Linköping Studies in Arts and Sciences ● 430

Mobilization of metals from mining wastes and the resuspension of

contaminated sediments

Lan Thúy Nguyễn

Linköping Studies in Arts and Science ● 430 Linköpings University, Department of Waters and Environmental Studies

Linköping 2008

Linköping Studies in Arts and Sciences ● 430 At the Faculty of Arts and Science at Linköping University research and doctoral studies are carried out within broad problem areas. Research is organized in interdisciplinary research environments and doctoral studies mainly in graduate schools. Jointly they publish the series Linköping Studies in Arts and Science. This thesis comes from the Department of Water and Environmental Studies at the Tema Institute.

Distributed by Department of Water and Environmental Studies Linköpings University SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden Also available from: Linköpings Universitet Electronic press: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-10008 Lan Thúy Nguyễn Mobilization of metals from mining wastes and the resuspension of contaminated sediments Front Cover: ARD-affected rice pad in Giáp Lai mine & Gold mining in Central Vietnam in 1997

-Photos by Håkan Tarras-Wahlberg Storm in Nghệ An, Vietnam in October 2007 & Hòa Bình Hydropower Plant in 2006 -Photos by VNExpress & flickr.com

Back Cover: Outlet of Lake Håcklasjön in Åtvidaberg, Sweden in December 2005 by the author Cover Design: The author & Tomas Hägg Edition 1:2 ISBN: 978-91-7393-926-3 ISSN 0282-9800 © Lan Thúy Nguyễn Department of Water and Environmental Studies Printed in Linköping, Sweden by LTAB, 2008

Mobilization of metals from mining wastes and the resuspension of

contaminated sediments

Lan Thúy Nguyễn

"Most studies do not produce major new advances. The

purposes of good science, and of most studies, are to answer

specific questions as capably as possible within time and

financial constrains - not to find the ultimate solution".

Horowitz A.J.

Abstract

In some environmental situations, environmental effects caused by elevated metals resulting from past mining and smelting activities can be observed in nearby receiving water bodies several decades after mine and smelter closure. There is a growing need for managing the hazardous solid wastes such as mining wastes as well as for assessing water quality and for sustainable management of sediment quality. The work presented in this thesis examined the mobilization of metals from two metal sources: mining wastes from a mine site in Vietnam and sediments from a contaminated lake in Sweden in order to test the hypothesis that mobilization of metals will be increased, when the environmental conditions change by e.g. exposure of mining wastes to oxidative weathering, change of redox conditions at the water-sediment interface and resuspension of sediments. The results from this work under field and laboratory conditions have verified the hypothesis. The exposure of sulphidic mining wastes in oxidative weathering conditions may cause long-term production of ARD and the resultant long-term mobility of metals. The oxidation/resuspension of sediments is an important factor for the release of trace metals Zn, Cu and Cd into the solution and substantial amounts of particles and, hence, associated metals into overlying water. The concomitant changes in pH during oxidation/resuspension of sediment play a significant role in the metal release both to redox sensitive elements Fe and Mn and trace elements Zn, Cu and Cd. The concomitant change in DOC during oxidation/resuspension can also contribute to the increased mobility of study metals. The field study was coupled to intermittent operation of a hydropower plant. The mobility of the metals was higher under operation compared to non-operation and, thus, the potential impacts on dispersal of metal pollution to downstream aquatic environments. The sudden increase in water flow upon the hydropower plant upon shifts from inactive to active state could cause immediate release of particles and thus particulate metals in the overlying water. However, the magnitude and its integrated effects in fluxes of metals over the season call for further research. There is a need to further investigate the impacts of hydropower generation in a longer period of time and at a higher frequency of observations at the very start of the hydropower operation. The results from this multidisciplinary approach would give a basis for an optimal operation of the hydropower plant to minimize the metal pollution associated with the water flow. Keywords: Acid Rock Drainage, contaminated sediment, discharge,

hydropower plant, metal mobilization, mining wastes, particles, redox, resuspension, storm-wind.

List of papers The thesis is mainly based on the following papers, which are referred to in the text by their Roman numerals. Paper I Tarras-Wahlberg NH & Nguyen TL 2008. Environmental

regulatory failure and metal contamination at the Giap Lai Pyrite mine, Northern Vietnam. – Journal of Environmental Management 86: 712-720.

Paper II Nguyen TL, Lundgren T, Håkansson K & Svensson BH 2008. Release of metals from contaminated sediments under simulated redox changes. – Submitted to The International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning.

Paper III Nguyen TL, Håkansson K, Lundgren T, Lundman L & Svensson BH 2008. The effects of prolonged sediment resuspension on the redistribution of metals in a contaminated Swedish lake: a laboratory study. – Manuscript.

Paper IV Nguyen TL, Håkansson K, Lundgren T & Svensson BH 2008. The impacts of the operation of a hydropower plant in southeast Sweden on transport of metals. – Manuscript.

.

Contents

1 Introduction 12 Background 4

2.1 ARD formation and metal release 42.2 Metal mobilization in aquatic systems: factors & processes 4

2.2.1 Redox 52.2.2 pH 62.2.3 Organic matter 62.2.4 Resuspension and transport processes in aquatic systems 6

3 Methods 84 Mobilization of metals from mining waste – The role of ARD

formation 94.1 Descriptions of study area 94.2 Laboratory studies 9

4.2.1 Static tests 104.2.2 Humidity cell tests 11

4.3 Field observations 144.4 Implications for environmental management 16

5 Metal mobilization from contaminated sediments – The role of oxidation/resuspension 17

5.1 Descriptions of study area 175.2 Laboratory studies 20

5.2.1 Flowcell experiment 205.2.2 Shaking experiment 21

5.3 Field observations 235.3.1 Hydropower operation 245.3.2 Storm event 24

5.4 Changes in pH, DOC and SS 265.4.1 pH 265.4.2 DOC 275.4.3 Suspended solids (SS) 29

5.5 Mobilization of metals in dissolved phase 305.5.1 Fe and Mn 305.5.2 Zn and Cu 32

5.6 Mobilization of metals in particulate phase 365.6.1 Fe and Mn 365.6.2 Zn and Cu 38

5.7 Environmental implications for hydropower plant operation 406 Conclusions 427 Acknowledgements 438 References 45

1. Introduction Elevated levels of metal contaminants in and around mining areas, resulting from past or present mining, milling and refining activities, are a major environmental concern (Lottermoser et al., 1999; Marques et al., 2001). Mining involves the removal, processing and disposal of vast volumes of tailings and waste rocks (Allan, 1997; Paktunc, 1999). The release of metals from mining sites occurs primarily through the formation of so-called ARD (Acid Rock Drainage). Such acid water is generated as a result of the oxidation of sulphide minerals (e.g. pyrite), which can occur in waste rock dumps, ore stock piles, tailing impoundments and open pits (Ferguson and Erickson, 1988; Salomons, 1995; ICARD, 1997; Sola et al., 2004; Concas et al., 2006). The ARD is characterised by low pH, high acidity and often contain dissolved heavy metals in toxic concentrations. The processes that produce ARD are natural, but they are accelerated by mining and can produce large volumes of contaminated effluents. The delivery of such acid effluents to streams and rivers can lead to significant environmental impact on sediment and water quality in downstream reservoirs (Salomons, 1995; Allan, 1997; Paktunc, 1999; Sola et al., 2004). In some environmental situations, the environmental effects of past mining activities can be observed in receiving water bodies for decades and centuries after mine closure (Azcue and Nriagu, 1994). The increase in metals such as Cd, Cu, As, Pb and Hg in the sediments downstream of the mining sites can be harmful to aquatic life (Smith and Kalch, 1999; Müller et al., 2000; Sola et al., 2004). The production of ARD is difficult to control and perhaps is the most serious impact that mining has on the environment (Ferguson and Erickson, 1988; Kuyucak, 2001). Therefore, the prediction of ARD production and the potential release of metals is a critical step for mine management and assessment of the water quality both for new and existing mine operations. Sediment is an essential, integral and dynamic part of aquatic environments. In natural reservoirs, sediment is derived from the weathering and erosion of minerals, organic material and soils in upstream areas and from erosion of river banks and other in-stream sources (Salomons and Brils, 2004). Sediments have a function as a final storage for metals and other contaminants and, therefore, they are hazardous to the environment (Förstner, 1990; Salomons, 1995; Burton, 2002; Salomons and Brils, 2004). Adverse effects of sediment-associated contaminants on sediment dwelling species have been intensively reported (Barcelo et al., 2004). Once associated with sediments, contaminants undergo various biogeochemical

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transformations as a result of diagenetic reactions. As long as sediments remain undisturbed, most of the metals and other contaminants are strongly bound to them. However, the capacity of sediments to adsorb and retain contaminants depends on their composition (Salomons, 1995). Sediments also have a function as a secondary source of pollution, when contaminated particles are mobilized and contaminants are released into the water phase. This will occur as a result of change in physico-chemical and biotic variables such as pH, redox conditions, bacterial activities and natural/artificial resuspension. This function of sediments has come into the focus of researchers and practioners during recent years (Salomons and Brils, 2004; Eggleton and Thomas, 2004, Westrich and Forstner, 2005). The issue of environmental contamination in Europe was first recognised only for the water and soil compartments. However, the view on sediment is changing and sediment is now recognized as an important compartment. There is a growing concern of the need for sediment quanity and quality management within the Water Framework Directive of the European Union (Brils, 2004). The physicochemical and biological characteristics of sediments are important, when it comes to the understanding of the behaviour and fate of contaminants in sediments. Such understanding is crucial for the evaluation of needs for management of contaminated sediments (SedNet, 2008). As pointed out by Förstner (2004) and Westrich and Förstner (2005), the contaminant mobility is the net result from stabilizing and mobilizing effects due to both hydrodynamic and chemical processes. Therefore, they conclude that sediment quality issues should include experimental designs for studies on chemical and biological effects during hydrodynamic events such as erosion, deposition and resuspension. The coupling of the erosion/deposition/resuspension experiments with investigations on mobilization of contaminants from porewater and sediment phases could provide valuable tools in the decision-making process for water quality management as well as for remediation techniques. With regards to the quality aspect of the contaminated sediments, the water body impacted by pollution sources such as mining/smelting residues should be given high priority (Westrich and Förstner, 2005). In view of the above considerations, the research behind this thesis was designed to test the hypothesis that mobilization of metals would be enhanced, when the environmental conditions change e.g. by exposure of mining wastes to oxidative weathering, change of redox conditions at the water-sediment interface and resuspension of sediments. The pollution sources and major processes affecting the mobilization of metals discussed in this thesis are shown in Fig.1. Both

