey, i. e., small body size and high fat content, densely populated areas with shortage of grazing land and feed resources have also started using Jersey semen.

Production of semen from cross-bred animals including FriesianxFogera, FriesianxBoran, FriesianxBarca, FriesianxArsi and from indigenous ones including Barca, Boran, and Fogera is undertaken and some were distributed. From 1981 till 1999 more than 300,000 semen doses are produced and distributed (NAIC report 1999).

The field AI service. As part of the national dairy development effort, the NAIC field service focuses on the genetic improvement of the indigenous cattle. The procedural undertakings include:1. Identification of dairy potential areas 2. Determining the AI delivery approach 3. Training AI technicians 4. Supply of AI consumables 5. Monitoring and evaluation of the regional AI activity, and reproductive potential of bulls. This paper is aimed at describing the activity of



artificial insemination currently being undertaken in Ethiopia, the limitations and options regarding the service.

Activities in the Field AI Service Selection of potential areas. Looking into the requisition of a certain zone or

wereda, NAIC used to directly involve in choosing potential areas considering the following points: The number of breedable cattle, availability of animal feed to support the forthcoming crosses, availability of sound health service, suitability of the climate for graded animals, the level of extension service in the area, accessibilty, marketing facility for cattle products, and demand of AI in the surrounding. This responsibility is nowadays being undertaken by the regions.

Delivery approach. The AI delivery strategies the country has practiced so far include static point service, daily round and telephone call services, the main system being daily round. Currently the service is given in 8 regional states by nearly 150 technicians.

Training. The training activities are well organized and the staff members are capable of carrying out training on AI technique and related courses. These include animal breeding, feeding, health management, AI management, semen production, anatomy and physiology, reproductive physiology, obstetrics and gynaecology, milk recording and analysis and AI technique. The training is offered for three months involving 170 hours theoretical and 150 hours practical. The number of trained technicians is 258 although those who report are about 150.

Monitoring and evaluation. This is undertaken using regional reports, surveys and field visits. Reports from regions are sent to the centre every month; field visits are arranged to regions although these are not achieved as planned; The information required are collected through recording information on AI certificate set and other formats. Activity summaries are prepared every year based on which relevant information is exchanged with the regions through workshops arranged by the centre.

Some pieces of information are collected from sample herds. Using these, bulls’ performance summary, technicians’ efficiency, number and sex ratio of calves born in regions, and females’ reproductive performance are monitored and evaluated to



infer about field AI performance. The standard formats for recording and follow up are indicated in Tables 1-3.

Table 1: Monthly bull evaluation format

Bull number…………. Month…………….

No Region Zone Wereda station Technician name

Actual month

First insem

Repeat NRR

Monthly total

Commutative total

Reported by Approved by Name : ____________ ____________ Sign. : ____________ ____________

Table 2: Monthly AI reporting sheet

No Zon Wered techn mo Insemination pd + Rep tot birth Semen Remaining

Consumabl

1 2 3 4 To m f tot rem added Sum wasted sh gl pad

Table 3: Reproduction summary sheet

Information on Inseminated cow/heifer S e x Status

Inter-service interval S No. Breed Last

calving Post calving interval for 1st

Ins. Days

1st & 2nd 2nd& 3rd 3rd & 4th

M F tw nk Aborted Alive dead slaugh sold KN Remark



Achievements in the field AI service National Performance. Until the establishment of NAIC other organizations

including UKDOM, DDA and CADU/ARDU performed a total of 3924, 5800 and 64,887 inseminations, respectively. From 1984-2000 a total of 351,032 inseminations and 120684 births of grade calves were reported to be performed after the establishment of NAIC (Table 4). Thus a total of 431 242 inseminations have been performed in the country. The number of inseminations and the number of technicians increased steadily whereas the average insemination per technician did not show the same trend. This may be due to the fact that although the experience is gained through years, the incentives and in-service training offered to the former technicians contributed equally to the experience in the later years in which the incentive were not sustained.

Regional Performance. From 1997 - 2000 most of the insemination were done in Addis Ababa (33.7%) and Oromiya (37.5%) followed by Amhara (13.9%) and SNNP (9.4%) (Table 5). The greater performance in Addis Ababa and Oromia regions is due to accessibility, the existence for some years of different projects including SDDP, DRDP, CADU (which increased the knowledge of dairymen and provided greater number of grade cattle) and efficiency of the technicians; however variation among other regions is mainly due to the number of technicians. This variation indicates the role that ought to be played by regional bureaus of agriculture.

Extension and Training. AI technicians are trained to enable them perform technically proper inseminations, pregnancy diagnosis and give some extension services as required in dairy cattle production. In addition to technicians' training, inservice training, seminars and workshops are also carried out (Table 6).

Repeat Inseminations. Although not all repeat inseminations are reported due to sale and death of animals and neglect by farmers, the total non-return rate for the years 1997-2000 was computed to be 74-75% and the yearly variation is minimum (Table 7). It is also far above the non-return rate reported elsewhere. However, the non-reported repeats undoubtedly reduce this percentage indicating that proper



supervision by the technicians shall have to be carried out to get the inseminated animals conceive.

Table 4: Major field AI achievements (1984-2000) Year Total Inseminations Calves Born No. of technicians Average

inseminations/tech

1984/85 5755 2193 32 180

1985/86 11,349 4325 31 366

1986/87 10,861 2139 45 247

1988/89 16,900 7424 40 422

1989/90 19,697 7505 52 379

1990/91 20,695 7888 56 370

1991/92 29,590 7543 66 312

1993/98 16,280 6205 69 236

1992/93 22,026 8395 72 301

1993/94 21,707 7341 72 306

1994/95 26,442 7718 - -

1995/96 25,824 10984 - -

1996/97 26,232 7928 - -

1997/98 32,679 10771 74 354

1998/99 32,999 10401 108 305

1999/2000 33,550 10072 119 268

Total 351,032 120,684 -- 311

Table 5: Regional performances in AI

AA Oromiya Amhara SNNP Tigray Diredawa Harari

1997 8278 10975 1637 2256 1193 148 29

1998 11478 11494 4905 3193 1293 170 113

1999 10825 12476 5441 2903 1709 82 198

2000 11285 11702 5240 3343 1562 51 324

Total 41866 46647 17223 11695 5757 451 664

Percentage 33.7 37.5 13.9 9.4 4.6 0.36 0.53



Table 6: Trainings undertaken by NAIC (1982 - 2000)

AI technicians Seminar YEAR

Pre service Inservice Farmers Development agents

1982 20*

1983 14

1984

1985

1986 20

1987

1988 49

1989 44 164

1990 22 43 188 8

1991 20 57 234 8

1992 49 147 13

1993 59 255 15

1994 73

1995 22

1996 24

1997 24

1998 30

1999 29

2000 77

TOTAL 258 374 988 44 * Trained by CADU, ARDU and DDE; the rest by NAIC.

Table 7: Repeat and non-repeat inseminations (1997-2000)

Number of inseminations Years

1st 2nd 3rd 4th NRR

1998 25811 5304 1169 295 73.7

1999 26037 5123 1203 285 75.0

2000 26574 5138 1306 464 73.7

Total 78422 15565 3678 1044 74.1

Semen Handling at Field. The advantage of frozen semen technology is that it could be stored and transported to long distances. It is inevitable that deficiencies in storage and distribution at various levels affect the quality of semen and fertility in the field. In Ethiopia, semen is regularly transferred from large liquid nitrogen container to the smaller ones during field work. Due to this process and other factors about 11% of semen is lost (Table 8).



Table 8: Semen distribution and wastage (1998-2000)

Year Distributed Wasted

1998 29740 3894

1999 33486 3386

2000 35064 3387

Total 98290 10667

Percent wasted 11%

Cost of AI Service. Concerning the service charge per insemination, the present fee per first AI has been the same, 2-5 Birr, at least for 15 years, while other expenses in the country have increased substantially during the same period. According to the report of Heinonen (1998) the actual cost per insemination varies from Birr 75 (in rural areas where the daily run approach using motor bike is practiced) to Birr 7:30 (in urban areas where telephone call approach is practiced). The national average service cost per insemination is Birr 24.90. Heinonen (1998) also pointed out that when the total fixed and variable expenses of an operational AI technician are considered, the actual price per one insemination is surprisingly Birr 153.00. The proportion of fixed and operating expenses of a technician is 73% and 27%, respectively. The price per insemination is significantly lower in areas where the AI technicians do more inseminations per year. For instance in the Addis Ababa area the technicians do up to 2000 inseminations per year with a fee of less than Birr 60 per insemination.

Based on 17 technicians AI field service summary report of 1991-1993, the average distance covered by one technician was 8799 km per year, one insemination requiring 18 km. This seems to be the basic reason for increased prices of AI service.

Constraints of the field AI service The technical problems hindering livestock development in Ethiopia could be

classified under four major areas: feed and nutrition, genetic factors and reproductive inefficiency, animal diseases and inadequate work force.

Feed and nutrition. Availability of quantity and quality of feed is the most serious constraint for improved livestock production particularly for dairying. In Ethiopia, the principal available feeds or feed sources include native pasture, grazing or hay from fallow land, crop residues, stubbles and weeds. These feeds are



usually deficient in protein and essential mineral elements. Besides overgrazing and shortage of grazing land limit getting the required amount of roughages in some cases; livestock performance in arid and semi-arid environments is much limited by deficits in forage quantity and quality. Oilseed cakes and other industrial by products are constrained by the cost and availability. Although forage legumes and fodder trees are widely grown, the feeding practice still remains a problem. Nutritional stress resulting from the indicated constraints causes low growth rate, poor fertility and high mortality.

Breeding problems. The success of the field AI service depends very much on the accuracy of the data collected and the analysis made inorder to reach at a deterministic interpretation. Except in institutional herds and few private intensive dairy farms, identification of animals is based on animal's colour, name, etc. which have got only limited uses. This has resulted in lack of properly selected indigenous and crossbred bulls as per the management levels.

Problems in reproduction. Poor heat detection and poor follow-up on fertility problems, and lower culling intensity are observed to reduce the reproductive capacity of cattle.

Animal health problems. Animal health is challenged by a wide spectrum of diseases, which remain as one of the main constraints of livestock development in Ethiopia. Incidence of such diseases as tuberculosis, brucellosis, streptothricosis and mastitis could increase with introduction of grade cattle. Lameness, udder health and infertility are the major concern of animal health service of the dairy sector. The main effects of diseases include mortality, reduced production in meat and milk, decreased draught power output, lowered quality of animal products and by-products, and the risk of zoonotic diseases to human beings. The areas with predominant infectious diseases have not initiated to accept semen of improved breeds which has affected the field AI is affected.

Milk marketing problem. The existing marketing facility in rural Ethiopia doesn’t encourage farmers to produce more milk through accepting grade animals.



The marketing facility in the dairy industry is not yet in step with the other components of the development efforts of the sector.

Limitation in extension. High illiteracy of the rural population coupled with the mentioned constraints and uncoordinated development approaches affected the livestock genetic improvement programme of the country. For instance, providing grade heifers of unknown blood level is preferred to insemination with proven bulls with the known blood level.

Shortage of AI consumables. Non-availability of liquid nitrogen has caused several problems in preserving semen at field level.

Supervision. Lack of responsibility in breeding management by people at different levels is also a problem. This has resulted in lack of proper identification of potential areas, lack of suitable strategy and approach, lack of regular supply of input and a delay and unsatisfactory recording.

Prospects of the field AI service Breeding. Although some research results indicate the fact that cattle with 50%

exotic blood level perform better than those with other inheritance level, still there is a need to supplement this result, and to investigate appropriate breed combination to keep under the different production systems of the country.

To avoid the risks of inbreeding the AI service should utilise potential sires by rotating through regions after exhaustive use for about 2 years. Inbreeding is also required to be avoided by keeping records on the relationship and degree of inbreeding among individuals by the trained technicians.

Management of reproduction. For a successful AI service problems in heat detection and follow-up of pregnancy and infertility should be carefully observed both by farmers and state workers. The actual non-return rate of animals can only be known through proper data collection by the technicians and supervision so that follow up shou should be strengthened. Evaluation of reproductive traits and analysis of management factors affecting reproduction should be regularly undertaken to indicate improvement opportunities in the different stations, wereda, etc.



The concern about the effect of micro-organisms on semen quality and female cattle fertility can be resolved by maintaining the hygiene in semen production and insemination to avoid pathogens that could survive cryopreservation and cause infection. In addition, optimum health management of the AI bulls should be ensured.

Health management. The expansion of the dairy sector will be seriously threatened by various diseases unless a proper strategy for their control is devised based on a sound epidemiological knowledge. The overall fertility of cattle population can be significantly increased by improving the level of management and control of contagious diseases. A large epidemiological survey to investigate the actual incidence of venereal diseases should be carried out.

Marketing. Proper marketing should be ensured along with proper feeding, breeding and improved health practices to achieve significant changes in dairy cattle production.

Supervision and linkage. Linkage within the departments of the centre should ensure that the field AI service should give proper information on the number of semen doses and liquid nitrogen for a given period, and on the ranking of bulls on the basis of their reproductive efficiency.

When viewed from the organizational point of view, the field AI service should have appropriate supervisor from regions to wereda so that technicians can use their potential to upgrade the respective cattle types, that only potential farmers and/or areas should be chosen to be involved in the AI activity, and that expenditures for the activity can be reduced. In addition, offices should ensure continuity of the service by covering the essential fixed and running costs, which should be planned before beginning the whole activity. Discontinuity of the service which may happen due to annual leave of the technicians should be avoided.

Maintaining close collaboration with policy makers and technology generators in the area of AI, the AI service will have to adjust its pace of activity with the levels of feeding, veterinary care, marketing, organization of farmers' cooperatives and other management aspects which are considered essential for implementing the service.



Close collaboration with regional livestock development staff should be maintained through preparing short training courses for the promotion of AI service, reproduction management and technicians' training. Special short courses, seminars as well as work shops could be arranged in collaboration with relevant departments and agencies in the field of animal feed, health, dairy cattle management, etc. to realize the implementation of the programme.

References Annual Report of NAIC 1999. National AI Centre, Kallitti, Ethiopia.

Heinonen, K. 1998. The assessment and evaluation of the performace of the National Artificial Insemination (NAIC) Centre in all aspects of its activities. SDDP Proceeding. April-May 1998.


The problem of Acaricide resistance for the control of ticks Solomon Gebre

Ethiopian Agriculture Research Organization/ National Animal Health Research Centre. P.O.Box 4, Sebeta, Ethiopia.

Summary Acaricide resistance (tick resistance) is defined as development of an ability in a species of ticks to tolerate doses of toxicants, which would prove lethal to the majority of individuals in a normal population of the same species. It is a result of a gradual selection of individuals in a population through acaricide pressure. It develops rapidly where the gene frequency for resistance is high and there is increased selection pressure. This is a natural phenomenon, which will develop for any chemical overtime. This resistance is inheritable and can be sustained through the use of similar chemicals (Horst, 1996). The emergence of resistance in the field, however is influenced substantially by the management of acaricide treatment, especially sub optimal doses and compounds with long residual effect being responsible for allowing development of resistant strains of ticks. In many areas, resistance of ticks to numerous compounds already exists which cause considerable damage to animal production. However resistance should be seen in perspective and can be managed. Good management to ensure the correct usage of acaricides can prolong the active life of compounds

Introduction At present, there are no universally applicable alternatives to the use of acaricides

in combating ticks on livestock. Selecting tick-resistant livestock breeds and using specific pasture management can influence tick challenge. The immunization of livestock against ticks, another potential method currently is on market, but unfortunately this vaccine is only effective and prepared for Boophilus microplus tick, which is not universally applicable for those countries having multiple tick species including Ethiopia. In addition to this the above mentioned tick species is not present so far in the country.



Acaricide will therefore remain the mainstay of the fight against ticks, perhaps for long time until other ecobiological control methods become available use. However for several reason, it is necessary to carefully control and, where possible, to limit their use. Acaricide resistance in ticks is a widespread phenomenon recognized by farmers, animal scientists and veterinarians in most areas where treatment of livestock against ticks is carried out. Due to the high cost of research and inevitably slow development of acaricidal substance by the chemical industry, the number of effective acaricides available at any time has to be regarded as being limited. This number is continuously reduced through development of resistances to new compounds. In some areas, ticks may also be in contact with insecticides aimed at other pests (e.g. agricultural pests, mosquitoes or tsetse flies), which could have an effect on resistance to related acaricidal substances. There is a potential for resistance in every livestock tick species to all acaricides. Cross-resistance to other compounds may mean that ticks can be resistant or partially resistant to hitherto to unused acaricides. Once a tick population has become genetically resistant or cross-resistant to an acaricide, there is usually no going back to that acaricide, even after many years. Therefor, the application of acaricide must be carefully managed in order to maintain as a reserve of effective acaricides as possible, through measures aimed at delaying the onset of resistance and making the best use of each acaricide before resistance makes it obsolescent.

The objective of this mini review is therefore a) to emphasize the importance of acaricide resistance problem in Ethiopia especially in dairy farms and ranches and b) to create awareness to the relevant workers and professionals working in the field of these areas, regarding the factors attributing to the development of acaricides resistance for the control of ticks under field condition and to highlight the possible means of overcoming the existing situation and to improve proper usage of chemical in the future.

Acaricide resistance is of 3 types 1. Vigor tolerance: - Non-specific and is not controlled by a genetic mechanism.

The slight increase in tolerance may be due to thicker cuticle, an increase of fat content of ticks etc. Seasonal variation in susceptibility may be attributed to



this mechanism. 2. Behavior resistance. This is the ability of ticks to avoid acaricide residues. This

may be a natural characteristic or may be an induced behavior by the presence of acaricide. (Irritability may play a role in this phenomenon)

3. Physical resistance • Less penetration of acaricide through the cuticle

• Increase metabolism of acaricide into non toxic products

• Storage of acaricide in tick fat body

• Excretion of acaricide

• Decreased sensitivity of target site

Stage of resistance There are three stages of resistance

1. Mutation:- (Significant and fundamental alteration of an individual or strain differing from others of its type and resulting from) a relatively permanent change in an organism’s hereditary material. Resistance always begins with mutation. This is an inevitable evolutionary phenomenon, brought about by the need for genetic variability in organisms for better survival. At the time mutation occurs, it is not possible to detect the resistance in the tick because it is not yet fully expressed.

2. Emergence:-This is the stage when mutation has started to express itself, and it can be detected in the laboratory only by acaricide resistance testing. This is a mild resistance, which can be detected by the farmer on his farm.

3. Spread:-This is a stage at which a farmer notices that there is resistance to the chemical he is using since ticks will not be dying. Once developed, the resistance may spread rapidly through unrestricted cattle movement.

Factors influencing rate of development of resistance 1. Internal factors

i. Frequency of mutation: - The more mutations there are in a given population the faster resistance will be expressed.



ii. Genetic variability: -The greater the genetic variability, the more chances for recombinant genes occurring leading to mutation.

iii. Degree of dominance:-If the mutated gene is a heterozygous, and then the mutation will take a long time to express itself. It will exhibit itself a weak resistance. A dominant gene develops faster in a population.

2. External factors i. Persistence of acaricides: - Acaricide with a short residual protective period

have a better advantage of not developing resistance quickly because they are biodegraded in the environment. However, persistent acaricides have a big disadvantages because their concentrations become reduced with time, thus subjecting the tick to weak concentrations and hence development of resistance.

ii. Frequency of use: - Frequent use of acaricides hastens the selection process, thus leaving resistant individuals in the population.

iii. Under strength acaricide concentrations: - Acaricides used at sub-optimal concentrations have a disadvantage of leaving a heterozygous individual in the population. This will hasten the resistance.

iv. Previous use of similar acaricides: - If the new acaricides has a similar mechanism of action, thus facilitates the development of resistance.

It is important to note that resistance will occur where acaricides have been used extensively. However, in Ethiopia, economic constraints, the level of modern livestock production systems and limited number of tick susceptible dairy cattle available have not encouraged use of much acaricides like those African countries having problem of ECF and infestation of R. appendiculatus.

Mechanisms of resistance in ticks 1. Biochemical mechanisms of resistance in ticks

i. Inactivation of the acaricides by combination with another substance:- ii. For example, the resistance to arsenic is accompanied by a rise in the

amount of glutathione in their system, that blocks fixation of the toxin on the enzyme.

iii. Detoxication of the acaricides:- iv. In insects, resistance to DDT, BHC, results from dehydrochlorination or



hydroxylation linked to an increase in the amounts of appropriate enzymes. Tick resistance to various organophosphates may be linked to this mechanism, as in the case of the Mackay strain of Boophilus microplus in Australia towards coumaphos, ethion, and crotoxyphos.

v. Changes in the toxic action sites:-

In ticks, resistance to DDT, BHC, and Cyclodienes is considered to be due to changes in the toxic action site, requiring an increase in the toxic concentration of the acaricide. Cross-resistance to DDT, Pyrethrum, and prethroides (Reported in Australia in B. microplus), leads to conclusion that the same mechanism operates in all cases. Associations of resistance to various organophosphates were observed in B. microplus in Australia and Brazil. The determinant factors are the cholinesterases that are normally inhibited by the acaricides. In homogenates of larvae a sensitive strain, the cholinesterase inhibition curve under the influence of an acaricide is linear, whereas that in the resistant larval homogenates shows rapid inhibition of 60%, followed by a slow inhibition of 40% of the remainder. This difference is explained by the existence of a single cholinesterase in sensitive ticks, and of two cholinesterases in resistant ticks (normal cholinesterase and isocholinesterase). These slow reduced affinity for the acaricide inhibitor and a reduced activity towards acetycholine. The carbamate resistance mechanisms are similar to those observed for organophosphates. There is also cross-resistance between organophosphates and carbamates.

2. Genetic mechanism of resistance in ticks

Resistance by an arthropod to a chemical may be due to one or a combination of factors such as: 1) reduced penetration through the integument or other reduced uptake of the chemical 2) increased storage or excretion of the unchanged



toxicant 3) reduced toxication of an applied chemical which requires conversion within the arthropod to the toxicant proper 4) increased detoxication within the arthropod body by metabolic breakdown of the penetrated toxicant before it reaches its sites of action 5) reduced reactivity or sensitivity to the toxicants of the vital biochemical or physiological system under attack at the site of action mechanism. Mechanisms 1 and 2 have never been shown to be responsible for the resistance in B. microplus tick in Australia. Mechanism 3 is suspected of being of potential importance particularly with regard to OPC resistance, because it is clear that toxication is essential to the acaricidal activity of organophosphorus compounds, which on conversion to the corresponding oxygen analogue inhibit acetyl cholinesterase (ACHE), This enzyme is as vital to cholinergic nerve impulse transmission in arthropods as it is in vertebrates and is the target enzyme for organophosporus (O’Brien, 1967). However the third factor has not been proven as a cause of

B. microplus resistance in the field in Australia. Mechanism 4 was demonstrated as the principal method of resistance in the OPC-resistant Mackay strain, which metabolized coroxon, the oxygen analogue of coumaphos, at a more rapid rate than a susceptible strain. This increased detoxication was accompanied by decreased ACHE activity (Roulston et al., 1964). Mechanism 5 alone occurred in the OPC resistant ridgelands and Biarra strains in the form of modified ACHE’s which were much less sensitive to inhibition than susceptible ACHE. These mechanisms are inherited, but a discussion of biochemical genetics will be differed until genetic procedures and more formal genetics are outlined (Stone,1972).



Preventing the appearance of resistant populations On a dairy farm and ranch, when tick control is practiced over a long period,

acaricides should be used at moderate concentrations for destroying ticks. If treatments are regular, there is some advantage in reducing this concentration. The use of acaricides at relatively high concentrations for completely eliminating ticks should be avoided as it encourages tendency towards resistance. Apart from the harmful effects to sprayed or dip cattle, overdosing leads to the development of resistant homozygotic individuals.

For ranches and on-farm acaricide treatment, high concentrations are used in the beginning to attack the resistant heterozygotes, before reverting to normal concentrations. It is advantageous to alternate different acaricides, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates and carbamates with different modes of action, or to use combination of several chemicals. Decreasing the dose of each helps to reduce risks of the development of a resistant population. The user can devise the combinations. Readymix formulas are also available commercially.

Resistant recognition The initial problem that must be faced, when a control measures failure occurs, is

to ensure that the apparent loss of chemical efficacy is due to procedures which are involved in chemical tick control. Recommended resistance test procedures, particularly the larval packet test, take approximately six weeks from the time one host ticks (Boophilus spp.) are collected until the results become available. As an interim measure, when a field infestation occurs and resistance is suspected there is a lot to be gained by carrying out a closely controlled hand spray test. Adult tick counts on the infested animals, before and after the treatment, on three occasions, will provide a good guide as to whether resistance presents, or whether other possible causes are contributing to the problem. It is only when the results of such field trials are known, and these have been confirmed in the laboratory tests, that one considers an acaricide change. The delay between suspicion of resistance, and the availability of test results, represents a problem in determining the significance of the resistance mechanism, and the need and choice of an alternative compound. Unfortunately this delay often precludes the chance of implementing strategies to contain or eliminate the newly emerged resistant strains while it represents only a small proportion of the



tick population. This deficiency is one of the outstanding problems in pesticides resistance at the present time and is fortunately receiving considerable attention.

Resistance significance In an intensive tick control programme such as in ranches and dairy farms any

loss of chemical efficiency represents a treat to the success of the program, unless checked. If the loss is due to resistance the response usually involves a change to an alternative acaricide. However, this may not always be necessary and the alternative strategies should be considered, in order to maximize the useful life of the chemical resources available for tick control. Before decision can be made basic information needs to be acquired to determine the significance and extent of the newly- emerged resistant strain.

i. Information is needed as to the level of resistance to the compound affected ii. The spectrum of other compounds involved and iii. The proportion of the field tick population carrying the resistance allele.

Laboratory dosage mortality resistance tests provide a reliable guide as to the spectrum of compounds affected and, with well-planned sampling of ticks taken immediately before and after, treatments have been applied, such test will also produce the necessary figure as to the proportion of resistance in the population.

Management of resistance When a resistance mechanism is verified as the cause of an efficacy loss, for an

acaricide used for tick control, three basic approaches are possible for the management of the problem.

1. The strain may be eliminated from the population, through quarantine and local eradication.

2. The efficacy of the chemical affected may be restored, at least temporarily, through management strategies, such as a) Increased use of concentration b) frequency of treatments, c) chemical strategies such as synergism.

3. Finally the chemical may be discarded and replaced with an effective acaricide.

Resistance in one member of a chemical group quickly affects the whole group. This is what is called cross-resistance. But multiple resistances can also occur in



different groups having similar mechanisms of action, for example the organophosphates and carbamates.

Presently the rate of producing new acaricides is very slow. As such, it is important to extend the useful life of an acaricide as much as possible by implementing the following.

i. Incorporate non-acaricide method in control:- It is possible to incorporate tick control measures without acaricides. This includes biological control methods, immunization etc.

ii. Acaricide with short environmental life span. The advantage of this is that it provides less opportunity for ticks to meet less lethal dose to develop resistance.

iii. Do not change to an acaricide of the same group, or one with similar mechanisms of action.

iv. Zoning. The system has an advantage of restricting the problem of resistance in one area. Through the use of strict quarantine, the resistance can be prevented from spreading. The movement of animals from farms or ranches with resistant populations should be restricted immediately, if possible, by official regulations. This prohibition should be maintained until appropriate measures are taken to eliminate these populations.

Many of the measures mentioned are theoretical and are practically difficult to execute. The situation is complicated further by the presence of multi host ticks with overlapping generations. In any case, no single method can be successful on its own. As such a combination of methods could be more appropriate. This calls for a need to reach for alternative methods of tick control that would rationalize the use of acaricides and minimize the build-up of a completely stable resistance that may never disappear.

In recent years the rapidly rising cost of acaricides and their application, as well as the growing problem of resistance to acaricides, have stimulated research into new and innovative methods of tick control. This research is beginning to yield benefits with several new control methods emerging, including vaccines against ticks, slow release acaricide devices, more efficient means of topical application of acaricides,



manipulation of hybrid sterility between closely related species and the use of pheromones to disrupt mating or to attract ticks and so improve the efficiency of acaricide treatments (Seifert, 1996, Norval et al., 1992). Tick population models are also being developed and used to simulate the effects of control strategies, enabling veterinary authorities to select the most appropriate and cost-effective strategies for given circumstances in the field. In addition, with increasing knowledge of the epidemiology of TBDs, progress is being be made towards integrating tick and TBDs strategy (Norval et al., 1992).

Particularly for situation like Ethiopia integrated control strategies are necessary, as it is now clear that tick eradication by means of acaricides is unachievable in Africa (Young et al., 1988) and that the control of ticks and TBDs by intensive acaricide treatment of livestock is both expensive and epidemiologically unsound (Norval, 1983b; Young et al., 1988; Norval and Young, 1990). Further the Australian experience has shown that integrated control, involving a combination of strategies, is necessary because of the development of tick to acaricides (Nolan, 1981; 1990). In Australia, integrated control has led to the widespread use of tick-resistant zebu cattle (Sutherst, 1983;Seifert, 1984) and vaccines against TBDs (Callow, 1977, Mahoney, 1977). Currently they have already developed anti-tick vaccine that would further reduce the reliance on acaricides and also permit more widespread exploitation of tick susceptible cattle in that country (Seifert, 1996). A tick-vaccine named ‘‘TICK GUARD’’ is now on the market in Australia and Latin America for the control of B. microplus, which is prepared from antigens of tick gut multiplied with genetically engineered Escherichia coli. It acts essentially by damaging the tick gut thereby reducing tick fertility. The vaccine has been evaluated in extensive field trials on beef and dairy properties during the last 10 years and has demonstrated its safety as part of an integrated tick control programs. Unfortunately this vaccine is developed specifically for B. microplus, which is the only major tick species of that country. In Africa, the tick and TBDs problem is considerably complex than in Australia; it involves more diseases, a greater number of tick vectors including two and three-host tick species, and numerous damage it incurred on animals and its association with heart water transmission and streptothricosis.



A study was conducted in 18 dairy farms and 3 veterinary clinics of western Ethiopia (Assefa and de Castro, 1993) to assess the effectiveness of the main acaricide (toxaphene) in use. The result indicated that most B. decoloratus populations present on dairy farms in the area contain a high proportion (85%) of ticks resistant to toxaphene. This confirms previous results at Bako (Yehualashet and Gebreab, 1987). There is reason to believe that result obtained may reflect the situation throughout the country and this strongly suggests a need to replace the use of toxaphene on the dairy farms with another acaricide, preferably of the organophosphorus (OP) family. However toxaphene still appears suitable for tick control on local cattle, which are treated irregularly.

Factors that contributing to the development of acaricide resistance under field condition and which needs attention.

i. All available acaricides used simultaneously ii. Choice of acaricides no based on any sound criteria iii. Most acaricides used at under strength concentrations iv. Low volume of acaricide used v. Spraying of all animals without segregation of resistant and susceptible

ones. vi. Deficiency in properly storing and handling of acaricides. vii. Change of acaricides not based on professional advice viii. Absence of monitoring and evaluation of acaricide efficacy from time to time ix. Acaricide not sprayed on all major feeding sites of ticks (e.g. ventral part) x. Lack of national tick control policy on the usage of acaricides. xi. Absence of tick resistance testing center in the country xii. No program on field training to ensure the correct usage of the product

Future tick control perspective The rising cost of acaricides, the problem of environmental pollution and the

development of resistance have caused in searching alternative tick control methods. The control strategies needed should be cost cost-effective, less reliant on the efficacy of management, and relevant to the condition found in the different agro ecological zones and production systems. This requires selecting and combining a number of control methods, in an integrated approach, bearing in mind the contribution of each



method to the overall cost and efficiency of the strategy in achieving the desired control level. So taking into account the Australian experience, host resistance to ticks, the biology of the parasites and the economics of the production system need to be taken into consideration (Norton, Sutherst and Maywald, 1983, Sutherst, 1983). This approach not only helped the Government but also commercial farmers who would reduce their reliance on acaricides, but also costs. To develop such strategy, data are needed to provide firm evidence that such strategies are technically feasible and economically feasible.