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laboratory and field studies were performed to test the hypothesis and to further the understanding of the mechanisms leading to metal mobilization. To test the above hypothesis, the following objectives were formulated:

(1) to predict the long-term formation of Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) under oxidative weathering of mining wastes and the consequent release of metals and to investigate this in the field (Field and lab study; Paper I)

(2) to study possible mechanisms and factors influencing the release of the metals under the shift in redox conditions (Lab study; Paper II)

(3) to examine mechanisms and factors controlling the long-term release of the metals (in dissolved and particulate phase) as a result of physical disturbance of sediments and if this would enhance the mobilization of metals (Lab study; Papers II and III)

(4) to verify the findings from the laboratory studies (objectives 2 and 3) by field investigations during hydropower practices and a storm event (Field studies; Paper IV and thesis)

Two contaminated areas were chosen for testing the hypothesis: 1) the Giap Lai mining area (in Vietnam), where sulphidic waste rocks and tailings were studied and 2) the Åtvidaberg area (in Sweden), where a lake system is affected by historical smelting activities. The lake system is shallow and its contaminated sediments are subjected to resuspension caused by the operation of an upstream hydropower plant. Contaminated lake sediments were examined with respect to the potential mobilization of metals following the resuspension events.

Mining Mining wastes

Weathering

ARDResuspension

Sediments Smelting

Slag Leachate

Transport

Figure 1. Simplified scheme for metal production and pathways of metal contamination as well as major processes acting on the fate of the latter discussed in the thesis.

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2. Background 2.1 ARD formation and metal release

In mining wastes, metals are often present as sulphides. The release of metals from mining waste deposits is, therefore, the result of the oxidation of sulphidic minerals in the presence of atmospheric O2 and water; this is widely known as Acid Rock Drainage (ARD). ARD is characterised by low pH and high concentrations of metals such as Pb, Hg, Cd, Fe, Mn, Cu, As and Zn (Förstner, 1995; Salomons, 1995; MEND, 1997). Common sulphide minerals involved in the production of ARD include pyrite (FeS2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), sphalerite (ZnS), pyrrhotite (Fe1-xS) and galena (PbS), of which the most abundant is pyrite (FeS2). Therefore, knowledge on the reactions of pyrite in the presence of water and oxygen is essential for understanding ARD formation. There are four basic steps in the oxidation of pyrite (Salomons, 1995; ICARD, 1997).

FeS2 (s) + 7/2 O2 + H2O → Fe2+

+ 2 SO4

2- + 2 H

+ (1)

Fe2+

+ ¼ O2 + H+ → Fe

3+ + ½ H2O (2)

Fe3+

+ 3 H2O → Fe (OH)3(s) + 3 H+ (3)

FeS2 (s) + 14 Fe3+ + 8 H2O → 15 Fe

2+ + 2 SO4

2- + 16 H

+ (4)

As is seen from equations (1) – (3), the transformation of 1 mol of FeS2 to 1 mol of Fe(OH)3 results in the net production of four protons (H+), making it the reaction that produces the most acid of any known in nature. Fe+3, which is produced in equation (2), serves as an oxidant of pyrite in equation (4). Hence, the oxidation of pyrite can still proceed even in the absence of oxygen (Stumm and Morgan, 1996). The microbiological contribution to the generation of ARD is of major importance. Bacteria like Thiobacillus thiooxidans (sulphur bacteria) and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans (iron bacteria) can accelerate the rate of the above reactions (Ledin and Pedersen, 1996).

2.2 Metal mobilization in aquatic systems: factors & processes

The mobilization and distribution of metals in aqueous systems are dependent on physical, chemical and biological factors and processes (Horowitz, 1991; Sidle et al., 1991; Salomons, 1995). The most important physico-chemical factors controlling metal mobilization are pH and redox conditions (Salomons, 1995, Salomons and Brils, 2004). The physico-chemical mechanisms involved include metal speciation, adsorption, precipitation, co-precipitation and diffusion

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(Horowitz, 1991; Azcue & Nriagu, 1994; Salomons, 1995; Huettel et al., 2003). Many of these reactions are facilitated by microorganisms (Petersen et al., 1996). The capacity of sediments to adsorb and retain contaminants is dependent on their compositions (Salomons, 1995): e.g. organic matter content, availability of iron and manganese, the presence of carbonate to act as a pH buffer, as well as the clay minerals. In water–sediment systems, the mobilization of metals is influenced by accelerating and inhibiting factors and mechanisms. Accelerating factors include effects of lowering pH and redox changes, inorganic and organic complexation, and microbiologically mediated species transformation (Salomons et al., 1987; Calmano et al., 1990; Förstner, 1995). Of these variables, pH and redox conditions are the most important, acting as “driving forces” for the release of stored metal pollutants into the aqueous phase (Förstner, 1990; Bough and Loch, 1995). The degradation of organic matter in sediments could also produce “driving forces” for accelerating interactions between sediments and elements (Salomons and Brils, 2004). For example, such degradation can create strong gradients with respect to redox conditions, pH and concentrations of organic matter (Förstner, 1995). High-energy mechanical processes such as resuspension of sediments by wind/wave action, bioturbation and hydropower generation or dredging activities can also act as a “driving force” in the mobilization of metals, since they are capable of affecting major variables such as pH and redox conditions and degradation of organic matter (Förstner, 1990).

2.2.1 Redox Redox conditions in aquatic systems are largely controlled by the bacterial decomposition of organic matter (Salomons, 1995; Bough and Loch, 1995). Changes in redox conditions is caused by flooding, stratification, raising the ground water table, excess organic matter, increased biological activity due to increased nutrient supply or temperature. Resuspension of sediments caused by wind/wave action, dredging, disposal of mine tailings or discharging water from hydropower plants can induce oxidation. The ability of an aquatic system to resist changes in redox conditions depends on the availability of oxidized or reduced species (Bough and Loch, 1995). Influences of redox conditions on the chemistry of metals are widely documented (Guo et al., 1997). Under anoxic conditions, concentrations of metals in solution are generally low (Lu and Chen, 1977; Calmano et al., 1990; Miao et al., 2006), because they are usually stable, particularly in sulphidic forms in sediments (Förstner and Wittman, 1983; Calmano et al., 1994; Mayer et al., 1994; Caille et al., 2003; Cappuyns et al., 2006). However, under oxidizing conditions, sulphides are oxidized and metals dissolve rapidly as free ions or become complexed by dissolved organic matter.

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They are then transported or re-adsorbed onto reactive solid surface sites such as freshly-precipitated iron hydroxides or biotic materials (Calmano et al., 1990).

2.2.2 pH

Apart from the redox conditions in sediments, hydrogen ion concentration (pH) is another important factor influencing the fate of metals in aqueous systems (Salomons, 1995). The pH of water can be altered both naturally e.g. by photosynthetic activity and microbial respiration (Mayer et al., 1994; Bough and Loch, 1995; Maberley et al., 1996), or artificially e.g. by dredging of sediments or disposal of mining wastes on land (Brannon, 1980; Calmano et al., 1990; Borma et al., 2003). Changes in pH can cause remobilization of contaminants in sediments in several ways. The oxidation of sulphides, iron, organic materials and NH4

+ in low-buffered systems can lead to a decrease in pH (Förstner, 1995, 2004). The extent of the pH decrease depends upon the amount of oxidizable species present in sediments and how much they are oxidized. The pH drop could in itself cause significant release of metals (Calmano et al., 1994; Cappuyns and Swennen, 2005; Cappuyns et al., 2006; Di Nanno et al., 2007). In aquatic systems, metal cations tend to desorb/dissolve from solids as pH decreases; as pH increases, they tend to adsorb/precipitate onto solid material (Bough and Loch, 1995).

2.2.3 Organic matter

Although organic matter has the capacity to retain contaminants in sediments, its break-down products from the degradation processes are able to mobilize metals (Salomons and Förstner, 1984; Drever, 1997). The degradation of organic matter can affect both hydrodynamic processes (e.g., erosion or sedimentation) and geochemical redox cycles, providing driving forces e.g. for metal mobilization (Förstner, 2004). Most organic matter in water occurs as dissolved organic carbon (DOC), which has functional groups that form stable complexes with metals. Therefore the presence of DOC tends to increase the dissolved fraction of metals (Salomons, 1995; Drever, 1997). The microbial degradation of particulate organic matter has the potential to release its associated trace metals (Gerringa, 1990).