Conclusion Poor management procedures, inefficient application of acaricide, seasonal

conditions especially favorable for tick survival, or emergence of a resistance mechanism may all contribute to an apparent failure of chemical tick control.

Strategies for the management of a new resistance problem fall broadly into the concepts of either adopting counter measures to contain or eliminate the mechanism, whilst preserving use of the same chemical, or changing to an alternative acaricide not affected by the mechanism. Containment procedures based on either increased use of concentration or more frequent treatments have been successfully used as stopgap measures. In some resistance crisis where alternative chemicals are not available, such measures may constitute the sole option. The decision to discard the affected compound, and particularly the rational choice of an alternative, should only be made after careful consideration of the characteristics of the resistant strains. In, particular, the spectrum of effect needs to be determined through laboratory and infested animal tests. Generally, the need for reliable local data, on which to base the choice of a replacement acaricide is the primordial importance.

Decisions as to the correct strategies to adopt for the management of appearance of acaricide resistance depend very much on the type of tick control being practiced in particular area. In tick control program the aim is to maintain a level of control sufficient to alleviate economic loss in the host cattle, the primary consideration



should be to ensure that the maximum advantage is gained from every acaricide or acaricide group.

Experience from other regions can be useful but must be evaluated carefully. Acaricide resistance should be evaluated and managed based on the effect of particular tick species and the disease they transmit. Changing the acaricide because of resistance in an economically less important species can have disastrous long-term effects on more important tick species in a specific area. It is therefore necessary to have an adequate knowledge of ticks and their effect on livestock health in order to carry out effective acaricide application until cheap, sustainable and environmentally friendly ecobiological integrated control methods are developing in the future.

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parasitosis and parasitic zoonoses. Ed. J.P.Dunsmore, Murdock University, Perth, pp.41-56.

Stone, B. F.1972. The genetics of resistance by ticks to acaricides. Autral. Vet. J. 48, 345-350.

Young, A.S., Groocock, C.M. and Kariuki, D.P.1988. Integrated control of ticks and tick-borne diseases of cattle in Africa. Parasitol.96, 403-432.

Yehualashet, T. and Gebreab, F. 1987. Proceedings of the First National Livestock Improvement Conference held in Addis Ababa, 11 to 13 February 1987. Institute of Agricultural Research. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp111-113.


Prevalence of mastitis at Alemaya University dairy farm Girma Tefera

Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute P.O.Box, 1242, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Summary

A survey on mastitis in milking cows at Alemaya University Dairy farm was conducted from January 1993 to December 1998. Randomly selected mastitis infected milk were subjected for bacteriological examination revealed that the major causative organisms were Staphylococcus spp, 42.5%, Escherichia coli, 32.9%, and Streptococcus spp. 24.6%. The overall incidence of clinical mastitis averaged around 34 cases \ 100 cows per year. Mean monthly mastitis cows over the study period were 3. There is an influence of age of cows on the incidence of mastitis and high yielding crossbred ( 15-20 kgs of milk/ milking) appear to be equally sensitive to mastitis as the pure Holsteins (producing 20-25 kgs of milk/ milking).

Key words/phrases: bacteria, Holsteins, mastitis milk, prevalence

Introduction Mastitis as a disease, especially the sub clinical form has received little attention

in Ethiopia. Efforts have only been concentrated on the treatment of clinical cases. Bovine mastitis is one of the most frequently encountered diseases at dairy farms. Due to the heavy financial implications involved and the inevitable existence of latent infections, it is obvious that mastitis is an important factor limiting dairy production (Nesru, et al, 1997). The disease is worth studying due to the financial loss involved as a result of reduced milk yield, culling, abortion and even death of the dam (Hillerton, 1987; Morse, et al 1988). Bovine mastitis is of great economic importance to the dairy industry (Blowey, 1986; Francis, et al, 1986). Mastitis depresses milk production and alters its chemical composition. Regarding public health, mastitis is considered to be of vital importance due to its association with a number of zoonotic diseases in which



milk acts as a vehicle of infection (Jenkins, 1982; Kleeberg, 1982). Asby and Ellis (1984) reported a lactation yield loss of as much as 20% after moderate to severe cases of clinical mastitis and according to Edwards, et al (1982) there may be between twenty and forty cases of sub clinical infection for each single case of clinical mastitis. The main objective of this study is to determine the prevalence of bovine mastitis at the Alemaya University dairy farm over a period of time, and observe the influence of age and sensitivity of crossbred cows to mastitis.


The study on a herd of dairy cattle consisting approximately 80% Holstein and 20% crosses of Holstein x local Borana and Arsi was conducted at Alemaya University, Ethiopia, which is situated at an altitude of 1980m above sea level in the eastern region. The surrounding vegetation is high land forest with interspersed secondary forest as a result of human intervention. The average annual rainfall and temperature are 850mm and 20oC respectively. There are four main seasons viz., Dry (December – to February), Spring from (mid March – to May), Rainy or summer (June – August) and autumn (September – November).

Sampling of animals The investigation was carried out over a six years period, on an average of 22

milking cows of pure Holsteins and cross breeds of Holstein with local Ogaden and Arsi breed. The cows were milked twice a day in an alfa laval 4-stall, tandem milking parlor set up some 35 years before. The milking unit was in a state of dilapidation due to lack of service and unavailability of essential spare parts in general. Besides, the vacuum gauge has long ceased to function. The animals were stall fed, except during late autumn and Dry season when after crop harvest they were allowed to graze on open areas and crop fields within the premises of the University. The survey was conducted from January 1993 to December 1998. Milk samples from clinically active mastitis cases were collected aseptically from randomly selected cows before treatment and then subjected to bacteriological examination.



Results The range of the number of milking cows on monthly basis during the study period

varied from 16 to 32 milking cows. The number of cows affected with clinical mastitis during the study period varied from 0 to 15 cases/month with a prevalence of 0 to 57.69%.

Monthly incidence of mastitis fluctuated under relatively consistent management practices. This is attributed to seasonal differences, influenced by rainfall and muddy environment (Fig1).

High producing cows from both pure Holsteins ( 20-25 kgs of milk/ milking) and their crosses with Borana and Arsi (15-20 kgs/milking) were observed to be affected almost equally by the disease. But eight out of the twelve crosses with low milk production (7-8 kgs of milk/milking) were found to be less affected than the pure Holsteins and high producing crossbreds. During the study period, the incidence of clinical mastitis, recorded in cows that were newly calved, tended to be quite high (1 cow/4 calving cows).

The survey revealed that cows with an average age of 5 years and above had higher incidence of mastitis which indicated that the older the cow the greater its tendency to be affected with mastitis. This finding closely agrees with the finding of Tsegaye, (1972) and Morse, et al, (1988). The major mastitis causative agents identified during the study period were: Staphylococcus spp, 42.5%, Escherichia coli, 32.9%, and Streptococcus, spp. 24.6%

Discussion The survey further investigated the various predisposing factors causing mastitis.

Among these factors climatic considerations, faulty milking machine, breed differences, hygienic, and over all management practices in dealing with the incidence of mastitis in Holsteins and their crosses at the farm were examined.

The study indicated that clinical mastitis was greatly increased in the herd mainly during the short (mid March – April) and long (June – August) rainy seasons. Alemaya is a representative area of high land parts of Ethiopia, where the climate is moist, warm and muddy during rains which provide a very conducive



environment for the growth and multiplication of various microbial agents which cause mastitis by contamination of the udder and teat canal with mud and filth from within the corrals where the cows are kept. Thus, the survey has clearly showed that climate especially the short and long rainy seasons, because of their moist muddy environment tends to significantly increase the incidence of mastitis.

The old and unchecked vacuum milking machine used for milking the cows in the farm may have contributed significantly to the incidence of mastitis by producing irritation of the udder tissue. Generally, milking machine have been incriminated as a major predisposing factor of mastitis in many parts of the world especially if these are not properly kept, checked regularly etc. (Allenstein, 1970; Anderson, 1970; Thiel, et al 1973). Recently the farm has partially replaced machine with hand milking and the situation has greatly improved. This is a good indication in a country like Ethiopia where extensive dairy is not in practice and it may be of benefit to use hand milking rather than machine using. The problem of mastitis could be reasonably controlled in any herd if early diagnosis of sub clinical mastitis cases could be followed by immediate treatment of the possible reactors.

To this effect it is important to use the strip cup method routinely on all cows before every milking, to be supported by occasional early diagnostic screening tests (Tsegaye, 1972).

In order to effect, the proper control of mastitis, medications, proper animal husbandry practices, simple hygienic milking and an overall education in dairy management will have to be carried out in a way which could be comprehended by concerned institutions (Tsegaye, 1972).

The problem of mastitis at the University dairy farm, which appears to be because of muddy environment during rainfall and the use of faulty vacuum milking machine, can also be the dominant cause of mastitis recorded in other farms of Ethiopia.

During the study period it was observed that more milk was lost as the number of animals affected with mastitis increased. The loss of milk production and the overall economic loss incurred because of mastitis during the study period was quite



high. In addition to milk production loss, there existed cost incurred on implementing therapeutic agents for the treatment of mastitis as well as implementing other control steps such as, teat dipping, dry cow therapy etc. Thus, the key to avoid mastitis would be to provide clean environment, augmented with good management, which in the long run will be economical and help the dairy run profitably.

References Allenstein, L.C. 1970. “Mastitis-costly but controllable”. Veterinary Economics. pp 37-

44.

Asby, G.B. and Ellis, P.R. 1984. The benefits and costs of a system of mastitis control in individual herds. University of Reading, Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, U.K.

Anderson, B.P. 1970. “One year Herd Health Programming”. Pp. 28-32.

Blowey, W. 1986. An assessment of the economic benefits of mastitis control scheme Vet Bsc. 119: 551- 553.

Edwards, S., Nichollas, J.J. Valleys, F. and Ibate, O. 1982. Mastitis survey in Bolivia. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 14: 93-97.

Francis, P.G., Wilesmith, J.W. and. Wilson, C.D. 1986. Observation on the incidence of clinical bovine mastitis in non lactating cows in England and Wales, Vet Rec. 118: 549-552.

Hilerton, J.E. 1987. Summer mastitis: Vector transmission or not? Parasitology Today 3(4) 121: 122.

Jenkins, P.A. 1982.Diagnostic bacteriology: Biology of micro-bacteria. Academic Press, London.

Kleeberg, H.H. 1982. Bovine tuberculosis in relation to public health. Tuberculosis Research Institute South Pansberg, Private bag, Pretoria, South Africa, 7-8.

Morse, D., Delorenzo, M.A. and. Natzke R.P. 1988. Characterization of clinical mastitis records from one herd in subtropical environment. J. Dairy Sci. 71: 1396-1405.

Nesru Hussein, Teshome Yehualashet and Getachew Tilahun, 1997. Ethiop. J. Agirc. Sci. 16: 53-60.



Thiel, C.C.; Carol, L.C.; Westgarth, D.R. and Neave, R.K. 1973. “The influence of Some physical characteristics of the Milking Machine on the Rate of New Mastitis Infections.” J. of Dairy Res. 40: 117-129.

Tsegaye, H.M. 1972. Studies on bovine mastitis. Haile Selassie I University, College of Agriculture. Misc. Publication No. 41.


Economics of gastrointestinal nematode parasite control: The case of protein supplementation Aynalem Haile1, R.L. Baker2 and J.E.O. Rege3

1Jimma University, College of Agriculture, P.O. Box 307, Jimma, Ethiopia

2International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya

3ILRI, P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract

The economic and biological efficiency of cotton seed cake (CSC) and molasses urea block (MUB) supplementation to control gastrointestinal nematode parasites was examined in artificially infected Horro and Menz lambs from 3 to 12 months of age. The factorial experimental design involved 2 breeds, 2 infection treatments (infected vs non-infected) and 3 dietary protein treatments (hay only, hay plus molasses urea blocks, hay plus cotton seed cake). Challenge with endoparasites involved three infection periods each separated by an anthelmintic treatment. Cost benefit analysis was carried out using partial budget.

Protein supplementation of lambs with CSC and MUB resulted in lower levels of fecal egg counts (FEC) and higher packed cell volume (PCV) and growth rates than lambs that were fed the basal diet. This result suggests that protein supplementation would help lambs to withstand the pathogenic effects of parasites.

In all the infection phases and for all nutritional treatments, non-infected lambs had better net return than their infected counterparts. This is a result of weight gain difference. In the first two infections, supplemented lambs (those kept on CSC) had slightly higher net return than lambs on the basal diet. However, this advantage was not maintained in the tertiary infection. In fact, control lambs were better than those on the supplemented diets during the tertiary infection.



Thus, biological efficiency was not translated to economic efficiency in this study. Future studies should examine other cheaper protein sources. However this study concludes that parasite control strategies and economic analysis should go hand in hand.

Keywords: Helminthosis, Sheep, Resistance, Protein supplementation, Biological efficiency, Economic efficiency

Introduction The nutritional status of the host animal can exert a profound influence on its

immunity to nematode parasite. The interaction between the level of nutrition and the ability of animals to cope with internal parasites has long been recognized (Gibson, 1963; Dobson and Bawden, 1974; Mukasa-Mugerwa et. al., 1991). Extensive evidence exists on the positive influence of protein supplementation to improve the resistance of lambs to nematode parasites. Nevertheless, the higher cost of protein supplementation is prohibitive to wide scale field application. Thus, low cost alternative protein supplements should be considered. It is important that protein supplements when used to control gastrointestinal parasites be cost-effective. Much of the work to date has compared the biological response of protein supplementation. Biological efficiency does not mean economic efficiency. Therefore, there is a need to support biological efficiency with economic analysis. This paper examines economic and biological efficiency of cotton seed cake (CSC) and urea molasses block (UMB) supplementation to control gastrointestinal nematode parasites.

Objectives of the study: 1. to evaluate the economics of protein supplementation (CSC and UMB) as a

method to control gastrointestinal nematode parasites; and 2. to see biological efficiency of CSC and MUB supplementation.

Methodology The data used in this paper was obtained from a study conducted at the ILRI

Debre Berhan research station to investigate the effects of breed and protein supplementation on development of resistance to gastrointestinal nematode parasites.



The factorial experimental design involved 2 breeds (Horro and Menz), 2 infection treatments (infected vs non-infected) and 3 dietary protein treatments. The nutritional treatment included hay, had 7.0 MJ ME kg-1 DM and 58.1g kg-1 DM crude protein and was given ad libitum; hay ad libitum plus molasses urea blocks with 8.0 MJ ME kg-1 DM and 390g kg-1 DM crude protein given at a rate of 150g head-1 day-1; hay ad libitum plus cotton seed cake with 12.3 MJ ME kg-1 DM and 381.3g kg-1 DM crude protein given 165g head-1 day-1.

At the start of the study 152 lambs (103 Menz and 49 Horro) were assigned to the 12 treatment combinations each in a separate pen, with an average of about 13 animals per pen. Artificial challenge with endoparasites involved three infection periods each separated by an anthelmintic treatment. The first and the second infection experiments were carried out for five and six weeks respectively, whereas the third infection was for sixteen weeks. The first two infections were with Haemonchus contortus while the third infection was with a mixed infection of H. contortus, Longystrongylus elongata and Trichostrongylus colubriformis. The goal of this report is to see if there is a match between biological efficiency and economic efficiency using partial budgeting.

Partial budgeting is a method of organizing experimental data and information about the cost and benefits from some change in the technologies being used on the farm. The aim is to estimate the change that will occur in farm profit or loss from some change in the farm plan (Boehlje and Eidman, 1984).

The most difficult task in performing partial budget analysis is the proper identification of the costs and benefits associated with the alternative technologies. For this analysis the assumption was that, all costs incurred excluding costs of the feeds, and all benefits excluding body weight gain were the same. Hence, considerations were based on costs of feeds and returns in terms of weight gain.

Differences in body condition score can bring about differences in value of live weight gain. However, it was found difficult to attach monetary values to this variable. Thus, it was omitted from cost benefit consideration. Prices and costs were calculated based on data collected during the study period. Consequently, value of



1kg live weight gain was estimated at 4 Birr. Additionally, cost of feeds (per 100 kg) for hay, wheat bran, MUB and CSC were 40, 25, 60 and 70 Birr, respectively.