2.2.4 Resuspension and transport processes in aquatic systems Resuspension of sediments is a common phenomenon occurring frequently in shallow areas of both marine and freshwater systems. Resuspension occurs when shear stress (friction of the water against the bottom material) is high enough to move the sediment particles, and, thus lead to the transportation of particles with the water flows (Håkansson and Jansson, 1983). Resuspension can be caused by natural processes like storms, strong winds, tidal currents or bio-turbation (e.g.

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Bengtsson and Hellström, 1992; Graf and Rosenberg, 1997) and by human activities such as dredging (Van den Berg et al., 2001) or operation of hydroelectric power plants (Jabour et al., 1992; Ashby et al., 1999; Drugge et al., 2003; Martin and Calvert, 2003). Resuspension is is a major factor for aquatic ecosystems concerning water quality and environmental problems (Ashby et al., 1999; Drugge et al., 2003; Martin and Calvert, 2003; Calles et al., 2007). It is well documented that sediment resuspension is of great importance in the sediment–water interactions, and plays a part in the cycling of metals, nutrients and organic pollutants (Sondergaard, 1990; Martino et al., 2002; Bloesch, 2004; Cozar et al., 2005). This is the only mechanism releasing metals in particulate form into the water column, while other mechanisms such as diffusion and advection affect the metals in the dissolved phase (Kalnejais et al., 2007). As reviewed by Salomons and Brils (2004), the resuspension dynamics regulates the amounts of particles in suspension and, thus, associated contaminants. During hydrodynamic events, as in hydropower practices, storm or floods, the suspended solids (SS) levels can be one or two orders of magnitude higher than during the stagnant/calm situations. They also summarized that when total SS concentrations exceed 100 mg/L, more than 90% of the most toxic metals such as Cd, Cu, Cr, Zn and Pb and organic pollutants in the water column are present in the particulate phase (Salomons and Brils, 2004). This means that most metals and contaminants are transported in association with the suspended particulate matter. Coarse sediment particles tend to remain in the overlying water for a relatively short period of time and be transported over only a short distance. Fine particles, which are frequently associated with contaminants (Horowitz, 1991; Salomons, 1995), once suspended, tend to remain in suspension for long periods and, therefore, may travel long distances (Horowitz, 1991; Finger et al., 2006). Together with resuspension, diffusion and advection are important transport processes driving the release of metals from sediments into the water column (Sondergaard, 1990; Van den Berg et al., 2000; Huettel et al., 2003; Kalnejais, 2005). Increasing the intensity of resuspension in shallow water bodies could increase rates of O2 penetration into the sediments and enhance diffusion and pore-water advection processes as a result of increased water–sediment contact (Savant et al., 1987; Sondergaard, 1990; Falter and Sansone, 2000).

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3. Methods To approach the aims and objectives of the thesis, the methods chosen include laboratory studies (Papers I, II, III) and field observations (Papers I, IV and storm event). Interpretations of the results were supported by statistical analysis (Papers II, III) and by geochemical modelling (Papers II, III, IV) Laboratory experiments: The objectives to understand the mechanisms and factors controlling the metal mobility of the target mining waste and sediments called for well-controlled conditions in the laboratory. The details for these are partly given later in this thesis but mainly referred to in Papers I and II. Field observations: Field studies were designed to investigate the mechanisms and factors identified as important by the laboratory studies and to assess the resulting mobility of metals in the target environments. Statistical analysis: Calculations of Pearson’s correlation coefficients (r) were selected and used (Papers II, III) to test strength of linear association between the parameters using statistical package software (SPSS Inc., USA). Correlation coefficients at the 0.05 or 0.01 levels (2-tailed test) were considered in the interpretation of results. Modelling: The model Visual MINTEQ is a Windows version of MINTEQA2 ver 4.0, which was released by U.S EPA in 1999 and is further developed by Gustafsson, KTH, Sweden (Gustafsson, 2004). This model was selected for this study because it is easily accessible, simple and “user-friendly”. This is a geochemical equilibrium model for calculation of metal speciation, solubility equilibria etc. for natural waters (Gustafsson, 2004). The program also predicts, which minerals are likely to precipitate or dissolve, based on ion speciation and the thermodynamic properties of minerals involved in the various dissolution and precipitation reactions. The tendency for a mineral to precipitate or dissolve is represented by its saturation index (SI): SI = log (IAP/k) Where IAP is the ion activity product and k is the equilibrium constant for the mineral. A positive SI indicates that a mineral has the potential to dissolve. SI for pre-selected minerals is calculated and those with the highest over saturation are allowed to precipitate first.

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4. Mobilization of metals from mining waste – The role of ARD formation

4.1 Descriptions of study area

The Giap Lai mining area is located in the province of Phu Tho, about 80 km west of Hanoi (Viet Nam, Paper I). Mining of pyrite by the Giap Lai pyrite company took place during the period 1975-1999, after which the operation closed. The mining area is located on a regional water divide, and is drained by two small streams: the Thanh Son, which empties into the Bua River (6.5 km to the NW), and the Thanh Thuy which empties into the Da River (7 km to the SE). The Thanh Son’s discharge rate varies between 10 and 100 L/s, and the Thanh Thuy’s discharge rate varies between 5 and 350 L/s. The Bua River carries 7-50 m3/s, and the Da River is very large, with flow rates of several hundred m3/s (SGAB-CIE, 2002). Mining here involved three pits. Open-pit 1 (13 ha) was mined from 1975 to 1995, open-pit 2 (15 ha) from 1992 to 1996 and open-pit 3 (2 ha) was mined from 1996 to 1999. The mining operation ceased in 1999, and all three pits are now abandoned and filled with water. Open-pits 1 and 3 have surface water outflows, whereas pit 2 is a closed system (SGAB-CIE, 2002). Mine records suggest that a total of more than 5 million m3 of waste rock was removed from the three pits during the mining operations. About one million m3 of waste rock is stored in two deposits situated to the north of the open pits, and it is also believed that a substantial part of the waste rock was used to backfill the three open pits (SGAB-CIE, 2002). Tailings from the processing plant were deposited in two tailings facilities. The original tailings impoundment was used up until the late 1980s, and it contains about 200 000 tonnes of material. The more recent facility was used from the late 1980s until mining ceased and contains some 880 000 tonnes of tailings (SGAB-CIE, 2002). 4.2 Laboratory studies

Static and kinetic (leaching/humidity cell) tests were performed on waste samples collected at the Giap Lai mining site to predict the potential release of metals and mine drainage quality during the formation of Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) following oxidative weathering of the waste materials (cf. SGAB-CIE, 2002 and Paper I). Both tests are based primarily on the assumption that geochemical reactions are the main factors that control the drainage quality.

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4.2.1 Static tests The aim of performing static tests was to assess the potential for ARD production in metal-rich sulphidic samples by evaluating the acid generating and acid neutralizing potentials. This is a first step to indicate potential problems of ARD. Static tests may be useful for estimates of actual mine water quality (Ferguson and Erickson, 1988). The modified method Acid-Base Accounting (ABA) developed from Sobeck et al. (1978) (EPA, 1994) were applied for the samples of both waste rock and tailings materials collected at the Giap Lai mining site. They were tested for the neutralizing potential. However, ABA does not provide information on the rate at which sulphides oxidize (Ferguson and Erickson, 1988). The balance between the acid producing potential (APP) and the buffering capacity of the material was established. The ability of a solid waste sample to counteract acid production is called Net Neutralizing Potential (NNP), thus, its tendency to produce ARD. The APP calculations were based on the measurements of the total amounts of un-oxidized sulphur contents of the sample (in this case, by subtraction of free sulphate content from the total sulphur). The neutralizing capacity of a solid sample (so-called Gross Neutralizing Potential, GNP) was based on its alkaline contents (carbonate content in this case). NNP was calculated as follows: NNP = GNP-APP (expressed in kg CaCO3/ton of the sample). The values of NNP may be either negative or positive. In general a negative value indicates a potential acid production. Earlier studies (Lapakko, 1993 in EPA, 1994) show that for NNP values greater than 20, the material is not likely to form ARD, while at below 20 an ARD formation should be expected. For NPP values between -20 and +20 it is difficult to determine the potential acid production (EPA, 1994). The results of APP and NNP calculations are shown in Table 1. The parameters used in the static and kinetic tests are also presented. The NNP results suggest that all four samples may produce ARD and, thus, it is necessary that kinetic tests should be performed to for a confirmation.

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Table 1. Geochemistry of solid samples taken from the Giap Lai mining area for static and kinetic tests. APP and NNP was converted to kg CaCO3/ton.

Sample code CaCO3

% Total S

% SO4 %

APP

NNP

WRA-c 1.5 3.3 2.1 82 -67 TF-fresh 5.0 5.2 4.0 120 -71 TF-ox 3.3 5.0 5.4 99 -66 O.TF 5.3 3.5 7.1 35 18

4.2.2 Humidity cell tests

The purpose of the humidity cell (leaching) tests was to mimic the oxidative weathering of the mining waste samples, which provides information on the rate of oxidation processes and, thus, acid production and provides an indication of drainage water quality. The tests simulated oxidative weathering conditions in small enclosed cells (Fig. 3), where the investigated material was allowed to oxidise and to be leached with deionized water. The humidity cell tests followed procedure by Sobek et al. (1978). The four samples passing through static tests were used in the humidity cell tests. Metal contents of the four solid waste samples are presented in Table 2.

Figure 3. The humidity cells used in this study

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Table 2. Metal contents (mg/kg) of solid waste samples used in the static and humidity cell tests.

Sample code

Fe %

Al %

Mn mg/kg

Cu mg/kg

Zn mg/kg

Ni mg/kg

Pb mg/kg

WRA-c 87.2 1.6 140 4 86 50 8 TF-fresh 9.8 7.8 750 240 110 110 25 TF-ox 10.9 6.1 300 210 110 86 29 O.TF 23.9 3.4 640 60 280 57 19 The solid samples were placed in a plexiglass container connected to a compartment producing humidified air. Water from the new tailings impoundment was used to hydrate these samples prior to the oxidation process to ensure the presence of oxidizing bacteria during oxidation. Dry air passes over the sample for 3 days, humidified air for the next 3 days and 200 mL deionized water was added on the seventh day in order to leach out the metals that were mobilized during the oxidation. The tests were run for 28 weeks. The leachates collected each week were analysed for pH, electrical conductivity and sulphate concentration. The leachate analyses were carried out by handheld instruments and a spectrophotometer at the laboratories of the National Institute of Mining and Metallurgy in Hanoi.

The results of the humidity tests are illustrated as a time series in Fig. 4. The progressive leaching of a fresh sample from the new tailings impoundment (new tails, TF-fresh, Fig. 4) shows that this material was initially well buffered, with the pH remaining high until week 6. However, after week 6 the pH fell dramatically and stabilised between 2 and 3 indicating that although this sample was well buffered initially. However, the buffering capacity of the sample was not enough to withstand the acid produced in the cell and, thus, eventually produced ARD. Simultaneously, there was an increase in the conductivity of the leachate, with a concomitant increase in sulphate levels until week 22.

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Figure 4. Graphs showing the results of the humidity cell tests

New tails, ox. mtrl

W1 W6 W11 W16 W21 W26

Old Tails

W1 W6 W11 W16 W21 W26

New tails, fresh mtrl

W1 W6 W11 W16 W21 W26

Waste Rock

1

3

5

7

pH

0

5000

10000

15000

Cond

uctiv

ity (m

Scm

-1)

0

10

20

W1 W6 W11 W16 W21 W26

SO4

conc

. (gL

-1)

The other three samples, representing waste rock from the old tailings impoundment (WRA-c; Fig. 4) and samples from oxidised parts of the new tailings impoundment (TF-ox and O.TF; Fig. 4), exhibited relatively similar leaching characteristics. Unlike the new tailings (TF-fresh; Fig. 4), pH values for the other samples were low from the beginning of the experiment and fluctuated between 2 and 3. These pH levels remained stable throughout the experiment. Conductivity readings and sulphate concentrations generally decreased with time. The results verify that these samples of waste rock and tailings were oxidized already from start of the test and suggest that the materials have a capacity to generate considerable amounts of ARD, and that this may continue for a long period of time. Although, the dissolved metal concentrations were not analysed for, the recorded pH values imply that more metals would be released into the solution. Earlier studies have showed that many metals are desorbed from minerals at pH below 3 (Karlsson, 1987; Håkansson et al., 1989; Borma et al., 2003). These results were corroborated by the results of the field surveys.

13

4.3 Field observations

The metal investigation of the Giap Lai mining area was performed to provide a detailed analysis of stream water in the areas affected by ARD. Four sampling sessions were undertaken: one during 1997 (when the mine was still operating) and three during 2001-2002 (when mining operations had ceased). Surface water samples were taken during all four sampling sessions, while surface stream sediments were collected twice: in September 1997 and February 2002. Three main areas of surface water contamination were examined: (i) areas downstream of the new tailings impoundment; (ii) water in the open pits; (iii) water downstream from the waste rock deposits. Sampling locations for the water and sediment samples are shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5. Sampling locations at the Giap Lai mining area

14

Samples collected downstream of the new tailings deposits (TF4; Fig. 5) had low pH and elevated concentrations of Al, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn (Table 3). Samplings at this site in 1997, 2001 and 2002 suggested that ARD was formed and metal leaching was becoming progressively more severe over time, which was consistent with the results of the leaching experiments. The pH of this leachate decreased rapidly during the study period, from just below neutral (6.3) in 1997, when mining operations were still ongoing, to strongly acidic in 2001 and 2002 (5.4 and 3.0, respectively), when mining had terminated. During the 2002 investigation, the leachate water contained high concentrations of metals. Similarly, the pH of the water samples collected downstream of the waste rock deposits (SW44) had decreased from 6.6 during sampling in 2001 to 3.8 at the time of the 2002 sampling; there were concomitant increased concentrations of Al, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn (Table 3). Table 3. pH and metal concentrations (µg/L) of surface water samples collected

from the Giap Lai mining area.

Date pH Al As Cr Cu Mn Ni Pb Zn Sample

Samples affected by drainage from the new tailings deposits

sep-97 6.3 390 <4.3 1.6 35 73 1.5 74 apr-01 5.4 2000 2.4 0.7 290 240 0.97 130 TF4

feb-02 3.0 26000 19 66 720 280 8.1 300 apr-01 6.6 190 0.027 61 <0.030 55

SW44 feb-02 3.8 4700 5 160 0.28 60

Samples from the open pits OP2 sep-97 6.7 120 0.89 36 6100 <0.20 OP2 (a) mar-02 3.1 9400 5.2 79 8200 4.4

Water samples collected from open pit 2 (OP2; Fig. 5) exhibited increased levels of Al, Cu and Pb with time. Further, it was clear that water quality in Pit 2 had deteriorated between 1997 and 2002. The pH was 6.7 in 1997, whereas it was 3.1 in 2002. The concentrations of Al, Cr, Cu, Mn and Pb increased concomitantly many-fold during the same period. The poor water quality observed in Pit 2 was probably the result of the hydrological regime at the pit, in combination with the presence of large deposits of sulphidic waste rock on the pit’s northern and eastern shores. Since pit 2 had no surface water outflow, the ARD formed in these deposits drained into the pit and remained there. Thus, once the buffering capacity

15

of the water and the sediment in the pit were exhausted, the pH dropped and metals entered into solution. The results from laboratory and field studies both demonstrated that the metals mobilized during the formation of acid drainage when sulphidic materials are exposed to air and water. The downstream metal levels and low pH in the water streams confirm that the mining wastes are the source for the pollution observed.

4.4 Implications for environmental management

That exposure of metal-rich sulphidic waste materials to air and water will generate acid rock drainage (ARD) and subsequent metal release to the effluent waters is a well-known phenomenon. The results from the static and kinetics tests as well as those from the field monitoring carried out in this study verify that this is the case at the Giap Lai Pyrite Mine. The Giap Lai mine was closed in 1999 and an intense ARD formation was recognized by the current study in 2001-2002 as presented here. The findings from the experiments performed in this study indicate that the air exposure of the waste rocks and tailings of the Giap Lai mine will be expected to cause long-term water quality problems. The field studies show that not only the water bodies surrounding the mining area will be affected, but also the farmed land areas downstream the mining area. Several million of tonnes of waste rock and tailings produced, when the mine was active, are now left abandoned and exposed to the air without any controls. The metals released are to some extent trapped in sediments and in flooded soil areas. The findings imply that there is an urgent need for control and prevention of ARD produced in the Giap Lai mining area. This could be done by eliminating or substantially reduce the exposure of the sulphidic wastes to oxidation or using the neutralizing capacity of the local alkaline groundwater to mitigate the ARD. Reducing the oxidation is probably most efficiently achieved by capping the waste deposits with an oxygen barrier, e.g. constructed by less pervious soils. If the oxidation of sulphides is not prevented, it will soon lead to huge amounts of ferric iron to be formed and stored in the waste and in downstream sediments. This will in turn create secondary oxidation of sulphides in capped waste deposits. In the contaminated sediments and soils ferric iron will probably be reduced to ferrous iron resulting in increased solubility of the iron and the subsequent oxidation in the streams which in turn acidify the water. Hence, there is a risk that lack of counter measures for the sulphidic waste materials will lead to a large scale pollution of rice paddies downstream from the mine.

16

5. Metal mobilization from contaminated sediments – The role of oxidation/resuspension

5.1 Descriptions of study area

The town of Åtvidaberg, situated in the southeast Sweden (250 km SE Stockholm), was one of the main industrial areas in the county of Östergötland during the 18th and 19th centuries. Within the period 1765 to 1903, the town was home to a copper smelter, located between Lake Bysjön and Lake Håcklasjön. During this period, about 900 000 tonnes of sulphidic ore was processed in order to extract 32 000 tonnes of raw copper (Göransson, 1999). Slag and leaching residues were dumped around the copper works and along the banks of a canal that served as the discharge channel from the smelter. These areas now constitute a significant source of metal contamination affecting the waters downstream, particularly Lake Håcklasjön. In the early 20th century the smelter was converted into a saw-mill and a hydropower plant was constructed immediately downstream. The two shared a discharge canal, referred to here as the Tail Canal. The saw-mill and the Facit Factories were established to manufacture office furniture and then began production of mechanical calculators and typewriters. The latter operations resulted in the dumping of various wastes along the southern banks of the Tail Canal. The most important of these were acid pickling waters and alkaline cyanide solutions, which were not always successfully neutralized when dumped, resulting in local leaching of metals from the slag. Recent studies have shown a substantial rise in metal concentrations in the Tail Canal as it passes the slag deposits (Lundgren, 1999; Mecklenburg and Lundgren, 2007). Other studies have confirmed that the sediments of Lake Håcklasjön are heavily contaminated with metals (Eklund and Håkansson, 1997). All the slag deposits from the copper works and the remediated industrial waste dump are located within the catchment area of the Tail Canal. The copper slag contains high contents of metals, particularly copper, zinc and cadmium. Possible mechanisms acting in the study system

The Tail Canal (ca. 700 m long, 4 m wide, mean depth 1.2-1.5 m) is the primary water body receiving runoff and groundwater from the surrounding polluted areas; it empties into the downstream reservoir (Lake Håcklasjön, Fig. 6). Lake Håcklasjön (depth 2-2.5 m) has an area of about 0.6 km2, and is the secondary water-body receiving surface and ground water run-off from the catchment area, including the industrial area. During base-flow, the Tail Canal receive <100 L/s

17

from the surrounding areas, which is discharged into the Lake Håcklasjön. This includes runoff, storm-water, groundwater discharges and effluents from a sewage treatment plant located downstream of the Tail Canal.