Results and Discussion Effects of infection

This study showed that the sub-clinical H. contortus infections resulted in anaemia in the lambs in the first two infection periods and a reduced PCV in infected lambs in the third infection period relative to non-infected lambs (Table 1). Infection also significantly reduced weight gain of lambs in the first and second infection periods (Table 2).

Effect of protein supplementation Protein supplementation of lambs with cotton seed cake resulted in lower levels of

faecal egg counts (FEC) and higher PCV and growth rates than lambs that were fed the basal diet (Tables 1, 2 and 3). However, in the first two infection periods there was no significant effect on resistance to infections in lambs supplemented with molasses-urea block, probably due to low intake of MUB because the block were only fed for a fixed period each day. In the third infection period MUB was fed ad libitum and this resulted in MUB-supplemented lambs having significantly higher PCV than lambs on the basal diet, with CSC-supplemented lambs being intermediate.

Cost benefit consideration In all the infection phases and for all nutritional treatments, non-infected lambs

had better net return than their infected counterparts (Table 4). This is a result of gain differences reported above. That is, non-infected lambs had higher body weight gains translated into higher values of gain. Indeed, costs of the feeds were also higher for non-infected lambs. However, differences in feed costs were offset by higher gain differences.

In the first two infections, supplemented lambs (those kept on CSC) had slightly higher net return than lambs on the basal diet. However, this advantage was not maintained in the tertiary infection. In fact, control lambs were better than those on the supplemented diets (Table 4). This result indicated that, as immunity developed, as in the tertiary infection, supplementation did not pay because;



supplementation did not result in higher net returns. The net returns in the tertiary infection were all negative. This was probably because 1) as a result of experimental stresses the gains of the animals was not as high as one would expect from such feeding; and 2) the tertiary infection took about 4 months. Feeding for such a long period would normally result in financial penalties, as feeds are expensive.

Conclusion The present study has shown a mismatch between biological efficiency and

economic efficiency. As has been alluded to, protein supplementation helped the lambs to withstand the pathogenic effects of parasitism. However, this advantage did not translate into an economic benefit. Therefore, future studies should examine at other cheap protein sources. Additionally, parasite control strategies and economic analysis should go hand in hand.



Table 1: Least squares means (standard errors) and coefficient of variation (C.V.) for PCV (percent) in the primary, secondary and tertiary infections.a

Effect and level Primary infection Secondary infection Tertiary infection

Overall 28.1(0.2) 29.2(0.2) 30.6(0.1)

C.V. 14.2 11.0 8.7

Infection ** ** **

Infected 26.5(0.3) 27.2(0.2) 30.4(0.2)

Non-infected 29.9(0.3) 31.3(0.2) 31.2(0.2)

Nutrition ** ** **

Control 27.3(0.3) 28.0(0.3) 29.5(0.2)

MUB 27.5(0.3) 28.9(0.3) 31.9(0.2)

CSC 29.8(0.3) 30.9(0.3) 30.9(0.3) a MUB = molasses urea block, CSC = cotton seed cake, NS = not significant, * P<0.05, ** P<0.01

Table 2. Least squares means (standard errors) and coefficient of variation (C.V.) for daily body weight gain (g/day) in the primary, secondary and tertiary infections.a

Effect and level Primary infection Secondary infection Tertiary nfection

Overall 39.7(2.9) 69.3(2.5) 47.0(2.4)

C.V.

Infection ** ** NS

Infected 28.3(3.6) 61.3(3.2) 43.5(3.6)

Non-infected 48.6(3.5) 78.1(3.0) 50.5(3.1)

Nutrition ** ** NS

Control 22.6(4.1)a 66.2(3.7)a 45.3(4.0)

MUB 28.8(4.3)a 47.2(3.8)b 48.9(4.2)

CSC 64.0(4.2)b 95.8(3.7)c 46.9(3.8)

a MUB = molasses urea block, CSC = cotton seed cake, NS = not significant, ** = P<0.01



Table 3. Least squares means (standard errors) and coefficient of variation (C.V.) for logarithm transformed faecal egg count (LFEC) and the least squares means for the anti-log of logarithm transformed faecal egg counts (eggs per gram) for infected lambs in the primary, secondary and tertiary infections.a

Primary infection Secondary infection Tertiary infection Effect and level

LFEC AFEC LFEC AFEC LFEC AFEC

Overall 3.29(0.06) 1950 3.56(0.07) 3631 2.86(0.03) 724

C.V. 11.4 12.6 16.3

Nutrition ** NS NS

Control 3.52(0.05) 3311 3.60(0.07) 3981 2.91(0.05) 813

MUB 3.24(0.06) 1738 3.55(0.07) 3548 2.88(0.05) 759

CSC 3.31(0.06) 2042 3.48(0.08) 3020 2.79(0.05) 617 a MUB = molasses urea block, CSC = cotton seed cake, NS = not significant, ** P<0.01

Table 4. Summary of cost benefit analysisa

Infection Phase

Nutrition treatment Infection status Weight

Gain(g) Cost of feed (Birr/head)

Value of gain (Birr/head)

Net return (Birr/head)

Infected 350.2 4.4 1.4 -3.0 Control

Non infected 1230.8 4.7 4.9 +0.2

Infected 496.4 5.4 2.0 -3.4 MUB

Non infected 1458.6 5.5 5.8 +0.3

Infected 2016.2 7.5 8.1 +0.6

Primary

CSC

Non infected 2342.6 7.9 9.4 +1.5

Infected 2473.8 6.1 9.9 +3.8 Control

Non infected 3049.2 6.7 12.2 +5.5

Infected 1386 8.1 5.5 -2.6 MUB

Non infected 2591.4 8.5 10.4 +1.9

Infected 3834.6 11.3 15.3 +4.0

Secondary

CSC

Non infected 4275.6 11.5 17.1 +5.6

Infected 4782.4 28.7 19.6 -9.1 Control

Non infected 5364.8 30.3 22 -8.3

Infected 4558.4 35.5 18.7 -16.8 MUB

Non infected 6182.4 40.1 25.4 -14.7

Infected 5062.4 44.8 20.8 -24

Tertiary

CSC

Non infected 5499.2 46.3 22.6 -23.7 aCost of the feeds (per 100 kg): Hay = 40 Birr; Wheat bran = 25 Birr; MUB = 60 Birr; Cotton seed cake = 70 Birr



References Boehlje M. D. and Eidman V.R., 1984. Farm management. John Wiley and Sons, New

York, USA.

Dobson, C., Bawden, R.J., 1974. Studies on the immunity of sheep to Oesophagostomum columbianum: effect of low protein diet on resistance to infection and cellular reactions in gut. Parasitology 69, 239-255.

Gibson, T. E., 1963. The influence of nutrition on the relationships between gastro-intestinal parasites and their hosts. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 22, 15-20.

Mukasa-Mugerwa, E., Kasali, O.B., Said, A.N., 1991. Effect of nutrition and endoparasitic treatment on growth, onset of puberty and reproductive activity in Menz ewe lambs. Theriogenology 36, 319-328.


Milk yield and reproductive performance of Borana cows and growth rate of their calves under partial suckling method Yohannes Gojjam, Zelalem Yilma, Gizachew Bekele, Alemu G/Wold and Sendros Demeke

Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Holetta Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract

An experiment was conducted to study the effects of partial suckling and non suckling system for cows previously recorded to produce high or low milk yield under non suckling system on their subsequent milk yield, reproductive performance, pre-weaning growth rate and survival of their calves. A total of 39 cows, (23 in second and 13 in third parity) were used for the study in 2 x 2 factorial design based on their milk production (high or low) and calf suckling method (partial suckling or non-suckling). Level of milk production and suckling method markedly (p<0.001) affected average daily and total milk yields, growth rate of calves, postpartum anostrus interval (PPAI) and days open (DO). The interaction effect between the yield group and the suckling method was significantly high (P<0.001). Daily and total milk yield of low yielding suckling (LYS) was 117% and 102 % respectively higher than that of low yielding non-suckling (LYNS). Daily and total milk yield of high yielding suckling (HYS) was 34.6 % and 45.6 % respectively higher than that of high yielding non-suckling (HYNS). Partial suckling resulted in increase of 82.5 % of the daily milk yield and 56.7% of total milk yield of low yielding cows over the non-suckling once. Weaning weight and average daily weight gains of calves to 90, 120 and 150 days of age were significantly (p<0.001) different among treatments. The overall least squares mean weaning weight (90 days), average daily weight gains up to 90, 120 and 150 days of age were 79.4 ± 2.7 kg 585.2 ± 25.5, 612.9 ± 22.3, and 639.3 ± 20.9 respectively. Partial suckled calves grew at a faster (p<0.001) rate than the non-suckled calves. Suckling significantly (p<0.05) affected PPAI and



DO. PPAI and DO were prolonged (156 days for both) for cows under HYS and the shorter (81 and 104 days) for cows in HYNS, respectively. From the results of this study it can be concluded that milk production potentials of Borana cows could be estimated more than the previous reports as cows previously reported to be low yielders had produced high milk yield when partial-suckling system is applied. Partial suckling improved milk production and calf growth rate. Borana cows are used as dam breed in the cross breeding program to improve milk production. The practice therefor, could be used to rear F1 crossbred calves, as an option to accelerate heifer-rearing methods. The compromise between its impact on reproduction, its advantage on production traits, and economic implications could be the objectives of further study.

Introduction Indigenous breeds of cows, which are generally considered to be low milk

producers, are the major sources of milk in Ethiopia, and account for 97% of the total milk production in the country (Abaye et al., 1991). Research findings (IAR, 1976) related to milk production and reproductive performance of indigenous breeds of cattle, indicated that Ethiopian zebu cattle types yielded between 500 and 700 kg of milk in less than 100 days of lactation, under conditions of average to good management. Even under station management, average milk yield did not exceed 500 kg and lactation length was about 150 days (Beyene, 1984; Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1989; Zelalem, 1999).

Preliminary results from an on-going Borana cow performance evaluation study at Holetta showed significant variation both in milk yield and lactation length among cows, ranging from 1 to 1800 kg and from 3 to 300 days, respectively under hand milking condition. The variability in yield and lactation length shows the possibility of improvement through selection. Nevertheless it is evident that the low milk yield reported for Borana cow is not sufficient to successfully grow a calf to weaning age, while the cows support their calves to this age under natural or suckling condition. The low yield might therefore be attributed to the milk let down character of indigenous cows when milked in the absence of their calf.

Previous works in this line have shown that indigenous cows produce significantly more milk for human consumption and calf feeding when partial suckling and



milking system is used (Azage et al. 1994; Little et al. 1989). This system on the other hand is reported to prolong the postpartum days to conception (Azage et al. 1994). Similar results have also been done on Horro cows and their crosses (Tesfaye and G/Egziabher, 1995). However, none of these previous studies showed how local cows with high variability in yield could respond to suckling stimulation in terms of milk yield and growth and survival rate of their calves. There is very limited or no such information available on Borana cows in particular.

The objective of this study is therefore, to know the effect of suckling on Borana cows previously recorded to produce high and low milk yield under a non-suckling system and to evaluate the pre-weaning growth rate and survival of their calves.

Materials and Methods Animals and treatments:

A total of 39 Borana cows (twenty-three in their second and sixteen third parities) from Holetta Agricultural Research Center Dairy Cattle Research Program were used. The cows were grouped into two yield categories (YG) as high yielders, cows producing > 2 kgs and cows producing < 2 kgs a day in their previous parity. From the two yield categories the cows were randomly assigned to two suckling methods (SG) partial suckling and non-suckling (bucket fed).

Partial suckling and non-suckling (milking without calf suckling) were tested to compare the milk yield and reproductive performance Borana cows, growth and survival rate of their calves. The cows were allocated into the 2 X 2 factorial arrangement as indicated in (Table 1). All cows were drenched against internal parasites before the commencement of the experiment. The cows were stall fed with hay ad lib. An additional concentrate allowance was given at the rate of 0.5 kg for every 1 kg of milk produced. The concentrate mixture was composed of wheat middling (31%), wheat bran (30%), noug (Guizotia abyssinica) cake (35%), bone meal (3%) and salt (1%). One kg of concentrate in excess of their requirement for milk yield was given to all cows for anticipated increase in milk yield. The cows had full access to clean water. A teaser bull ran with the cows for heat detection twice a day once in the morning and once in the evening for one hour each.



Table 1: Allocation of cows to different experimental groups

Factor Treatment Number of Cows

Suckling (S) 20 Suckling Group

Non-Suckling (NS) 19

Low Yielding (LY) 19 Yield Group

High Yielding (HY) 20

Interactions Low yielder suckling

High yielder suckling

Low yielder non-suckling

High yielder non-suckling

10

10

9

10

Total 39

Experimental procedure and measurements: Suckling group:

Calves in this group had free access to suckle their dams for the first 4 days to ensure enough colustrom. They were separated from their dams and put in individual boxes until weaning at 90 days of age. Calves were allowed to suckle their dams for 2 min before each of the two daily milking to stimulate milk let down. They were then tied in front of their dams until two quarters (one from the fore and one from the rear quarters) were milked by hand. After milking, calves were allowed to suckle for 30 minute. Calf milk consumption was estimated by the weight-suckle-weigh technique (Bale et al. 1990) using a balance with 500 g sensitivity at each milking. The daily milk yield for this group was obtained by adding the milk consumed by the calf (expressed by weight difference of calves) and milk off-take for consumption. During suckling if the calf defects attendants collected in plastic buckets. The amount was added to the weight of the calf.

Non- Suckling Group: Calves from this group were separated right at birth and put in individual box

until weaning at 90 days of age. The fist 4 days calves received Colustrum produced by their respective dams. They were then fed on bucket following the station procedure (i.e. 260-kg of whole milk over 98 days). Milk yield of cows were measured and recorded two times per day during AM and PM milking. Live weight of the calves was taken every second week. Reproduction events in cows were also recorded as they occurred.



Statistical Analysis: The data collected on milk yield, calf growth rate and reproductive parameters

were analyzed using least-squares procedures of Harvey (1990) in 2x2 factorial arrangement. In the model milk yield, calf growth rate and reproduction parameters were fitted as dependent variables. Where as daily growth rate of calves was calculated as a regression co-efficient on the period of weighing interval and later on included in the model as dependent variable to avoid bias in considering only birth weight and weaning weight (initial and final weights). Yield category low yielder (LY), high yielder (HY) was considered as factor one and suckling method suckling non-suckling was considered as factor two. The interaction between the two factors low yielder suckling (LYS), high yieldr suckling (HYS), low yielder non-suckling (LYNS) and high yielder non-suckling (HYNS) were analyzed to test their influence on the dependent variables.

Results and Discussions Milk yield

Suckling method and milk yield level markedly affected both daily milk yields (DMY) and total milk yield (TMY) for the experimental period (Table 2). Suckling cows produced significantly (p< 0.001) more daily and total milk yield than the non-suckling once (Table 2). The values being 5.0 ± 0.25 and 974.5 ± 0.46 respectively. While the value for non-suckled once was 3.09 ± 0.26 and 588.9 ± 0.47 respectively. The previously categorized high yielding cows have produced significantly (p< 0.001) higher daily milk yield and total milk yield than the low yielding cows as expected (Table2).

The interaction effect between yield category and suckling method was significant. LYS cows produced significantly (p<0.001) higher daily and total milk yield than HYNS cows (table 2). HYS group of cows produced significantly (p<0.001) more daily and total milk than the rest of the group, 5.56 and 1114.2 kg respectively. Compared to other groups LYNS group of cows produced significantly (p<0.001) lower daily and lactation milk yield. The milk yield obtained in this result is higher than the milk yield from the previous second and third parity yield. This is attributed to the higher management level applied during the experimental period



than the pervious conventional management level applied before the cows were allocated to the experiment. Parity number might have influenced the yield, since most of the cows wich were in the 2nd parity before the experiment are now in their third parity.

Suckling resulted in 117% and 34.6 % increase in daily milk yield of low and high yielding Borana cows respectively. Similarly lactation milk yield was increased by 102.3% and 45.6% among low and high yielding Borana cows respectively. Tesfaye et.al, (1995) reported a similar result where suckling produced 147% more milk from indigenous Horro cattle and 42% from their Friesian crosses at Bako. A partial suckling study conducted with Boran x Friesian crossbred cows at Debre-brhan (Little, et.al., 1988), however, showed only a 15% milk yield advantage over non-suckling group. Barret and Larkin as cited by Tesfaye, (1995) explained the strong maternal instinct of indigenous cows to have influence on milk let down, which is expressed by unwillingness to let down milk into buckets, preferring to hold it back for the calf.

The effects of suckling on milk yield has been already reported by a number of investigators (Azage et.al., 1994; Tesfaye et.al., 1995; Gebre Egzabher et.al., 1999). The present work was rather targeted to study the response of low and high yielding Borana cows in terms of milk yield performance through partial suckling and non-suckling methods. As has been indicated in Table 2, suckling favored low milk producing Borana cows to give over 100% more milk when suckling practice was applied. The milk yield of high producing cows was also improved by 35%. Experiences elsewhere shown that, apart from the suckling stimulus, the mere presence of the calf near its dam, and the degree of direct contact by touch, smell and sound, can improve milk let down (Falvey and Chantalakahana, 1999). This is associated with the initiation of oxitoxin release of the dam in the presence of the calf. The result of the current study supports this evidence.

Borana cows are generally among the indigenous cattle known to have lower milk production and relatively poor reproductive performances. Unlike the traditional sector, the milking practice at the Some agricultural research center is performed in the absence of calves (non-suckling method). This may not reflect the true yield



potential of the local cows and therefore may have some impacts in the selection process.

Table 2: Least-squares mean ± se for daily and total milk yield in kg of Borana cows as affected by milk yield potential and suckling for the experimental period (190 ±24 SD days)

Variables N Daily milk yield ±se Total milk yield± se

Overall mean 39 4.05±0.25 781.7±33.02

Suckling method

Suckling 20 5.00±0.25a 974.5±0.46 a

Non-Suckling

Yield group

19 3.09±0.26b 588.9±0.47 b

Low Yielders 19 3.26±0.27b 623.7±50.08b

High Yielder 20 4.85±0.26 a 939.7±48.6 a

Interactions

Low yielder suckling 10 4.45±0.36b 834.8±67b

High yielder suckling

Low yielder non-suckling

High yielder non-suckling

CV %

R2

10

9

10

5.56±0.36 a

2.05±0.38d

4.13±0.37c

27.06

0.61

1114.2±66.0 a

412.7±70.7d

765.2±68.31c

26.04

0.67 Within columns LSM followed by different superscripts are significantly different (P< 0.001) Calf growth and survival

The overall mean birth weight of the calves was 26.56 ± 0.7 kg and the difference among the groups was not statistically significant (P>0.05 Table 3). At weaning calves that suckled their dams were significantly (P<0.001) heavier. They had 20 kg more body weight increase than the non-suckled group of calves. Non-suckled calves had significantly (P<0.001) lighter weight at weaning, consequently, had lower daily growth rate, 453 ± 6. Similar trend was followed in daily growth rate at the age of 120 and 150 days (Table 3). Weaning weight (90 days) of calves that suckled high yielding and low yielding dams was similar (P>0.05), where as that of bucket fed group of calves had significantly (P<0.001) lighter weight at weaning. No calf mortality was recorded from suckling group, while a total of 6 out of 19 (31.6 %) of calves were died before weaning from the group of calves treated under bucket feeding. The high



mortality rate seem to have been associated with hygienic condition related to contamination during the colostrum and whole milk feeding at the earlier age.

Study on indigenous Horro cattle at Bako (Gebre-Egzabher et.al., 1999) and Friesian Boran crossbred cows at Debrebrhan (Little, 1988), showed similar results on the effect of suckling on calf growth and survival. According to the report calves suckled low yielding Borana dams attained 20 kg more weight at weaning and had 200 g more daily growth rate than those reared on bucket feeding system (Little, 1988).

Table 3: Least-squares mean ± se for calf birth weight, growth and survival as affected by suckling and bucket feeding

Treatments

Parameters Overall mean Calves

suckled Low yielding

cows±Se

Calves suckled High yielding cows ± Se

Bucket Fed calves ±Se

CV % R2

Number of calves 33 24M+9F) 10 (7M+3F) 10 (7M+3F) 13 (10M+3F)

Birth weight 26.56±0.7 26.47±1.3a 27.09±1.3 a 26.11±1.3 a 14.5 0.10

Weaning wt at 90 d 79.40±2.7 82.07±4.7 a 88.59±4.7 a 67.55±4.5c 16.8 0.42

ADWG to 90 d, g 585.23±25.5 615.76±44.9 a 686.38±44.9 a 453.57±42.9 c 21.67 0.45

ADWG to 120 d, g 612.85±22.3 661.52±39.2 a 712.59±39.2b 464.45±37.4 c 18.11 0.58

ADWG to 150 d, g 639.33±20.9 713.74±713.7 a 745.92±745.9 a 458.35±35.1 c 16.39 0.70

Mortality % 15.4 0 0 31.6 Within rows Lsm ± se followed by different superscripts is significantly different (P< 0.001) Where ADWG = Average daily weight gain

This implies that the potential of Borana cows for high milk production is high. Hence, earlier reports on the yield performances of this indigenous breed may be reviewed after verifying the current result with more data. In the selection process of indigenous cattle both within the dam breed and the offspring, estimation of milk production could be based on the yield obtained through suckling and calf growth rate. The wide range of variability in the milk yield of Borana cows indicates the possibility of improving the breed through selection.

Reproduction Postpartum anoestrus interval (PPAI) significantly differed among the yield and

suckling method groups (Table 4). Cows in high yielding suckling group stayed significantly (P< 0.05) longer without coming in heat, followed by those in low



yielding-suckling group. Non-suckling groups generally came in heat significantly (P< 0.05) earlier than the suckling groups. Days open for suckling and non-suckling groups was significantly (P<0.05) different with similar trend as that of PPAI (Table 4). Two cows out of twenty from the suckling group did not cycle during the experimental period. The results obtained from this study in the aspects of reproduction are in line with previous reports (Azage, 1989). A number of endogenous and exogenous factors have been reported to contribute to the delay or advancement of reproductive efficiency in cows (Flavey and Chantalakahana, 1999). Suckling regimes (frequency and duration) and weaning age of calves have influenced the PPAI. According to Azage (1989) restricted suckling twice a day at Gobe ranch in Arsi cattle reduced postpartum anoestrous interval and increased pregnancy rate.

Table 6: Least squares mean ± se for reproduction parameters postpartum interval

Treatments Parameter

LYS±se HYS±se LYNS±se HYNS±se

Number of cows 9 9 10 10

PPAI days 133±18b 156±18 a 107±17c 81±17d

Days open, days 149±18a 156±18 a 118±17 b 104±17 b

Number of cows not cycled 1 1 0 0 Within rows LSM ± se followed by different superscripts is significantly different (P< 0.05)

Conclusions and implications • Suckling improved milk production of indigenous cows and growth rate of their

calves. The practical implication in using the technique for accelerated calf rearing system could be more important, since suckling favored calf growth and survival compared to bucket feeding. Borana cows are widely used as dam breed in the crossbreeding program to improve productivity of indigenous cattle. Therefore, suckling practice could be applied in the rearing F1

crossbred calves, as one option to accelerate heifer-rearing methods.

• Milk production potentials of indigenous cows could be expressed more through natural (suckling) system under improved management This indicates that the traditional practices incorporated with the improved management system could bring about substantial improvement in milk production of indigenous breed. The yield obtained in this study initiates to revisit the previous yield reported for Borana cows under non-suckling methods.



• Despite the advantage that suckling could bring in terms of milk production and calf growth rate, it has disadvantage in prolonging reproductive traits, such as postpartum anoestrus interval and days open. Therefore, similar studies to determine the most appropriate strategy for improving reproduction traits, along with milk production and calf growth and survival in suckling practices under different production systems should be undertaken.

Acknowledgment The authors acknowledge the contributions of research technicians specially that

of Mr. Molla Shumiye and Mr. Sebssibie Demisse and thank them for their unreserved assistance throughout the experimental period.

Reference Abaye, T., Tefera, G.M., Alemu, G.W., Beruk, Y. and Philip, C., 1991. Status of Daring

in Ethiopia and Strategies for Future Development. In the proceedings of the Third National Livestock Improvement Conference, 24-26 May 1989, Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 25-36.

Azage Tegegne, 1989. Reproductive development and function in zebu and crossbred cattle in Ethiopia. PhD Thesis. James Cook University, Australia.

Beal, W.E., Notter, D.R. and Akers, R.M. 1990. Techniques for estimation of milk yield in beef cows and relationship of milk yield to calf weight gain and postpartum reproduction. J. of Anim. Sci. 68:937-947.

Beyene, K., 1984. Improving Ethiopia’s milk production. The potential for small-scale milk production in Eastern and Southern Africa. International Development Research Center, Canada. pp. 19-26.

O. Perera,1999. Management of reproduction. In Flavey L. and Chantalakahana C. Smallholder dairy in the tropics. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute) Nairobi, Kenya. Chapter 13 pp 241-264.

Gebre-Egzabher G/Yohannes, Tesfaye Kumsa, Alganesh Tola and Chernet Asfaw. 1999. Effect of suckling on calf pre-weaning growth and cow reproduction in Horro and crossbred cows. In the proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-27 May 1999, pp 212-216.

Harvey, W.A. 1990. User’s manual to mixed model Least squares and maximum liklihood computer program pc-2 Ohio State University, Colombo, Ohio.



Little, D.A., Anderson, F.M., and Durkin, J.W. 1989. Partial suckling of crossbred dairy cows: Initial results on effects of milk off-take and calf growth at Debre Birhan. In proceedings of the 2nd National Livestock Improvement Conference. 24-26 Feb. 1988, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 92-98.

Mukasa-Mugerwa, E., Ephraim, B. and Tadesse, T., 1983. Productive performance of indigenous cattle in the Ada district of the central Ethiopian highlands. Mimeograph. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Tegegne, A., Geleto, A., Osuji, P.O., Kassa, T., and Franceschini, R. 1994. Influence of dietary supplementation and partial suckling on body weight and on lactation and reproductive performance of primiparous Borana (Bos indicus) cows in Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Science. Cambridge. 123: 267-273.

Tesfaye Kumssa and G.Igziabher G.Yohannes 1995. Effect of suckling on dairy performance of local and crossbred cows. I. Milk yield and lactation length. In the proceeding of the third annual conference of ESAP, 27-29 April 1995 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, P 135-139.

Zelalem, Y., 1999. Smallholder milk production systems and processing techniques in the central highlands of Ethiopia. MSc thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Uppsala. Sweden.


Rift Valley Fever an emerging threat to livestock trade and food security in the Horn of Africa: A review P. Bonnet2, Markos Tibbo1*, Assegid Workalemahu2 and M. Gau1

1Action contre la Faim (ACF) – Ethiopia, PO Box 2357, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

2International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), CIRAD-EMVT, Livestock Policy Analysis Programme, PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

3Action contre la Faim (ACF), CIRAD-EMVT, Ethiopia, PO Box 2357, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract

Rift Valley Fever (RVF), an insect-borne viral zoonotic disease caused by a member of the Phlebovirus genus of the family Bunyaviridae, was first recognised in the Rift Valley of Kenya in the early 1930s. Since then, several epidemics of RVF have occurred in northern, southern and eastern Africa becoming a continental problem. The epidemics that occurred in Egypt in 1977–78 and recent human and livestock cases in Yemen and Saudi Arabia (in September 2000) indicated the potential for the disease to spread to other inter-tropical regions of the world outside African continent. An embargo on livestock export by Gulf countries has brought in food insecurity in the East African countries due to indirect socio-economic mechanisms and impact of the ban on pastoralists household economy. Though food insecurity in the Horn of Africa is a longstanding problem, the recent ban imposed on eight countries, which are not yet recovered from the effects of recent droughts has further exacerbated the situation. Between September and December 2000, livestock export dropped by 92% in Somalia. According to FSAU/FEWS (2001), the estimated total loss of

*

Correspondence to: Dr. Markos Tibbo, ILRI, AnGR, PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia;

E-mail: m.tibbo @cgiar.org



income at the Somali owner/producer level (including livestock originated from eastern Ethiopia), reached 20–30 millions of USD. This figure does not include the reduced government revenue from livestock trade taxes. In Somalia, about 80% of foreign exchange earned from livestock exports are used to import basic food items and other commodities. The effect of livestock export ban was further compounded due to the decrease in imported commodities. This review emphasises on epidemiology and risk of RVF, and its impact on the future of the livestock sector and pastoralists household economy in the Horn of Africa; underscores the consequences on food security; analyses the current situation in a region already with multifaceted crises viewed against international experience.

Keywords: Rift Valley Fever; Epidemiology; Livestock Trade; Food Security; Economic impact; Policy implications; Recommendations; Horn of Africa; Early Warning System

Introduction In the Horn of Africa, where 160 million people live, more than 40% (about 70

million) of the people suffer from chronic food insecurity (FAO, 2001). Drought, conflicts, poverty and population growth are some of the major underlying causes of food insecurity. Other natural disasters such as floods, locusts or contagious human and animal diseases, can predispose people to food insecurity. Among livestock diseases, the livestock export embargo due to Rift Valley Fever (RVF) has become one of the most important constraints to food security in the Horn countries in recent years.

The disease and its consequences RVF is a peracute or acute insect-borne disease of livestock and human beings

caused by a member of the Phlebovirus genus of the family Bunyaviridae (Radostits et al., 1994). The first indication of development of an epidemic is frequently the abortion of sheep. Signs of the disease in animals tend to be non-specific, making it difficult to recognise individual cases of RVF. The simultaneous occurrence of numerous cases of abortion and disease in ruminants, together with disease of humans, following ecological and meteorological changes such as heavy and prolonged rainfall or in the presence of irrigation schemes, is characteristic of RVF.



The disease generally leads to export bans (embargo) due to its position in the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) disease list A and international regulations or regional agreements on prerequisite conditions for livestock trade. Consequently, embargo on livestock export is hampering food security of livestock producers especially those households who relies on only livestock economy and therefore cannot generate cash from trade. Moreover, it affects the various scales of any nation macro and meso-economy when mainly relying on livestock production and trade (% of Gross Domestic Product, hereafter GDP) and additionally has negative effects on all commodity sectors linked to livestock sector. To lift any sanitary–caused ban it necessitates negotiating reopening of markets based on information on epidemiological status and risk assessment and it has high transaction costs. To recover markets rooms after a ban is lifted is a tough task for the whole livestock sector commodity chain. It is not the only disease where certification is asked for by importing countries and as noticed by Ostanello et al. (1999) necessary control of other diseases which are prevalent in the Africa Horn (like Brucellosis in Somalia in small ruminants) was quite common leading to chronic negotiation and technical problems for exporting.

Transmission Many species of mosquito biologically transmit RVF virus and non-vector

transmission of the virus in livestock is also possible mechanically. Enzootic status of the disease is due to persistence of the virus by transovarian transmission in zoophilic Aedine mosquitoes. These mosquitoes oviposit at the edge of standing water, which explicit the sustainable infection from a year to another has been described (Davies and Nunn, 1998; Fontenille, 1998).

Transmission to humans occurs via mosquito bites, inhalation of aerosols, during slaughtering and necropsy procedures on infected animals. Milk consumption from infected animals is known to be an important transmission route to human beings especially in pastoral communities where milk is a major component of the diet.

Introduction of the virus to long distant countries such as Egypt (1977/78) and Iraq (July 2001) might be due to the arrivals of viraemic people, infected livestock, contact of humans slaughtering or handling infected tissues, transport of infected



mosquitoes by plane and wind-borne movement of mosquitoes (EMPRESS/FAO, 1998; ProMED, 2001).