During operation of the power plant ca. 3.6 m3/s of water is usually discharged from the upstream Lake Bysjön to the Tail Canal and Lake Håcklasjön (Karlsson, pers. comm.). The power plant operates for about 6-8 hours per day under normal circumstances. However, periods of operation may vary considerably, depending on weather conditions (e.g. flood or drought) and demand for power. Fine-grained sediments are found from halfway between stations S1 and S3 (Fig. 6) to the inlet of Lake Håcklasjön. The whole bottom of Lake Håcklasjön is covered with fine-grained sediments (Lundgren, pers. comm.). The regular water discharge from the power plant is expected to act as a “driving force” for the mobilization of contaminants in the shallow Tail Canal-Lake Håcklasjön water system. In addition, the shallow lake system may also be susceptible to strong winds. Such events may promote the diffusion of atmospheric O2 into the water column and down to the sediment layers, creating an oxidized micro-zone at the water–sediment interface. Water currents generated during hydropower operation could also resuspend sediments into the water column and transport them to downstream aquatic areas. The exposure of sediments to oxic conditions following resuspension may promote the release of sediment-bound contaminants (e.g. see Sondergaard, 1990; Linge and Oldham, 2002), this is likely to occur in the Tail Canal–Håcklasjön lake system

18

Figure 6. Map showing the study area and Lake Håcklasjön

Anoxic conditions may also occur in the eutrophic Lake Håcklasjön. The lake is continuously supplied with nutrients from the wastewater treatment plant located at the lake inlet. High temperatures during the summer and the availability of nutrients promote the growth of aquatic plants, which could hinder the resuspension process and, thus, inhibit the diffusion of oxygen to the water–sediment interface (Anderson, 1990; Braskerud, 2001). Moreover, such conditions could also accelerate microbiological activities, resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water column. Such anoxic periods may occur in this lake system especially during periods when the power plant is not operating and during periods of low wind-speed, respectively. Nevertheless, the rate at which metal mobilization occurs is expected to slow down during periods, when conditions favour reduction according to Lu and Chen (1977) and Sunby et al. (1986).

19

5.2 Laboratory studies

5.2.1 Flowcell experiment

The purpose of the flow-cell design (Fig. 7) was to examine the release of metals Fe, Zn, Cu and Cd during simulation of the changes in redox conditions on the water-sediments systems (Paper II). Two contaminated sediments collected from Lake Håcklasjön (Fig. 6) were studied: (i) the top 6 cm (sediment A), and (ii) the deeper, mixed 8-12 cm (sediment B). The time-course evolution of Fe, Zn, Cu and Cd concentrations, pH and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were measured in the water phase. The compositions of the water and sediment samples used in the test are given in Table 4. Results of the experiment are presented in the section below.

Figure 7. Photo showing the flowcell used in the experiment

20

Table 4: Physiochemical compositions of the initial samples used in the flowcell experiment. The metal contents in the sediments were calculated on a dry weight basis. Mean values (±SD) of duplicate sub-samples are presented for some of the parameters.

Depth cm

pH IC mg/L

DOC mg/L

Fe µg/L

Zn µg/L

Cu µg/L

Cd µg/L

Lake water

100 8.9 10±1 12.5±1 380±20 40±2 5±1 0.1

Sediment Depth cm

Water cont., %

LOI % dry wt.

S %

Fe %

Zn mg/kg

Cu mg/kg

Cd mg/kg

0-0.5 82±0.5 33±0.5 2.2 4.5 3930 640 17

0.5-1.5 82±1.1 32±0.3 2.1 4.4 2570 630 9

1.5-2.5 80±0.8 32±0.4 2.2 4.5 3850 690 16

2.5-4 80±1 32±0 2.1 4.2 4210 720 30

A

4-6 81±0.1 32±0.1 2.5 4.5 4280 730 20

B 8-12 79±0.3 30±0.1 3 4.8 5560 1200 29

Pore-water Depth cm

pH IC mg/L

DOC, mg/L

Fe µg/L

Zn µg/L

Cu µg/L

Cd µg/L

0-0.5 7.1±0.5 22 19 5070 50 11 0.23 0.5-1.5 7.0±0.2 22 22 8810 21 3 0.08 1.5-2.5 6.9±0.2 23 22 11980 18 4 0.06 2.5-4 6.8±0.4 29 23 16900 6 4 0.03

A

4-6 6.8±0.1 23 17 7290 8 2 0.02 B 8-12 7.1±0.2 25 17 3850 130 39 0.49

5.2.2 Shaking experiment

The aim of this experiment was to identify the impacts of simulated high-discharge of water from a hydropower plant on the distribution of metal between dissolved and particulate phases (Paper III). Top 2 cm lake sediments collected from Lake Håcklasjön (Fig. 6) was incubated in 330-mL infusion flasks (Fig. 8) for a 50-day period. The specific objectives of the present study were: (i) to examine possible mechanisms and factors influencing the long-term release of Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu from the sediments to the overlying water; and (ii) to estimate/quantify the metals in particulate phase during the high-discharge simulation. The physico-chemical characteristics of the lake water and top 2-cm

21

sediment samples are presented in Table 5. Results of the experiment are presented below.

Figure 8. The infusion flasks used for the shaking experiments

Table 5. Compositions of initial lake water and sediment slurry used in the

shaking experiment. The metal contents and LOI in the sediments were calculated on a dry weight basis.

pH 6.9 (±0.05) LOI % 30.7 (±0.2)

Water content % 97 (±0.6) Sediment slurry Fe mg/kg 25800 (±450)

Mn mg/kg 1090 (±11) Zn mg/kg 4880 (±70) Cu mg/kg 880 (±14) pH 8 (±0.1) DOC mg/L 12 (±0.8)

SS concentrations mg/L 9 Oxygenated lake water Fe (dissolved/total) μg/L 190 (±20)/1250 (±20) Mn (dissolved/total) μg/L 70 (±1)/90 (±1) Zn (dissolved/total) μg/L 45 (±1)/145 (±20) Cu (dissolved/total) μg/L 5 (±0)/30 (±3)

22

5.3 Field observations

Two field studies were conducted: (i) during operation and non-operation conditions of the hydropower plant (Paper IV) and (ii) during a storm event (this thesis) in order to verify the findings from the experimental studies that resuspension of sediments would lead to increased mobility of the metals. Three sampling stations S1, S3 and S5 were used for the two field observations, as shown in Fig. 9.

Lake Bysjön

Lake Håcklasjön Lake Fallsjön

Power Plant Åtvidaberg

Power Plant Forsaström

Tail Canal

S1 S5 S3

Figure 9. Top: Map showing the three sampling stations used for the hydropower plant-driven and storm-wind investigations: two on the upstream Tail Canal (S1 & S3) and one at the outlet of Lake Håcklasjön (S5). Bottom: A schematic drawing of the hydropower plants upstream and downstream of Lake Håcklasjön, regulating flow in and out of the Tai Canal-Lake Håcklasjön system.

23

5.3.1 Hydropower operation

The aim of this field study was to verify the observed effects in the laboratory by investigating surface water of the Tail Canal and Lake Håcklasjön downstream a hydropower plant during the power plant intermittent discharge (Paper IV). More specifically, the effects of the hydropower plant operation modes were assessed by examining the spatial and temporal changes in the fluxes of Fe, Zn and Cu as well as the changes in physicochemical characteristics of surface water of the Tail Canal and Lake Håcklasjön. The changes in the corresponding parameters during the non-operation were also examined to compare with the operation period. The study was limited to a single cycle opening-closure-opening of the dam taking place at winter conditions. The investigation was conducted over a 96-hour period during which the hydropower plant was operational for 29 hours. Three strategic sampling stations were selected: two stations located along the waterway (S1 and S3 at the Tail Canal) downstream the hydropower plant, and one station situated at the outlet of Lake Håcklasjön (S5, Fig. 9). The flux of the metals was calculated based on discharge and concentration values (see further in Paper IV). Results of the investigation are showed in the sections below.

5.3.2 Storm event

An investigation on storm effects on the resuspension was conducted during a non-operation period of the power plant and to what extent this in turn would effect the mobilization of Fe, Zn and Cd in surface water (0.5 m deep) at the same stations as above. The time-course evolution of the respective metal concentrations (dissolved and particulate) was measured (see Paper IV for sampling and analytical procedures).

Weather data to support this study could not be found in the vicinity of the study area, why data on wind-speed and directions were taken from the continuous measurements at the Malexander meteorological station, situated ca. 50 km SW of the study site (SMHI, 2007). The rainfall data was collected at another nearby station Falvik, ca 10 km from the study area (SMHI, 2007). Although, Malexander weather station is located at a considerable distance from the sampling site, the wind patterns and shifts observed were believed to reflect the weather dynamics occurring at the sampling area. This supported by the findings in other study by Bengtsson and Hellström (1992), who found close agreement between the local wind dynamics observed at their study site and at weather station at 40 km distance. Mean wind-speed for 10-min intervals during the investigation are shown in Figure 10. During the four sampling intervals, wind-speed ranged from 2-4 m/s (11-14 h) in a northwesterly direction, 12-14 m/s (35-38 h) in a

24

southwesterly direction, 5-6 m/s (55-57 h) in a southwesterly direction and 6-7 m/s (82-84 h) in a southwesterly direction. The wind directions prevailing during the sampling intervals were dominant for at least 6 h before we commenced each sampling event. The amount of rainfall during the sampling period was taken from Falvik station and revealed that the rain intensity was <2 mm/h at all rain events. Therefore similar in accordance with Bengtsson and Hellström (1992) it was assumed that precipitation did not influence the pool of suspended solids in the water column.