Historical background RVF appeared to be limited to Africa. It was recognised first in the Rift Valley of

Kenya at the turn of 20th century (clinical signs of the disease was first observed in Kenya in 1913 Naivasha Lake, Rift Valley on ovine) but the agent was not isolated until 1931. In 1987, the disease was reported for the first time in Western Africa (OIE, 2000). Most epidemics have occurred in eastern and southern Africa and, until 1977, the furthest north that the disease was known to have occurred was the Sudan. Up to 1973 the disease was considered as a normal animal disease and not a human threat but during 1977 and 1978, a major epidemic occurred in the Nile delta and valley in Egypt leading to 18 000 human clinical cases out of which 600 died. A severe epidemic affected the Senegal River basin in Mauritania and Senegal in 1987 (EMPRES/FAO, 1998) with the result of 1000 clinical cases out of which about 100 died. All have had major public health impact and have changed the perception of the disease to a pure zoonotic one and with regard to its spreading capacity. The epidemics in Egypt in the 1977 (WHO, 1982) and 1993 (EMPRES/FAO, 1998) as first to pass the Saharan border have signalled that the potential exists for spread to other regions of the world outside the African continent. It was predicted in 1982 that next to Egypt, Middle East receptive areas would most likely be affected by RVF epizootic (WHO, 1982).

An outbreak in Kenya, Somalia, and Tanzania during 1997 to 1998 involved an estimated 89,000 human cases. During the same period, there were rumours and hypothesis that the epidemic cases had been in Afar and Somali region in Ethiopia. In September 2000, RVF was reported for the first time outside Africa reaching Middle East (ProMED BBC, 2000) and having lead to death of 16 human beings. According to the report of 25th September 2000, RVF virus has killed 10,768 sheep, cows and camels in Jizan (a town in Saudi Arabia near border to Yemen) and as many as 16,212 sheep have aborted and 153,000 animals were treated against the disease. As of 26 October 2000, the Ministry of Health of Saudi Arabia reported 443 human cases of RVF with 88 deaths. In Yemen, 97 people have died and 1,797



animals have perished (ProMED, 2000). The area covered is indicated on Maps 1 and 2 (Source: OIE FAO Internet site, 2001).

An internet report of BBC on 25 September 2000 showed that following an outbreak of RVF in mid-September six Gulf states banned livestock imports from eight East African countries and Nigeria to prevent the spread of the viral disease, which has drown the attention of the affected countries. An assessment by FSAU (Food Security Assessment Unit) has warned that the ban to result a serious food insecurity in the Horn of Africa (Flash, Issue 6-30 November, 2000). Very recently (July 2001), unconfirmed cases of RVF have been reported in Iraq (ProMED, 30 July 2001), which resulted an embargo on livestock import, by Saudi Arabia from Iraq. In general, the disease has shown its potential of spreading to other neighbouring countries of Southern Europe.

This review emphasises on the risk of RVF on the future livestock economy and consequent food security in the Horn of Africa and analyses the current situation in severely suffering regions. Mechanisms and concepts of food security and insecurity and how the current ban affects food security of the agro-pastoralists and pastoralists are discussed based on international experience and local context.



Map 1 and 2 the RVF area in Yemen and Saudi Arabia (Source: OIE/FAO Internet site, 2001).



Factors influencing RVF control and highlights of socio-economic studies in Afar and Somali regions

The reasons and rationale to decide export or import bans (embargos) as technical defensive measures depends upon the position of a given country (or two associated when bilateral export-import is considered) with regard to the disease, and on economic consequences of whether its introduction or spread for the country which decides the ban. It also depends on the type and quality of indicators that are available to help the decision. Negotiation matters a lot when no laws or multilateral or bilateral trade regulation are applicable and also to refer to international bodies and regulation when international regulations do exist and when arbitration is needed. On top of these, the current or expected expression of the disease will also affect the decision, whether it affects or not people (as a zoonotic threat). One can see in Figure 1 how the sequences of the disease (as a biological event) and bans (decision from countries) have been in the recent years and therefore affecting the economy of livestock production and trade in a different manner.

In the Horn of Africa pastoral areas have contrasting rainy seasons, which livestock systems and some crop production are relying on. In Afar a normal season is made of 4 seasons: Sugum (February – April) represents short rainy season with irregular patterns, Cagay (May – July) hot dry and difficult season, Karma (August – September) is the long rainy season, Jilaal (November – January) represents the dry cold season. Water points are generally rivers (perennial and semi-perennial), wells, water collections (artificial and natural ponds), and boreholes.

Concentrations of livestock are mainly due to transhumance movements in some well-known areas (DoQQ’A, a grazing area at the escarpment between highlands and lowlands, or KeLO, close to the Awash river) or to irrigation scheme where people concentrate in semi-urban habitats (Dubti area). Concentrations are incommensurably reinforced when grazing conditions are difficult (when all people are intending to share the same restricted grazing area and watering points). Nevertheless, there are differences between livestock species management, where cattle and camels being the species that reach the most remote areas (100 km from water point) as compared to small ruminants (radius 30–40 km from the water



D J F M A M J J A S O N DJILAAL GU HAGA DEYR

Sowing Weeding Protection: Harvestbirds/wind

Reer Magaal Tuulo Joks Reer BadiyeSettled urban Villagers Agro-Pastoralists Pure Pastoralists

Dwelling arish mudul aqal Somali aqal SomaliIncome various (petty trade,

casual workers,…)sale of milk anddairy produces

sale of livestocksale of milk

sale of livestocksale of milk

Movements limited (agriculturalpurposes, trade …)

limited (agriculturalpurposes, trade …)

to close pasturelands and foragriculturalpurposes

to dry and rainyseason pasture lands

Agriculture Intermediate high involvement high involvement low involvementLivestock husbandry Various mainly cattle mainly cattle and

shoatscombination oflivestock (camelsgreater part)

* Somali seasonal calendarD J F M A M J J A S O N D

JILAAL GU HAGA DEYRlong dry season long rainy season short dry season short rainy season

Variety of coping strategies given socio-economic profiles

Groupshighlysensitive

Groups lesssensitive to banstress

Agricultural calendar

Figure 1: Groups of pastoralists and how ban would affect their production economy given

their crop calendar and livestock production patterns (Source: ACF Ogaden Labidi, 2000)

point, having access every 3 days to the water) and camels being the species that needs less contact with watering points (can be raised at a distance of 10 days walking from a water point). These figures are given to describe and explain the frequency and density of contacts between livestock, people and the water points where mosquitoes can develop under certain conditions and to illustrate some food security strategies that pastoralists adopt in a given context. It is obvious that livestock species structure (composition of the herd) within herd or within a region plays an important role as a risk factor to explain frequency of contact with water points, as it plays an important role in the economic diversification of pastoralists (large ruminants as assets animal, shoats as cash animals, all animals being sold). Economic diversification is also provided by additional crop production on riverbanks or irrigated schemes and is a matter of food security for agro-pastoralists relying on both livestock and crop activities.



In the Somali region one may consider the classic 4 seasons: Jilaal (long hot and dry season December – March), Gu (long rainy season April – mid-July), Haga (short dry season, July–September), Deyr (short rainy season October – mid-December). The bimodal rainfall patterns are generalised in the area except in mountainous areas of the region (Shinile and Jijiga zones) where during Haga, these zones get rains equivalent to the Kiremt of highlands. Consequently, these zones offer a complete sequence of rain from place to place in the same region in which many mosquitoes bloom. Rainy seasons fill up the traditional water reserves (of Somali livestock owners) such as the birkads (artificially-made water ponds covered with roofs), hand dug wells, and also contribute to the filling up of any water collection or rivers (Wabe Shebelle). Inhabitants are concentrated along the Wabe Shebelle River, where they cultivate on riverbanks or in irrigation schemes. In some periurban areas, agro-pastoralism tends to substitute or complement pure pastoralism when some agricultural activity is allowed. Figure 5 displays a typical agricultural calendar from Kebri Dehar periurban area with dependency patterns of producers given their economic activity.

In addition, the altitudinal transhumance from lowlands to highlands, which are specific to the Horn of Africa, is frequent in Somali region with cyclic contact with Harrargue Mountains during drought seasons. However, this is less frequent in Afar, with normal yearly contacts with highlands at the escarpment and is characteristics that play a role when assessing the variety of contacts between livestock from different origins.

Finally, in order to scale up the description of ecological and meteorological conditions facilitating RVF introduction or spread at a larger geographical basis, one may consider the sequences of rainy seasons within sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), within the Horn of Africa and between Africa and Middle East to asses the risks of transmission between countries and the risk of a ban imposition. Moreover, Yemen and Saudi Arabia have suffered heavy rainy seasons (giving a high risk context for mosquitoes bloom) at the time when the Horn of Africa had dry season (and therefore no risk for mosquito bloom).



Finally, one may summarise risks factors for introduction, or passage from an enzootic status of RVF to an epidemic and eventually spread (whatever the area of concern in a given market shed), and therefore leading to a ban and an economic stress for pastoralists:

• The change in meteorological patterns (rainfall, and their consequences, flooding) which contributes to cyclically maintain water collection in a more sustainable way

• The presence of livestock and cross-border and local movements of pastoralists with their animals in search of water and pasture which favour contacts with infected mosquitoes

• The dependence of livestock owners in pastoral areas on export trade, which lead to the utilisation of traditional livestock marketing corridors or market places where animals do concentrate, and the co-existence of domestic market.

• The presence of concentration of people in some areas neighbouring irrigation schemes

• Lack of early ground information on occurrence of disorders due to lack of contacts between pastoralists and veterinary services lack of surveillance and diagnostic capacity in pastoral areas, lack of EWS “Early Warning System” and sentinels networks in general

• The lack of comprehensive information systems assembling ground information schemes data with satellites-provided data

• The existence of numerous species of mechanical transmitters such as biting flies and other mosquitoes in the region and lack of infrastructure to control them after periodical torrential rains resulting in the flooding any region

• The recurrent drought stress and the presence of traditional water collections which are necessary to cope with dry seasons including governmental or NGO’s intervention in building huge ponds with the attempt of harvesting water could favour multiplication of mosquitoes in the region.

• The lack of efficient control tools (vaccines) against RVF



Effects of RVF on livestock trade and on ultimate food security

Impact of RVF or of RVF ban should be assessed at various levels of an economy – micro, meso, or macro levels being standards for loss and gain assessment. The figures which results from such an exercise would give a better figure of who is gaining and loosing from the ban, and for how much using financial indicators (USD, €) or non financial indicators (stock of livestock unsold, etc.). As usual in the economic assessment point of view, which is chosen to apply a given methodology for calculation, is essential and can slightly change conclusions.

The RVF has been confined to Africa until the recent report of human and animal cases in September 2000 in the Gulf States (Yemen and Saudi Arabia) (Flash, 2000). The recent ban of September 2000 when compared with the last ban (i.e. in February 1998), there are important differences, which suggest that the worst effects of the last ban will be felt more quickly and severely. This time around also due to the co-existence of recent drought (April 2000), which has severely affected pastoralists economy – the timing of the ban’s imposition (see Figs. 2 and 4) and the lack of alternative domestic or international markets are two such key points. At this point, one may remark that pastoralists who rely 100% on export trade (some Somali groups) may suffer a lot whereas pastoralists who are more connected to domestic markets (Afar exchanging significant number of cattle with highlands) or less specialised on livestock (degree of diversification in agriculture) may be less sensitive to the ban. Since the ban has not been lifted yet, the effects are felt during the dry Jilaal season in both the Ethiopian and Somaliland pastoral regions, which have added another threat to the already difficult season. As has been analysed by Flash (2000), during this season, the seasonal off-take and pastoralists’ purchased food consumption requirements are at their highest level, whatever level may have reached some groups with regards to the degree of diversification from pastoralism into agro-pastoralism (Fig. 3). This year, as in recent years, this peak in off-take would also coincide with a peak in demand as a result of the Haj pilgrimage (Focus, 2000, see Fig. 2). It is the season when pastoralists trade an important number of animals for the Haj traditional sheep slaughtering in Muslim countries. Comparisons about ban patterns and impact are made:



1. In analysing the timing of the ban, in recent years the livestock exports has seen demand and sales increase from about October to reach a first peak in December (Ramadan) leading to a second peak in February (Haj) (Focus, 2000). The 1998/99 ban was imposed in February, following the first peak and several months after increasing export sales. Therefore many months of revenue had already been generated. In contrast, the current ban has been imposed after 4–6 months of seasonally low sales when, normally, prices and demand would have expected to pick up. This would represent an impact with a price and volume effect.

2. During the 1998/99, there was a short grace period after which the ban was imposed, which allowed a large volume of animals to be exported in a limited period of time. The current ban was imposed with no notice, which pose the problem of proper application of international regulations and of arbitrator role of international bodies (WTO-OIE-SPS) resulting in the return of several ships that had already set sale for Saudi Arabia.

3. In the previous ban (i.e. in 1998/99) there were alternative international markets since only Saudi Arabia imposed the previous ban. Consequently a lot of livestock were still exported via Yemen to Saudi Arabia. While numbers sold and prices of the exported animals were still lower than normal, there was at least a market. – It is believed that the more distant markets in Region V, Ethiopia, were more affected by the past ban. The current ban, in stark contrast, appears to be much more comprehensive with all states in the Arabian Peninsula involved, allowing little or no possibility for alternative markets in the Gulf, the livestock domestic market being the only alternative with informal and illegal contraband export.

4. Prior conditions – the 1998/99 ban was imposed following very good El Niño rains, which resulted in good water and pasture availability for some time thereafter. This may have helped to absorb the greater numbers of animals that could not be exported and that were kept in host areas with a limited impact on the environment. The current ban is imposed after a period of regional drought (Somalia, Ethiopia). Although Northwest Somalia has not in general (there are pockets) had significantly below normal rains in the last two



years, drought in Ethiopia had caused high migrations into Somaliland causing serious pasture depletion in places. With the imposition of the ban, planned Haj and Ramadan export-related off-takes may be adding to the strain on the rangeland allowing significant degradation of the environment.

The most obvious and immediate impact of the ban is a reduction in the demand (volume) and prices for livestock resulting in reduced pastoral income. One can see in Fig. 5 the mechanisms of food insecurity when household economy is affected by livestock trade limitation due to ban. Stoppage of sales of export quality animals was followed by a plunge in local quality animal prices in most important markets (less value of animals against cereals) and was accompanied by drought effect on cereal prices. As a first quick response of the markets to the ban, livestock prices continue to fall (5-10% in Garowe and Bosasso to 30-50% in Hargeisa and Burao/Yirowe in Somalia) with slight difference relatively to the species (sheep and goats highly affected see Fig. 3 terms of trade in Ogaden). Pastoralists experienced a double shock when the market for export quality animals disappeared and prices for local livestock suddenly dropped. Those pastoralists who have export quality goat can sell quickly in the local markets and improve their food accessibility by buying cereals from the same markets. Herders are still holding unsold animals as assets, anticipating a lifting of the ban (Focus, 2000). Since income is basically used to buy complementary cereals and other commodities, lack of income has generated inappropriate diet, and malnutrition depending upon the degree of coping strategies that were used. Moreover, the cereals price may increase in a significant manner leading to more difficulties for pastoralists to buy crops (terms of trade LS against cereal is shown during April to august 2000 in Kebri Dehar area is shown in Fig. 3.) for their diet and the term of trade between cereals and LS is generally considered as a major indicator of risk for food insecurity in the exchange economy. Formerly terms of trade during the last drought crisis in April 2000 having recently shifted to non-favourable as normally occurs during a crisis, it has lead to erosion of purchasing power of most pastoralists. The ban consequently contributes to increase vulnerability of some pastoralists groups and reduce overall purchasing power and quality of diets to the minimum. As a result, the impact of the ban could be assessed at micro-economic level basically based on welfare indicators, nutritional indicators,



as well financial (income or assets quantity), or at society level when dealing with environmental externalities.

Average price /head

Number of small stock

demanded

RamadanMawliid

July 6th1998

June14th 2000

January 29th 1998

January 10th 2000

Id Al AdahaApril 6th1998

March 15th2000

Market patterns comparison given export seasonality ofmarketed pastoral livestock in Somali or Afar region(Ethiopia) in relation with muslim celebrations compared toalternative options for Pastoralists to trade LS on Domesticmarket in Ethiopia (in relation to national orthodox ormuslim celebrations) : Support Complementary Markets tomitigate export ban

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Ethiopian Christmas Day &

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April 17th1998

April 28th 2000Ethiopian New year andMaskal

EXPORT

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as BANNICHE

DOMESTIC MARKET NICHE with marketinterface (Afar Escarpment, Harrargue)

Figure 2: Time sequences between the disease, the bans, the markets opportunities, a risky game: a reflection on how to mitigate the time effect with a better domestic market for Livestock

Nb of sheep/bag of cereal

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Sowing Weeding Protection: Harvestbirds/wind* Somali seasonal calendar


long dry season long rainy season short dry season short rainy season

Terms of Trade (ToT LS/cereals) in Central Ogaden (Ethiopia) 2000STRESS

ToT MAIN STRESS before HARVESTING

STRESS

Source: ACF Labidi Food Security Report for year 2000.

Figure 3: Terms of trade between livestock and cereals during the ban and drought in 2000: how ban and drought affect the money market



Average price /head

Number of smallstock demanded

High Export Demand(Ramadan , Id Al Fiter,Hadj Season)

Prophet Mohamed

Birthday (Mawliid)

Long dry

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(Jiilaal)

Supply and Demand : classic relationship determining pricesand quantities of marketed pastoral livestock in CentralSomalia in relation with religious muslim celebrations dates(adapted from Abdullahi 1990) ; RVF Ban sequence & Impactcharacteristics in 1998 and 2000

July 6th1998

June14th 2000

January 29th 1998

January 10th 2000Id Al AdahaApril 6th1998

March 15th2000

October 1998

RVF signs

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end of RVF signsBAN 1998February 10th

1998 Market

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periodBAN 2000September

* Somali seasonal calendarD J F M A M J J A S O N D

JILAAL GU HAGA DEYR

long dry season long rainy season short dry season short rainyseason

Figure 4. Time sequences between the disease, the bans, the markets opportunities, and a risky game

Social Help

Food Aid

On farm production: Pastoral /Mixed Crop Livestock System

Physical Farm Output

Crops, Animal products

Household: Physical & Monetarysubsystems

Resources utilisation: Labour force

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HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY STRESS MECHANISM by BAN v/s DEVELOPMENT TARGETS

STRESS Potential area for

support TASKS

Food processing

POLICY

Terms of trade

Figure 5. Mechanisms of food insecurity (less production, less cash to exchange goods) in a basic

household economy frame

Focus (2000) has analysed a mitigating factors and long coping mechanisms for food security. These include economic diversification, which in turn should depend on the type of food economy group and its geographical location:



Diversification and change of diet: Increase in meat consumption among pastoralists; Increase in fishing among people living in coastal regions and where such resource exists

• Diversification of their production economy: increase in commercial charcoal burning in some potential regions; increase in chat production among agro-pastoralists, increase in frankincense exports among pastoral groups

• Diversification of their markets: Increase of livestock export to other neighbourhood countries or high price competition on domestic market; and to domestic markets

According to FEWS (2001), the ban on the export-quality livestock to Arabian Peninsula and Persian Gulf countries from Somalia is being felt throughout the country. On average, livestock exports dropped by 92 percent between September and December 2000. All those whose livelihoods depend on livestock trade, such as livestock traders, brokers, assemblers and transporters are virtually jobless. This is figuring out a second level of indicators for impact assessment, assessment at the commodity sector level (commodity chain such as meat and livestock, Fabre et al. 1997).

In addition to the micro-economic and meso-economic level, one may calculate the impact at the national GDP level as a sign of loss for the country as a whole (macro-economic). The governmental institutions whose economies are based almost exclusively on the livestock exports and port revenues (taxes, levies) from the ports are in deep financial and social crisis. As a result of the livestock trade embargo, the overwhelming majority of the pastoralists in the region are not likely to be able to pay for water from bore holes and wells for their livestock in the future neither for other commodities. It will also be difficult for them to sustain their families because of lack of money to buy food and non-food items. The same is true for pastoralists of Somali Region in Ethiopia as has already been shown that over 80% of livestock exported through various ports of Somali to the Gulf countries are from the Ethiopian pastoralists through illegal route.



Food security concepts and level of analysis in pastoral areas

The report of EWS (2001) by DPPC (disaster prevention and preparedness commission) of Ethiopia indicated that out of the total 1.57 million needy people in the pastoral areas of Ethiopia, about 1.1 million people are of the Somali and Afar regions. EWS (2001) reported many people of the pastoral areas over 30% of the population are estimated to require food assistance (e.g. In Gode zone over 45% people requires assistance). The percentage of needy people would increase if the livestock export ban continues for longer time.

Whatever the level of affect of the ban on livestock sales, food insecurity as a major consequence is an issue that relies on theoretical background. Food security is a complex concept which perception has evolved from time to time. Firstly, food production and consequent supply shortage has been the main reason mobilised to explain food insecurity (first famine theory from Malthus cited by Azoulay et al. (1993), linking to the economy of production). Nevertheless, many evidences are given this days showing that food insecurity can increase when food production increases. Therefore, accessibility to food became a major causative factor additional to food production in the 70th’s opening debates on the exchange economy concept. Access to food was thus not only deals with food products and food production factors ownership (and as such access to food produced at household level) but linked to capacity to exchange goods and commodity as well (the economy of exchange, within products markets and money markets as well, linking households for local exchange or linking all stakeholders into one commodity sector or marketing chain). Today the food security concept is made of three main components: food availability (whatever locally produced or imported food products), geographical and economic access (financial accessibility) to markets and other food supply places, supply system sustainability or stability at supplying food products along time and over national territory. One may try to dismantle the various flows and boxes of the household economy to better target where any economic stress like a ban can affect the pastoralists (Figure 5).

Three main outcomes of the RVF Ban can be summarised as follows:



1. If drought was co-existing to the ban as year 2000 ban, crop and livestock production was affected reducing the amount of food locally produced and adding another stress on crop production and crop prices, amplified by the time effect (in various pastoral and agro-pastoral groups complementary seasonal patterns of crop harvest and livestock sales see Figs. 3 and 5).

2. Economic access is being reduced when sales of livestock are made impossible or at very low price reducing the purchasing power of pastoralists to buy cereals at high price, and terms of trade being reversed (Fig. 3). Moreover, migrations due to drought stress have forced pastoralists to move far from classic market places rendering geographical access to market places and sales of animals or purchase of foodstuff less easy.

3. The commodity sectors (crops and livestock marketing chains) have been suffering due to meso and macro economic stress including RVF ban and leading to disappearance of some stakeholders resigning from their activity due to the lack of profitability of the business. This is for e.g. due to lack of merchants bringing cereals to pastoral markets and lack of transportation means to load animals to domestic markets. Reduction of stakeholders’ number into the marketing chain is generally observed in some remote places and at various time of the commodity erosion (from beginning of economic stress when small companies disappear and economic environment is less favourable but still manageable, but after long stress also big stakeholders can resign from unprofitable activity). The interaction between crop commodity chain and livestock commodity chain patterns should also be elucidated to better capture how one relies on the other.

When dealing with agro-pastoralists and pastoralists food security in the Horn of Africa one can clearly state that foodstuff production (livestock, and crops) is important and is affected by weather stress such as drought becoming a major reason for food insecurity. In addition, one should not forget that access to markets to sell or buy food products produced elsewhere remains the most important topic. It includes those products produced abroad and imported and exchange encompassing animal products and animals locally produced by pastoralists and being sold so that cash is generated and other food product are purchased such as cereals.



One can try to explain the household response to food security stress with the sequence (trajectory) of their reactions in given time and the level of reversible rehabilitation of former characteristics. The following list provides the classic sequence in agro-pastoral areas (Savadogo et al., 1993): adjustment in cropping and livestock rearing; use of famine food (wild food); borrowing grains from extended family; migration of labour force to offer labour supply; sales of small animals; borrowing cash or cereals from merchants; sales of assets (large ruminants); mortgage when admitted in the society based on land or other assets; sale of lands; and permanent migration;

Response from pastoralists to RVF ban has led to use of such sequence markers in their attitude to the new risk. This risk management is at clan or household level, but the up scale environment (livestock commodity sector) also reacts to the economic stress and may offer a very unfavourable environment hampering the classic risk management benefit for pastoralists from their classic resistance sequences.

Since food is also imported to achieve food security in a country any stress on import sector would also influence the level of Food insecurity. When considering food imports, local cereal production meets only a fraction of the consumption needs for Somalia and Region V of Ethiopia. In Somalia, about 80% of foreign exchange earned from livestock exports is used to import basic food items. The export was just beginning to recover from the previous ban. When compared to other years export of livestock, between January and September in year 2000, about 1.6 million heads of goat and sheep were exported through Berbera alone compared to approximately 1.23 million heads and 0.73 million heads in the same period of 1999 and 1998 respectively (Focus, 2000. According to Focus (2000), the decrease in imported commodities has already shown an increase in prices (e.g. 10-20% for rice and wheat flour to 50-70% for sugar) due to less available, more expensive dollars and associated inflation.

Policy Issues and Future Prospects Right at this time, some of the Horn countries are free from RVF. One of the

requirements to be RVF free country, according to OIE, is if the country has not



imported any susceptible animals from a country considered infected with RVF for the past three years. As it is well known, there is animal movement among these neighbouring countries. This was the main cause for both the 1998 and the recent bans imposition on some countries, which haven’t been considered as RVF infected yet but associated in a global area at risk. It should be noted that these countries are liable to contract the disease, if not yet, in the future since their animal movement control system is weak. In any case, these countries need to strengthen their veterinary service surveillance system and marketing system in order to early identify the disease or prevent its introduction and to control the disease spread so that it has less consequences, if in case the country declared to be RVF infected in the future. To achieve those objectives specially connected to the new rules of global economy and international regulations, the veterinary service is a key actor since it will be the one collecting, analysing, and delivering epidemiological information, and launching preventive strategies as well. New function such as epidemiosurveillance is key issue as appropriate method for assessment of veterinary services. Not only the results of a surveillance but the means involved into it will be indicators to assess the validity of a given animal health system.

It is obvious that even in developed world veterinary services is playing a more and more important role in providing information for negotiation at international level within the frame of the SPS agreement of WTO. The recent examples of BSE in Europe or the epidemic of FMD in Europe and Argentina are giving evidences of the renewed role for veterinary services. Additionally, the delineation of livestock commodity sector, its shape and its characteristics will enable a good control and implementation of proper health information system or not is not neutral to be the debate. Some of the requirements to build a competent veterinary service are guiding policy, effective administrative structure, effective network and information system, adapting new technologies, adequate budget allocation, trained manpower, intensive research and extension package, which are very nonexistent or weak (Workalemahu, 2000). In case of environmentally sensitive diseases such as RVF, countries can predict the epidemic of such diseases by adopting technologies like Satellite Imaging that provides information on vegetation and other geographical changes, which favours the outbreak.



The livestock marketing system of the Horn nations should be compatible with international requirements in the highly competitive world of today and be effective in disease prevention and control. If we sight Ethiopia as example, recent information on location specific marketing constraints; livestock sources, prices margins; stock marketing routes; how price and margin volatility is affected by other variables such as season, climate variation, crop prices are unknown for any tier of the livestock marketing chain and market information endowments are also not well known (Solomon et al., 2000). There are no permanent animal route and other facilities like water and holding grounds, provision of transport is inadequate or none, inadequate infrastructures and institutional issues, and absent of market information system are also some of the major problems facing this sector (Workalemahu, 2000). Much and recent researches haven’t been undertaken to improve the marketing system; besides, there is no guiding policy and market promotion study. Establishing infrastructures and encouraging the establishment of voluntary farmers co-operatives is advisable to facilitate marketing of commodities, credit availability to smallholders, and information exchange. Animal certificate of origin should be introduced that contribute for control of animal movement. In general, improving the above raised parameters play great role in effective prevention and control of trans-boundary and trans-regional diseases such as RVF and many others that the Horn nations need to upgrade the sector.

International experience to tackle vector-borne emerging diseases may serve to better target our effort so that a common memorandum of understanding would be accepted by all countries having that problem and methodologies are made available to prevent the disease. Among few alternatives Early Warning System (EWS) is known to help predict disease occurrence in certain location. Authors (Kermaak and Mc Hendrick, Ross and Hudson) have predicted times ago the importance of modelling to better predict emergence or spread of diseases so that measure to prevent the spread are taken on time. Applications of mathematical modelling based on various sources of data are now quiet common in SSA and some are dealing with RVF (Fontenille, Linthicum). For example, a consortium of French and Senegalese advanced research institutes S2E (Surveillance spatiale des Epidémies i.e. Spatial surveillance of Epidemics) have launched in October 2000 an



innovative study on how to monitor and make better epidemiosurveillance of RVF. The project is being implemented in Sénégal using the new concept of “tele-epidemiology” focusing on several public health topics of interest. The study utilises the environmental data made available through satellite observations for meteorological (wind direction) and scientific purpose (animal movements, vegetation index, ocean temperature…) or taken from sentinels’ networks on ground (water levels in ponds, rainfall data…). Geo-referenced data are sent through satellite channels using telecommunication tool-case (using telecommunications satellites and therefore taking into account the scarcity of ground telecommunications in SSA). Data collection and data entry scheme is giving inputs to mathematical models specific to one disease (RVF in that case) to better understand and predict spread of the vector-borne disease and the study seems promising. Crossing ecological climatic and epidemiological (clinical, serological in human and animals) data will help modelling interactions and disease spread and to properly implement prevention measures on time, and predict status of large area with a given probability.

Conclusions The current export ban in mid-September 2000 on livestock from Horn countries

has threatened the livelihood of pastoralists in particular and the economy of Horn countries in general. The crisis may not be mitigated by emergency food aid and domestic agricultural production in such areas where rainfall is erratic and unreliable. With regard to food security concept and the role of livestock to improve it one should debate at various levels. Food security can be assessed at various scales of an economy leading to build indicators at each level of investigation, national and regional scale, household level (insecurity is when supply is less than demand forcing state and donors to commit themselves into re-equilibrating the supply demand balance, when indirectly influencing market mechanisms or with direct public intervention) and at individual level (when for some reasons among the households, arbitration to food consumption is given so that some households members only get the sufficient diet they need, and consequently when some individual food consumption is less than needs forcing direct intervention to nutritional and normal diet rehabilitation programmes). Livestock is providing inputs



at all levels of the economic puzzle and helps pastoralists and agro-pastoralists to cope with food provision stress. In some occasion, nevertheless, when livestock sector cannot play its role, food security is severely affected and some intervention should be asked.

All these factors explain the recourse to state and donors’ intervention (food and feed aid) and as well the crucial stake of sustainable development in some regions. Some other debatable theories will base the concept of food security not on local self-sufficiency but on exchanges of products made available through globalisation of markets and internationalisation of food products trade. When dealing with livestock in particular WTO and OIE regulations may hamper the global trade offering barriers to the market through sanitary barriers (as in the case of RVF ban) and as such stressing the food security mechanisms.

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Honorarium To Professor Feseha Gebreab A member of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

The senate of Addis Ababa University had endorsed in September 2001 the conferment to Prof. Feseha Gebreab of the academic rank of Professor. The current executive committee of ESAP takes this opportunity to congratulate Professor Feseha for having achieved this academic rank.

Professor Feseha Gebreab was born in Ambo, Shoa, Ethiopia, in July of 1941. After completing Elementary and Secondary schooling at Kokebe Tsebah School in Addis Ababa, he joined the Alemaya College Agriculture, Addis Ababa University (AAU) and graduated in 1964 with a BSc degree in animal science. After a year of service as extension supervisor for the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) in Gondar province, he went to Poland to pursue his veterinary education at the Warsaw University of Agriculture, from where he was awarded DVM degree in 1971. Back home he then joined the veterinary department of MoA and worked as a provincial veterinary officer in Tigray province from July 1971 to June 1972. In July 1972 he joined the Animal Health School at Debre Zeit as a lecturer in biology, anatomy and physiology.

From July 1973 to October 1975, Professor Feseha studied for his MVSc degree at the National School of Veterinary Medicine of Toulouse in France. Up on his return to Ethiopia, he joined the National Veterinary Institute (NVI) at Debre Zeit as a research officer. In 1977 he was appointed as head of the Shola Disease Investigation Laboratory, Addis Ababa. In 1979, he became the founding dean of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (FVM), Addis Ababa University, where he served in that status for nine years. From September 1988 to September 1989 Professor Feseha was on his sabbatical leave in the USA as a Professional Fulbright fellow at the School of Veterinary Medicine of Tuskegee University.