0 24 48 72 960

3

6

9

12

15wind-speed

m/s

hours

Figure 10. Patterns of wind-speed during the 96-hour investigation. Dashed lines indicate sampling intervals for the three stations S1, S3 and S5. Data were recorded at Malexander meteorological station, 50 km southwest of the sampling sites (SMHI, 2007).

25

5.4 Changes in pH, DOC and SS

5.4.1 pH Figure 11a shows changes in pH during 32 days of the anoxic–oxic incubation in flow-cells (Paper II). The aeration period, starting from day 21, induced a decrease in pH from 7.6 to 6.9 in overlying water of sediment A (top 6-cm layers). Similarly a decrease in pH was recorded in the shaking test, i.e. from pH 8 to pH 4 (Fig. 11a and Paper III) after 50 days under oxic shaking conditions. The pH decrease in the two laboratory studies more likely resulted from the oxidation of Fe(II) to Fe(III) oxides/hydroxides (cf. Stumm and Morgan, 1996; Jones-Lee and Lee, 2005) and from degradation of organic matter (cf. Bough and Loch, 1995; Förstner, 2004). Slight fluctuation in pH was observed during the operation period of the hydropower plant (Fig. 11b and Paper IV) and during the storm investigation (Fig. 11b). During the hydropower plant observation, the shift from non-operation to operation caused a decrease of 0.5 pH unit (at stations S1 and S3), probably as a result of dilution by the water discharged from the upstream Lake Bysjön (cf. Table 4 in Paper IV). The pH then fluctuated between pH 7 and 7.3 at these stations for the remaining period of the plant operation. At station S5 the pH level remained constant at about 7 throughout the whole 96-h study. The wind-speed prevailing during the 96-hour storm investigation remained relatively constant pH of surface water of the Tail Canal (S1 and S3) and outlet of Lake Håcklasjön (S5, Fig.11b).

26

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 355

6

7

8

9

10

pH

A B

anoxic oxic

flowcell

days0 10 20 30 40 50

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

shaken unshaken

shaking

days

a) Laboratory

b) Field observations

0 24 48 72 966.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

pH S1 S3 S5

storm

hours

0 24 48 72 966.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

S1 S3 S5

pH

hydropower

OPNOP

hours

Figure 11. Changes in pH during (a) Laboratory experiments (flowcell and shaking tests); (b) Field observations at 3 sampling stations S1, S3 and S5. Vertical dotted lines indicate end of anoxic and beginning of oxic period in the flowcell test, while end of non-operation (NOP) and beginning of operation (OP) period of the power plant during field observations.

5.4.2 DOC

Similar changes in the concentration pattern of DOC were recorded during both simulated oxidation/resuspension experiments: the flow-cell test (Fig. 12a; Paper II) and the shaking test (Fig.12a; Paper III). After the first one to two days of the oxidation/resuspension, the concentrations of DOC dropped rapidly in both experiments; this was probably due to the aerobic degradation of DOC. This result was in agreement with the finding made by Gerringa (1990). After this initial activity the process slowed down and the concentrations of DOC remained relatively constant until the end of the flow-cell test for both sediment A and sediment B. However, the shaking conditions resulted in a continuous increase in the DOC concentrations, which were nearly doubled by the end of the 50-day experiment. It is probable that the prolonged shaking and the great intensity of the

27

well-mixed conditions in the shaking conditions may have stimulated the aerobic degradation of particulate organic matter, resulting in the release of organic solutes (cf. Wainright and Hopkinson, 1997). Nevertheless, the results from the two field studies (hydropower activities and the storm event) did not reveal any clear-cut changes in DOC concentration (Fig.12b).

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 350

5

10

15

20

25

30 A B

anoxic

oxic

mg/

L

flowcell

days0 10 20 30 40 50

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

shaken unshaken

shaking

mg/

L

days

a) Laboratory

0 24 48 72 960

5

10

15

20

25

30

S1 S3 S5

NOP

OP

hydropower

mg/

L

hours

0 24 48 72 960

5

10

15

20

25

30

S1 S3 S5

m

g/L

storm

hours

b) Field observations

Figure 12. Changes in DOC concentrations during (a) Laboratory experiments (b)Field observations at 3 sampling stations S1, S3 and S5. Vertical dotted lines indicate the end of anoxic and beginning of oxic period in the flowcell test, while end of non-operation (NOP) and beginning of operation (OP) period of the power plant during field observations

28

5.4.3 Suspended solids (SS)

An increase in SS concentrations was observed for the shaking test (Fig.13a; Paper III) and during hydropower operating (Fig. 13b; Paper IV) and storm event (Fig. 13b). The shaking treatment increased the concentrations of SS about one order of magnitude compared with the unshaking conditions (Fig.13a; Paper III). Sudden peaks in the SS concentrations were recorded at stations S1 and S3, when the hydropower plant had been operating for 20 minutes (Fig. 13b; Paper IV). This suggests a resuspension of loose surface sediments formed during the pervious non-operation period of the hydropower plant. However, this effect faded out towards the rest of the operation period, probably as a result of dilution effect from the upstream water discharge.

During the 96-h storm study (Fig. 13), the SS concentrations were higher than those recorded during the 96-h hydropower study (Fig. 13; Paper IV). It is to note that the wind-speeds prevailing during the hydropower study, i.e. 1.5-4 m/s in average (data not shown; SMHI, 2007), were lower than the wind-speeds recorded during the storm investigation. This could be an indication for the higher SS levels during the storm study. An increase in SS concentrations at S3 and S5 occurred during the period when wind-speeds reached 12-14 m/s (35-38 h; Fig. 10). The concentration at S3 decreased again, while the SS concentration at S5 had increased further at the end of the experiment. The data indicate that wind-speeds exceeding 6 m/s could cause the surface sediments in the shallow water to become resuspended. Similar results have been reported by Bengtsson and Hellström (1992), who found a linear relationship between suspended matter and wind-speed for the shallow (1.5 m deep, like the water bodies discussed here) Lake Tämnaren in Sweden, when wind-speeds exceeded a threshold of 6 m/s. Similarly, Zhu et al (2007) reported substantial sediment resuspension in a Chinese shallow bay (mean depth 2.4 m), when wind-speeds exceeded 6.5 m/s.

29

0 24 48 72 960

5

10

15 S1 S3 S5 OP

NOP

hydropower

mg/

L

hours

0 10 20 30 40 500

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000 shaken unshaken

shakingm

g/L

days 0 24 48 72 960

10

20

30

40

50 S1 S3 S5

mg/

L

storm

hours

Figure 13. Changes in SS concentrations during shaking tests and during hydropower generation and storm event at 3 sampling stations S1, S3 and S5. Vertical dotted lines indicate end of non-operation (NOP) and beginning of operation (OP) period during investigation of the power plant operation.

5.5 Mobilization of metals in dissolved phase

5.5.1 Fe and Mn

Overall, the dissolved concentrations of Fe decreased during the oxidation/resuspension flowcell and shaking experiments (Fig.14a; Paper II and III). This was likely caused by a rapid oxidation of dissolved Fe and precipitation to the particulate form (cf. Stumm and Morgan, 1996; Jones-Lee and Lee, 2005). Fe was rapidly removed from the solution as soon as the aeration of the flowing water was initiated in the flowcells (Paper II). In the shaking experiment the dissolved Fe concentration remained low until day 25, but increased concurrently with a decrease in pH to 4 at day 50, suggesting a pH effect (Paper III). Unlike Fe, Mn was released continuously over the 50 days of shaking. Mn is known to be oxidized slowly in the presence of O2 (Stumm and Morgan, 1996). Therefore, once released, it could be remained in the solution over longer periods compared to Fe. The release of Mn appeared to start, when pH decreased to 5, and like Fe, the highest Mn amounts was recorded on day 50 when pH was at 4. There was a clear effect of the high-discharge during hydropower operation on the flux of dissolved Fe at all three stations (Fig.14b; Paper IV). The levels were fluctuating around the levels recorded immediately before the closing of the dam (i.e. at t=0-2h). During the 96-hour storm investigation, the concentration of dissolved Fe at stations S1 and S3 varied (Fig.14b) and no direct correlation to the wind-speeds was seen (cf. Fig. 10). The dissolved Fe levels equalled those of the non-operation period during the hydropower plant study (cf. Paper IV).

30

b) Field observations

a) Laboratory

Figure 14. Changes in dissolved Fe concentrations during (a) Laboratory(flowcell and shaking tests). Note: dissolved Mn concentrations during the shaking test are also presented; (b) Field observations at stations S1, S3 and S5 during hydropower plant study and storm event. Vertical dotted lines indicate end of anoxic and beginning of oxic period in the flowcell test, while end of non-operation (NOP) and beginning of operation (OP) period of the power plant during field observations. Note: flux (g/h) of dissolved Fe during hydropower study is presented.

0 10 20 30 40 500

1000

2000

3000

4000

shaken unshaken

shaking

Mn,

µg/

L

days

0 24 48 72 960

1000

2000

3000

4000 hydropower

Fe F

, g/h

sampling hours

S1 S3 S5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 350

1000

2000

3000

4000

anoxicoxic

A B

Fe, µ

g/L

flowcell

days

0 24 48 72 960

100

200

300

Fe, µ

g/L

S1 S3 S5

storm

sampling hours

0 10 20 30 40 500

200

400

600

800

shaken unshaken

shaking

Fe, µ

g/L

days

31

5.5.2 Zn and Cu

Zn

Concentrations of dissolved Zn in both the flowcell and the shaking experiments (Fig. 14a; Paper II and III) exhibited a similar upward trend during oxidation/resuspension. There are several possibilities for a release of Zn into solution: e.g. oxidation of sulphides (Morse, 1994; Calmano et al., 1994; Simpson et al., 1998), degradation of organic matter (Gerringa, 1990), desorption at low pH (Håkansson et al., 1989; Horckmans et al., 2007), dissolution from Fe/Mn oxides/hydroxides (Naylor et al., 2006) or diffusion/advection from porewater (Fristche et al., 2001). The water flow applied during aeration period in the flowcell experiment could induce resuspension (not measured in this study), which was more likely the contributing factor to the release of the metals through enhancing both porewater diffusion/advection and interactions between the resuspended particles and the overlying water of the two sediments (Paper II). The higher release rate of Zn for the top 6-cm layers (sediment A) compared to that of the deeper 8-12 cm layers (sediment B) was likely due to a lower pH in overlying water of sediment A. (cf. Fig. 11a). In the shaking test, the decrease in pH was the major factor contributing to the release of Zn and the release was initiated at pH below 6 (Paper III).

The start of the hydropower operation resulted in a high peak in the flux of dissolved Zn at S3. Together with the flux at S1, the pre-closing (i.e. at t=0-2 h) levels of dissolved Zn were resumed and remained during the rest of the high-discharge period (Fig. 15b; Paper IV). The flux of dissolved Zn at S5 remained relatively constant during the entire high-discharge period. During storm investigation, the concentrations of dissolved Zn were not affected by the wind-speed dynamics except for at S3, where an increase occurred after the first peak in wind-speed of 12-14 m/s (35-38 h, cf. Figs. 10 and 15b). Despite the decrease in wind-speeds during next sampling events (at 55-57 h and 82-84 h), the increase of dissolved Zn was continuing towards end of the observation period. It could be explained that the high wind-speeds of 12-14 m/s caused resuspension of sediments at S3. This resuspension process may have accelerated the diffusion/advection of the readily-available dissolved Zn from the surface sediments of the shallow Tail Canal. The time taken to transport the dissolved Zn from near the water-sediment interface to surface of the water column may explain the delay before the increase was observed in the next days. Further, the prolonged high wind-speeds of 6-7 m/s (lasting for 24 hours) before the last sampling (at 82-84 h) could also be a factor contributing to the increase of dissolved Zn concentrations.

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a) Laboratory

b) Field observations

Figure 15. Changes in dissolved Zn concentrations during (a) Laboratory (flowcell and shaking tests) (b) Field observations at stations S1, S3 and S5 during hydropower generation and storm event. Vertical dotted lines indicate end of anoxic and beginning of oxic period in the flowcell test, while end of non-operation (NOP) and beginning of operation (OP) period of the power plant during field observations. Note: flux (g/h) of dissolved Zn during hydropower observations is presented.

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Cu

The dissolved concentrations of Cu were increased during both the flowcell experiment (Fig.16a; Paper II) and shaking tests (Fig.16a; Paper III). Like Zn, possible processes for Cu release include oxidation of sulphides, degradation of organic matter, dissolution of Fe/Mn oxides/hydroxides and diffusion/advection. The water flow applied during aeration was more likely the contributing factor to the release of Cu through enhancing both porewater diffusion/advection and interactions between the resuspended particles and the overlying water of the two sediments A and B (Paper II). However, dissimilar to Zn the release rate of Cu for sediment A was similar to that for sediment B despite the pH-decrease in overlying water of sediment A, indicating Cu was not affected by the change in pH. This supported by the prediction of the VMINTEQ modelling showing that Cu was complexed with DOC and carbonates, which are not influenced by pH. During the shaking test, the decrease in pH to 4 was most likely the dominating factor affecting the release of Cu. DOC may also have contributed to the increase of dissolved Cu in the solution (Paper III). The high-discharge from hydropower activities induced a sudden increase in the flux of dissolved Cu at all three stations at the start-up of the operation (i.e. after 20 min; Fig. 16b; Paper IV). The highest fluxes of dissolved Cu were recorded at the start-up of hydropower generation at S3, but at later time at S5 (after ca 10 hours from the start-up) and S1 (after ca 24-27 hours). The fluxes of dissolved Cu fluctuated around the values of the pre-operational conditions (t=0-2 h) at all stations. During the storm observation, a slight increase of Cu was observed at all stations during the highest wind-speeds of 12-14 m/s (cf. Figs. 10 and 16). However, the highest concentrations of Cu were recorded at the last sampling event when wind-speeds of 6-7 m/s prevailing at all three stations. Like the case of Zn, the resuspension of sediments occurred during high wind-speeds of 12-14 m/s may have resulted in the release of Cu in sediments. The lag in time in the upward movement of Cu from the water-sediment interface to the surface water a long with the prolonged high wind-speeds of 6-7 m/s were probably the explanations for the apparent increase of dissolved Cu observed at the last sampling occasion.

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(b) Field observations

Figure 16. Changes in dissolved Cu concentrations during (a) Laboratory (flowcell and shaking tests) (b) Field observations at stations S1, S3 and S5 during hydropower generation and storm event. Vertical dotted lines indicate end of anoxic and beginning of oxic period in the flowcell test, while end of non-operation (NOP) and beginning of operation (OP) period of the power plant during field observations. Note: flux (g/h) of dissolved Cu during hydropower operation observations is presented.

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5.6 Mobilization of metals in particulate phase

5.6.1 Fe and Mn

The shaking conditions substantially increased the amounts of suspended particulate Fe and Mn in the laboratory experiment (Fig.16; Paper III). The ratios between suspended particulate and total concentrations of Fe show that the contribution of suspended particulate to the total amounts of Fe was constant (almost 100%) for the 50 days. The corresponding ratios for Mn show a rapid decrease over time of suspended particulate Mn to the total Mn in the shaken samples, i.e from 32% to 11%.

During hydropower operation, there was a sudden increase in the fluxes of particulate Fe at all three stations upon the dam opening (Fig. 16b; Paper IV). After 20 min of operation, a high peak in the flux of particulate Fe was observed at station S3, after when it stabilised at the pre-operation level for the rest of the study. At both S1 and S3 the particulate Fe fluxes returned to the levels before the closing of the plant (t=0-2 h). During the storm event, concentrations of particulate Fe increased at station S3 when the wind-speed increased to 12-14 m/s concurrently with the increase in SS concentrations (Figs.16b and 13). The result shows that the wind-speeds prevailing during this period may have had an effect on the increase in amounts of suspended particles and particulate Fe. However, no such effect was seen at stations S1 and S5.

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Figure 16. Changes in suspended particulate concentrations Fe during (a) Laboratory experiments (shaking tests). Note: Particulate Mn concentrations are also presented. (b) Field observations at 3 sampling stations S1, S3 and S5 during hydropower generation and storm event. Vertical dotted lines indicate end of anoxic and beginning of oxic period in flowcell test, while end of non-operation (NOP) and beginning of operation (OP) period of the power plant during field observations. Note: flux (g/h) of particulate Fe during hydropower observations is presented.

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5.6.2 Zn and Cu

Observations on the particulate evolution of the Zn and Cu concentrations at day 1 showed an obvious effect of the shaking treatment on the progressive increase of particulate metal concentrations, concurrently with the increase of the suspended solid concentrations (Fig.17a; Paper III). The amounts of Zn in particulate remained constantly high throughout the 50-days experiment, while decrease in particulate Cu observed on the last day (day 50). However, the shaking conditions generally yielded one to two orders of magnitude higher particulate concentrations of Zn and Cu than those in the controls without shaking. The high-discharge period during operation of hydropower plant showed an increase in the fluxes of particulate Zn and Cu at all stations (Fig. 17b; Paper IV). Peak following the opening of the dam (after 20 min.) for Zn concurrently with peak in flux of SS at station S3 suggested the contribution of SS to the flux of particulate Zn (cf. Figs. 13 and 17). The fluxes of particulate Zn and Cu were low and fluctuating for the rest of the operation period at S1 and S3. At S5, the highest flux of particulate Zn was recorded about 24 hours after the opening of the dam. There was a ca 5-fold increase in the proportion of particulate fluxes of Zn (at S1 and S3) and Cu (ca 8-fold at S3) once the power plant shifted from non-operation to operation, indicating an effect of high-discharge in the increase of particulate metal fluxes. During the storm event, the prolongation of wind-speeds of 6-7 m/s seemed to be capable of increasing the amounts of particulate Zn at all stations (82-84 h; Fig. 16b).

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Figure 17. Concentrations of suspended particulate Zn & Cu during (a) Laboratory (shaking tests). (b) Field observations at stations S1, S3 and S5 during hydropower generation and storm event. Note: fluxes (g/h) of particulate Zn & Cu during hydropower observations are presented.