Professor Feseha has served in academia for over twenty-eight years, he has taught courses and advised undergraduate and graduate students in the Faculties of Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and Science of Addis Ababa University and Alemaya University of Agriculture. He has also served as an external examiner for the University of Khartoum (Sudan) and the Free University of Berlin (Germany). He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate Degree in Veterinary Medicine and Surgery by the University of Glasgow (Scotland, UK).

Professor Feseha has authored and co-authored twenty-five papers in peer-reviewed journals and twenty papers in edited proceedings of national and international conferences. He has also written three teaching materials and contributed a chapter to the Professional Handbook of the Donkey.

He is an active member of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production and was its vice president at its inception (1991-93). Prof. Feseha is also a member of the Ethiopian Society for Animal Welfare, and is now serving as vice president for the latter. He served as the first Editor of the Ethiopian Veterinary Bulletin, Associate-Editor of the Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Sciences (1983-85) and currently serving as Associate-Editor of the Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production. From 1994 - 1997 he was the convener of the National Agricultural Research Council.

Professor Feseha is married to W/ro Almaz Sharew and has three daughters: Hiwot, Saba and Kibre. He retired from the university three years ago and is now working as an independent consultant.



List of Participants Name Address Institution P.O.Box Telephone

Abassa Kodjo A.A ECA/FSSDD 3001

Abdissa Abalti Zeway Adami Tulu A.R.C 35 415823

Abdulkkearm Nuri GTZ 156559

Abebe Gutema A.A ETV 5544 526611

Abebe Mekoya Sheno Sheno A.R.C. 112 620934

Abebe Tessema Debre Zeit ILRI 5689 339566

Abebe Wondimu A.A Private 62669 615028

Abebe Yadessa Bako Bako A.R.C 3 (07) 711771

Aberra Melesse Awassa Awassa College 5 (06) 200313

Abraham Holetta EARO 2003 370300

Abraham Getachew Werer EARO/Werer 2003 (02) 114840

Abubeker Hassen Zeway ATARC 35 41 5823(06)

Abye Tedla A.A MoA

Addisu Abera Debre Birhan MoA

Addisu Beyene A.A. WFP 7953 515188

Adugna Tolera Awassa Awassa College 5 (06) 200221

Afework Dechassa Ambo Ambo College 19 360037

Agajie Tesfaye Holetta Holetta A.R.C 2003 370300

Ahmed Hussen A.A. ETV 5544 516977

Ahmed Issa Negelle Borana SORDU 3 (06) 450131

Akalewold Bantiyirgu A.A CRDA 5674 651889

Aklilu Mekasha Nazareth EARO 436 112186

Alema Gebre A.A. EARO 21081

Alemayehu Gashaw Nazareth MoA 442 (02) 110962

Alemayehu Kidane Awassa Awassa College 5 (06) 200221

Alemayehu Mengistu A.A. Private Consultant 62291

Alemayehu Reda A.A Biodiversity

Alemayehu Seyoum A.A. UN/ECA

Alemayehu Taye A.A MoA 62349 525011

Alemtsehai Gebreyes A.A MEDAC 1037 552800 (Ext 113)



Name Address Institution P.O.Box Telephone

Alemu Regassa A.A. Biodiversity 30726 612244

Alemu Yami Debre Zeit EARO 32 338555

Alganesh Tola Bako Bako .A.R.C 3 (07) 611771

Ali Mekonnen A.A WWDSE 29331 451052

Almaz Ayalew A.A 30145 158206

Almaz Kahsay A.A. Quality & Standards 33567 460565

Amanuel Assefa A.A Agri Service 2460 651212

Amare Feleke Debre Zeit ILRI 643 339566

Ameha Sebsibe Bahir Dar ARARI 527 (08) 205173

Amsalu Asfaw Kombolcha ARARI/KPRMC 72 510051

Amsalu Sisay Zeway A.T.A.R.C 35 3

Andreas Jenet A.A. ILRI 5689 339566

Anette van Dorland A.A. ILRI 5689 463215

Asfaw Yimegnuhal Debre Zeit ILRI 5689 339566

Ashenafi Mengistu Zeway ATARC 35 (06) 415823

Assefa Amaldegn A.A Livestock Marketing 504844

Asseged Bogale Debre Zeit FVM 34 338314

Aster Abebe Awassa Awassa College 5 (06) 200221

Ayana Angassa Awassa Awassa College 5 (06) 200221

Ayele Abebe Sheno 112 620935

Aynalem Haile Jimma Jimma University 307 (07) 110102

Azage Tegegne Debre Zeit ILRI 5689 339566

Balako Gami Donde Negelle BLPDP/GTZ 110 450116

Bayissa Hatew A.A EARO 2003 462633

Bedane Tullu Holetta EARO 2003 370300

Bekele Megersa Negelle Borena MoA 21 (05) 450773

Bekele Tafese Alemaya Alemaya Univ. 138 (05) 111399

Bekere Diriba Bako Bako A.R.C 3

Belachew Hurrissa A.A Livestock Marketing 25405 504839

Belay Duguma A.A ILRI 5689 463215

Belete Adinew A.A. Self-Ethiopia 30719 120934

Belete Shenkute Zeway A.T.A.R.C 35 (06) 415823




Berhan Feleke Bako Bako A.R.C 3 611771

Berhane Mekete Chagne/Metekel Metekele Livestock Br. 30 250001

Berhanu Admassu A.A EVA 525020

Berhanu Yalew A.A. NAIC 340060 22692

Beruk Yemane A.A MoA 510183

Bezalem Sinote Awassa Awassa College 5 (06) 200221

Berhanu Damte A.A. ELFORA 2449 180657

Bimerew Asmare Bahirdar Adet Agri. R.C. 8

Chernet Asfaw Bako BARC 3 (07) 611771

Dammika Korala Gama A.A. ILRI 5689 463215

Dawit Abebe A.A. FAO 5507 444161

Demelash Biff Awassa Awassa College 5 (06) 200221

Dereje Bacha Bako Bako A.R.C. 3 (07) 611771

Dereje Tadesse Sheno Sheno A.R.C 112 620935

Dereje Woltedj Holetta Holetta A.R.C. 22 370023

Desalegn G/Medhin Kaliti NAIC 22692 340060

Diriba Geleti Bako Bako A.R.C 3 611771

Ebrahim Jemal Zeway ATARC 35 (06) 415023

Emiru Zewdie A.A NAIC 340060 22692

Eshetu Yimer A.A EHNRI 1242 753470

Esubalew Abate A.A. MoA 62347 157622

Fanta Regassa Zeway A.T.A.R.C 35 3

Fasil Getachew Sirinka EARO 79 311179/88

Fassil Bekele Awassa Awassa College 5 (06) 200221

Fekadu Getachew Bako EARO 3 (07) 611771

Fekadu Regassa Debre Zeit FVM 34 338062

Fekede Feyissa Holetta EARO 2003 370300

Feru W/Tsadike A.A. Livestock Marketing

Feseha Gebreab Debre Zeit DHCOP 34 339326

Fesseha Meketa A.A Save The Child. 387 655409

Fikre Abera Ambo Ambo College 19 362006

Fikre Endalew A.A MoA 18461 518181




Firew Tegegne Mekelle Mekele University 231 (04) 407500

Fisseha Seyoum Bale robe Sinana A.R.C. 610271

G/Egziabher G/Yohannes Bako EARO 3 (07) 611771

G/Egziabher W/Selassie Dessie MoA 80 111488

G/Michael Meles Kaliti NAIC 22692 340060

Gebeyehu Goshu Andassa ARARI

Gebreyesus Mekonnen Bahir Dar Regional Vet. Lab. 70 (08) 200017

Gemechu Kebede Zeway Adami Tulu A.R.C 35 415823

Genet Jarso Negelle BLPDP/GTZ 110 (06) 450116

Getachew Eshete Awassa SNNPR Planning & 104 (06) 200289

Getachew Felleke A.A MoA 62347 519965

Getachew Mulugeta Debre Zeit FVM 34 330304

Getachew Tezera Negelle Borana COOPI Ethioia 120 (06) 450076

Getachew Tilahun A.A. IPB, A.A. Univ. 1176 750133

Getahun Kebede Debre Zeit EARO 32 338555

Getnet Assefa Holetta EARO 2003 370300

Getnet Zeleke Bahir Dar Andassa Poultry 27 (08) 205284

Gezahegn Tadesse Kombolcha/S.Wollo Agri. research Institute 72 (03) 510051

Gifawosen Tessema A.A. OADB 2034 155303

Girma Aschalew Akaki MoA 34 340257

Girma Berhane Holetta EARO 2003 370300

Girma F. Ambo Ambo College 19 360425

Girma Tefera A.A. EHNRI 1274 753470

Gizachew Bekele Holetta Holetta A.R.C 2003 370300

Gizaw Kebede Bako EARO 3 (07) 611771

Graeme J.Mc Gabb Debre Zeit ILRI 5689 339566

Gudina Legese Zeway A.T.A.R.C 35 3

Habtamu Gentu Gonder ILDP 973 (08) 110138

Habte Jifar Bako Bako A.R.C 3 (07) 611771

Habtom Amare Mekelle EARO 492 (04) 407900

Hadera Gebru A.A. MoA 7066 158742

Hanna Beksissa Debre Zeit Debre Zeit A.R.C 32 338555




Hassen Ali A.A MoA 62347 507001

Hirut Abebe Nazareth EARO 436 (02) 112186

Karaugil Olga Debre Zeit ILRI 5689 339566

Kassa Bayou Sebeta NAHRC 4 380896

Kassahun Asaminew Sebeta MoA 64 380023

Kassaye Argaw Sheno Sheno A.R.C 112 620935

Kefena Effa Holetta Holetta A.R.C. 2003 370300

Kelemework Tafere Mekelle Mekelle University 231 (04) 402268

Kelsa Kena A.A EARO 452c1110 454412

Kenea Feyissa Holetta H.A.R.C. 2003 370300

Lema Fita Zeway A..T.A.R.C. 35 3

Lemma Abera Debre Zeit Private 1074 331222

Leykun Jembere Zeway A.T.A.R.C 35 3

Likawnt Yeheyis Sheno Sheno A.R.C 112 620934

Liyusew Ayalew Holetta EARO 2003 370474

Many roberkon USA ILRI 5689

Markos Tibbo A.A ILRI 5689 463215

Mebrat Alem A.A MoA 62347 155540

Mekonnen Teferi Sheno Sheno A.r.C. 112 620935

Melese Abdisa Bako BARC 3 (07) 611771

Melkaye G/Selassie Debre Zeit EARO 32 338555

Menfese Abebe A.A. MoA 62181 525012

Mengistu Mekuria Soddo AFD (06) 510334

Mengistu Nigussie Zeway ATARC 35 3

Mengistu Urge Alemaya Alemaya Univ. 142 (05) 114007

Merga Bekana Debre Zeit AAU 32 338533

Merga Wakjira Zeway ATARC 35 (06) 415823

Mestawet Taye Awassa Awassa R.C. 421 (06) 205659

Minitwab Belay A.A. 340257

Minwiyelet Negatu Nazareth EARO 436 (02) 112186

Minwyelet Mingist Holetta HARC 2003 370300

Mohammed Abdella Harar MFM-ATTC 322 (05) 663067




Mohammed Beyan Awassa Awassa College 5 (06) 200221

Molla Shumye Holetta EARO 2003 370300

Mulu G/Michael A.A Private 156879

Mulugeta Asefa A..A ETV 5544 525484

Mulugeta Bekele Negele Borana MoA 21 (06) 450773

Mulugeta Dessalegn Alemaya Alemaya University 138 (05) 111399

Mulugeta Gettu A.A MoA 42349 159650

Mulugeta Kebede Bako Bako A.R.C. 3 (07) 650037

Mureja Shibru Kaliti NAIC 22692 340060

Nega Tolla Zeway Adami T.A.R.C. 35

Negassi Ameha Pawe/Metekel Pawe Res. Center 25

Negussi Dana Debre Zeit EARO 338555

Nesru Hussein Zewai EARO 35 3

Olani Nemera A.A OADB 8770 522210

Osho Tibesso Zeway A.T.A.R.C 35 3

Paulos Tadesse Nazareth EARO 436 (02) 112186

Rehrahie Mesfin Holetta EARO 2003 370300

Reinhold Swoboda Negelle Borana GTZ/BLPDP 110 (06) 450116

Saada Ibrahim A.A MoA 62349 159650

Salvador Fernandez A.A. ILRI 5689 466521

Samik Das A.A ACF

Samuel Menbere Sirinka Sirinka A.R.C (03) 311188

Seble G/Selassie Alemketema Menschen fur Menshen 30 55

Shiferaw Bekele A.A. EVTA 62463

Shiferaw Garoma Zeway A.T.A.R.C 35 415823

Sintayehu Abditchu Sebeta NAHRC 4 380898

Sisay Abebe Kombolcha/S.Wollo Agri. Research Insti. 72 (03) 510051

Sisay Amare Gonder ILDP 973 (08) 110138

Solomon Demeke Jimma Jimma College 307 110102

Solomon Desta Nairobi GGCRSP/PARIMA 30709

Solomon Gebre A.A. NAHRC 4 380742

Solomon Gessese A.A MoA 153445




Solomon Mogus Jimma Jimma College 307 (07) 112736

Sora Adi A.A. BLPDP/GTZ 12631 off 522216

Tadesse Bekele Holetta EARO 2003 370300

Tadesse Daba Holetta Holetta A.R.C 2003 370300

Tadesse Daba Holetta Holetta A.R.C. 2003 370300

Takele Kumsa Bako Bako A.R.C. 3 611771

Tamiremariam W/Meskel A.A OADB 8770 155303

Tatek Woldu Zeway ATARC 35 3

Taye Bekure Holetta HARC 2003 370300

Taye Tessema A.A Private 3427 556300

Taye Tolemariam Jimma Jimma University 110102

Tefera Mekonen Sheno Sheno A.R.C. 112 620935

Tekalign Fekadu A.A. MoA 62347 155540

Tekeba Eshetie Kombolcha S/Wollo KPRMC 204 (03) 510051

Teklu Feyssa Zeway A.T.A.R.C 35 415823

Terefe Gesechu Ambo Ambo Chick Rearing C. 26

Tesfaw Ayele Ambo Ambo College 19 362006

Tesfaye Alemu Zeway A.T.A.R.C 35

Tesfaye Chaka Sheno Sheno A.R.C 112 620935

Tesfu Kassa A.A IPB 1176 763091

Teshome Abate Robe Sinana Agr.R.C. 208 610271

Teshome Tilahun A.A. EARO 2003 (02) 114840

Tessema Zewdu Bahir Dar ARARI 8 (09) 190124

Thomas Chernet Bahir Dar Bahir Dar Reg. Vet. Lab 70 (08) 201017

Tigist Hailu A.A. 156760

Tsedeke Kacho Areka Areka Agri.R.C. 79 552143

Tsegaye Shiferaw Kaliti NAIC 22692 340060

Tsehay Redda A.A MOA 3431 518040

W/Gebriel T/Mariam Werer Werer A.R.C 2003 370300

W/ro Menbere Moges Holetta EARO 370300

Wakgari Kebe Bako Bako A.R.C. 3 (07) 611771

Wakshum Shiferaw Zeway ATARC 35 415823




Workneh Ayalew A.A. ILRI 5689 463215

Yalemshet W/Amanuel Debre Zeit EARO 32 338555

Yenesew Abebe Debre Zeit EARO 32 338555

Yeromnesh ayele A.A. Ministry of Education 1367 565544

Yeshewalul Tessema A.A. CCF.Ethiopia 763539

Yihalem Denekew Bahir Dar Andassa Cattle 27

Yilma Jobre A.A ILRI 5689 463215

Yirgalem G/Meskel Sebeta EARO 4 380894

Yitaye alemayehu Metekel Metekel ranch 30 (08) 250001

Yohannes Gojjam Holetta Holetta A.R.C 2003 370300

Yohannes Muehie Sheno Sheno A.R.C. 112 620934

Yoseph Shiferaw Holetta Holetta A.R.C 2003 370300

Zelealem Tesfay Mekelle Mekele A.R.C 492 407900

Zeleke Asaye Zeway A.T.A.R.C. 35 410881

Zeleke Mekuriaw Alemaya Alemaya University 54 (05) 111399

Zewdu Ayele A.A. FARM-Africa 5746 550511

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