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5.7 Environmental implications for hydropower plant operation The results from the two laboratory studies have demonstrated that oxidation/resuspension of contaminated sediments can generate significant amounts of metals in both dissolved and particulate form and cause acidification as well as change in organic solute contents. The environmental implications of these findings are that oxidizing conditions and resuspension of sediments (e.g. by hydropower generation or storm events) can influence water quality in several ways and cause several concerns. The high amounts of metals release could increase the potential bioavailability of metals and therefore affect the aquatic ecosystems and enhance cycling of the metals. For the smelter-contaminated sediments of Lake Håcklasjön, the potential release of metals due to oxidation/resuspension is largely enhanced by the low buffering capacity of the sediments. This was revealed by that oxidation and/or resuspension mostly led to a decrease in pH. Further, a prolongation of the oxidation/resuspension is also a factor leading to increase metal release. The decrease in pH and duration of resuspension may intensify other processes such as degradation of organic matter and, thus, providing driving a force for metal mobilization (cf. Förstner, 2004). The particles that remain for longer periods in the suspension resulting from oxidation/resuspension of sediments are exposed to the biogeochemical processes occurring in the overlying water. The particles and associated metals and other contaminants can potentially be distributed over the water body and be dispersed into the adjacent environments by water flows. The increase in amounts of suspended particle and turbidity has the disadvantage in decreasing Secchi depth and of having negative effects on the biological structure of the organisms and aquatic life. In ordinary routine, the hydropower plant operates for several hours per day except in some special cases such as during wet seasons or floodings that would require the power plant to run continuously over a longer period, e.g. up to a month (Mecklenburg and Lundgren, 2007). The experiments performed within this thesis should be considered as worst-case scenarios (cf. Cappuyns et al., 2004). This worst-case approach to evaluate the potential effects of resuspension of contaminated sediments could, however, give information on the long-term influence of resuspension events on mobilization of metals. Nevertheless, it is suspected that the mechanisms and processes in the natural conditions would be similar to those defined for our experiments and that the environmental impacts are prolonged as long as the hydropower plant operates. This implies that long-term water quality problems could be expected once the contaminated sediments of Lake Håcklasjön are exposed to oxidation/resuspension events. The information

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obtained from the two experiments within the scope of this thesis is important and believed to be useful for predicting the response of shallow lakes to the fate and behavior of metals. The experimental results may support planning and decision-making regarding regulation of hydropower activities, etc. Field observations during the hydropower plant operation and during a storm event have verified the predictions from laboratory experiments. It is not possible to control natural events such as that induced by storms. However, it raises the question for the hydropower plant: how should it be operated in order to decrease the impacts on the environment. Before responding to that question it must also be stressed that damming the water stream is not only motivated by the production of electric energy, but also to regulate water levels of lakes, so that flooding is avoided. For Åtvidaberg and other corresponding water regimes, the latter reason for damming must be considered as very important, since the power production is relatively small, but the consequences of flooding most likely are severe to the villages and the cultivated valleys downstream. The intermittent operation of the hydropower plant will execute variations in the metal transport through Lake Håcklasjön. Although a single cycle with one damming period was investigated, the results are evident enough to support the above statement. However, the magnitude and its integrated effects in flows of metals over the season call for further research. There is a need to further investigate the impacts of hydropower generation in a longer period of time and at a higher frequency of observations at the very start of the hydropower operation. Such studies should include elucidation of effects of temperature, lake stratification, redox changes in the waterbody as well as in the sediment surface and contents and transformation of the organic matter. The results from this multidisciplinary approach would give a basis for an optimal operation of the hydropower plant to minimize the metal pollution associated with the water flow. A measure with the objective to mitigate the increased remobilization of metals at Lake Håcklasjön would be to reduce the operating capacity of the hydropower plant at the optimum for power production and certainly not at flows higher than optimum (ca 80 % opening aperture), i.e. to accept to run the plant at flow rates at e.g. 2.5-3.0 m3/s and to prolong the operation periods correspondingly. Another reasonable measure would be to open the ports gradually over e.g. an hour to avoid drastic suspension of particles in the Canal and possibly also in the lake.

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6. Conclusions The work presented in this thesis examined the mobilization of metals from two metal sources: the mining wastes from a mine site in Vietnam and the sediments from a contaminated lake in Sweden in order to test the hypothesis that mobilization of metals would be increased, when the environmental conditions change by e.g. exposure of mining wastes to oxidative weathering, change of redox conditions at the water-sediment interface and resuspension of sediments. The results from this work under field and laboratory conditions have verified the hypothesis:

o Exposure of mining wastes in oxidative weathering conditions can cause long-term production of ARD and the resultant long-term mobility of metals

o Oxidation/resuspension of sediments is an important factor for the release of trace metals Zn, Cu and Cd into the solution.

o Oxidation/resuspension can release considerable quantities of particles and, hence, associated metals into overlying water

o Concomitant changes in pH during oxidation/resuspension of sediment play a significant role in the metal release, both for redox sensitive elements Fe and Mn and trace elements Zn, Cu and Cd.

o Concomitant change in DOC during oxidation/resuspension can contribute to the increase in metal mobility.

It is clear that when the hydropower plant operates, the mobility of the metals is increased compared to non-operation and, thus, the potential impacts on dispersal of metal pollution to downstream aquatic environments can be expected. The sudden increase in water flow upon the hydropower plant shifts from inactive to active state could cause immediate release of particles and thus particulate metals in the overlying water. Strong wind-speed during the storm event may have caused a release of particles into water column and mobilization of metals in dissolved and particulate form. However, there is a need for further research to elucidate the wind impact on the metal release in polluted water systems.

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7. Acknowledgements There are many people who have shared my journey and helped me during the course of my PhD. Words cannot express my gratitude to you all and it is not possible to list here all the people that I would like to thank. First of all, I wish to express my special gratitude to my supervisor Professor Bo Svensson for accepting me as a PhD student at the Department of Water and Environmental Studies (Tema Vatten). I am deeply indebted for your encouragement and support throughout my PhD, especially towards the end of it with the stimulating discussions -Thank you so much! I gratefully acknowledge my two co-supervisors Tom Lundgren and Karsten Håkansson. Thank you Tom for your enthusiasm and for your support whenever I needed and for remembering me that I must try more! Thank you Karsten for your encouragement, for your realistic suggestions and for reminding me to take things easy! Thank you all for your patience towards the final end of this thesis. My special thanks go to Håkan Tarras-Wahlberg for being my informal co-supervisor, encouraging me for the PhD and giving me the opportunity to co-write my first paper. Thank you also for visiting me in Linköping and discussing the “Problemnotat” at the beginning of my PhD. I would like to thank Anna Ledin for your constructive comments on my thesis and your help reviewing on my papers II and III. I am also grateful to Lena Lundman, who became my tutor in the world of the laboratory and helped a lot with the AAS. Carina Ståhlberg provided experienced company during my many field trips to Åtvidaberg, through storm and snow and your help in laboratory as well as other social matter. I would like to thank Susanne Jonsson for assisting in laboratory, especially with my TOC “arm” problems, Åsa Sjöblom for engaging enjoyable chats with me about the mining world and sharing with me your experience, Christina Brage for help with finding literature. The Municipality of Åtvidaberg and their officials: Pär Ericsson, Bernt Persson, Susanne Gustafsson and Göran Börkén are recognized for their kindness and devoted assistance with information, data and practical arrangements. I wish to express my thanks also to Dan Häggberg for assistance with the many sediment samplings on Lake Håcklasjön with boat. All my friends, colleagues and the staff at the Department of Water and Environmental Studies, especially the D-03 and D-02 groups are thanked for help in my work and the fun we had together during lunches and “fika”. Thank you, Helle Ryström and Thomas Achen for your warm hospitality – Chị Hellen, em rất vui được nói Tiếng Việt với chị! Thanks to Ian Dickson, who helped with the computer issues and provided me with the delicious produce from his gardens! Thank you Fatemeh Shafie for sharing fun times and daily life with me – we had a great time together, especially the many escapes from work to discover the

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Campus which I would never forget! My deeply thanks go to Tom and Micky, who took care of me and shared their home with me during my first months in Linköping. I felt less homesick during the time living with you. Thanks to Bo Carlsson for introducing me to Bosse, who was key in my decision to go to Linköping for the PhD. Bo and Vivi-Ann – many thanks for your support at my beginning time here. Björn and Trang – thank you for providing me with a home when I first landed in Sweden. Björn, Håkan and Bosse are thanked for picking me up at Arlanda airport when I first arrived in Sweden on that freezing day – you made me feel warm and saved from being lonely in a new land. Micky and Tom also tried hard to bring me from the airport to Linköping on that day but the many delayed flights made it impossible – I owned you all a lot! The family Bo-Gabriella-Filippa Lundqvist became my “informal” host family-I have learnt so much about life in Sweden from you. I will miss our time together, with the sight-seeing trips, baking-lessons, picking berries in the forests, and especially the mushroom hunting last autumn – I enjoyed them very much! The family Sơn-Tuyết-Việt Hà is deeply thanked for your hospitality and your support. You have become a base for me to share with joys and sadness as well as to help me overcome many difficulties in a living far away from home. My first room-mate Thủy “big” for sharing with me a lot of funs and for comforting me when I was down with work. I have learnt many things from you especially your southern cooking! My second room-mate, Thủy “small”, you made my life here more pleasant and joyful–Thanks so much for your good taking care of me and your encouragement! My thanks also to Khanh, my for your help with the maps. Thanks to all my Vietnamese friends at the “Chi bộ Một và Hai”;- who shared in my fun and supported me during my time here, in particular Thái for technical help with my bike problems and Đông for assistance in finding the photos for my thesis cover. I wish to thanks Hường, my class-mate, for visiting me in Linköping and for joining me on the nice trips. My former director Lê Đăng Hoan encouraged me to apply for this scholarship and other colleagues at the National Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and the Center of Industrial Environment in Hanoi are thanked for their support. Lastly, I would like to thank my Parents for their love and their distant taking care of me through long phone-calls. Thanks also to my sister and brother for their encouragement and support. The Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training is gratefully acknowledged for financial support during my PhD.

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