Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization::

COHN – 99.5%

99.9% =

See figs. 1.3 & 1.4

Organs and Body SystemOrgans and Body System

Muscular systemMuscular system Cardiovascular Cardiovascular

systemsystem Endocrine systemEndocrine system Respiratory systemRespiratory system Skeletal systemSkeletal system Digestive systemDigestive system

Urinary systemUrinary system Nervous systemNervous system Reproductive systemReproductive system Immune systemImmune system Integumentary Integumentary

systemsystem Lymphatic systemLymphatic system

Disciplines of AnatomyDisciplines of Anatomy

GrossGross AnatomyAnatomy: structures studied : structures studied with the naked eye.with the naked eye.– Systematic anatomySystematic anatomy: organized by : organized by

systems, e.g., digestive, nervous, systems, e.g., digestive, nervous, endocrine, etc.endocrine, etc.

– RegionalRegional anatomyanatomy: study of all : study of all structures in an area of the body, e.g., structures in an area of the body, e.g., upper extremity bones, muscles, blood upper extremity bones, muscles, blood vessels, etc.vessels, etc.

Disciplines of AnatomyDisciplines of Anatomy

GrossGross AnatomyAnatomy Microscopic anatomy (Microscopic anatomy (histologyhistology)) Developmental anatomy Developmental anatomy

((embryologyembryology))

Pathological anatomyPathological anatomy Radiologic anatomy (x-ray, CT, MRI)Radiologic anatomy (x-ray, CT, MRI) Other areas? (surgery)Other areas? (surgery)

The Anatomical The Anatomical Position Position

تشريحي تشريحي وضعيت وضعيت The standard The standard

reference reference position:position:

1.3

Sectional AnatomySectional Anatomy

3 sectional planes:3 sectional planes: transversetransverse ( or cross) ( or cross)

sectionsection

frontalfrontal (or coronal) section (or coronal) section

sagittalsagittal section (mid- and section (mid- and para-)para-)

Planes of the BodyPlanes of the Body Frontal (coronal) Frontal (coronal)

(ant-post)(ant-post) Transverse Transverse

(horizontal) (sup-(horizontal) (sup-infer)infer)

Midsagittal (R-L)Midsagittal (R-L) Parasagittal Parasagittal

(unequal R-L)(unequal R-L)

Body planes and sections - cut into sections along a flat surface called a plane

(also called XS – cross section)

(also called coronal)

Gross Anatomy TermsGross Anatomy Terms Superior ≠ Inferior Superior ≠ Inferior (cranial ≠ caudal)(cranial ≠ caudal) Anterior ≠ Posterior Anterior ≠ Posterior (ventral ≠ dorsal)(ventral ≠ dorsal) Medial ≠ lateralMedial ≠ lateral Proximal ≠ distalProximal ≠ distal Superficial ≠ deepSuperficial ≠ deep

Superior and InferiorSuperior and Inferior

SuperiorSuperior means means uppermost, above or uppermost, above or toward the head. For toward the head. For example, the lungs are example, the lungs are located superior to located superior to (above) the diaphragm. (above) the diaphragm.

InferiorInferior means means lowermost, below or lowermost, below or toward the feet. For toward the feet. For example, the stomach is example, the stomach is located inferior to (below) located inferior to (below) the diaphragm. the diaphragm.

Gross Anatomy TermsGross Anatomy Terms

Anterior ≠ Posterior Anterior ≠ Posterior (ventral ≠ dorsal)(ventral ≠ dorsal)

Lateral and MedialLateral and Medial LateralLateral means toward means toward

the side or away from the side or away from the midline of the body the midline of the body or structure. or structure.

MedialMedial means means pertaining to the middle pertaining to the middle or toward the midline. or toward the midline.

Proximal and DistalProximal and Distal

ProximalProximal means means near the midline or near the midline or the beginning of a the beginning of a body structure. body structure.

DistalDistal means away means away from the midline or from the midline or the beginning of a the beginning of a body structure. body structure.

back

Directional TermsDirectional Terms

Angular MovementAngular Movement

Figure 8.5b

Angular MovementAngular Movement

Figure 8.5c, d

Angular MovementAngular Movement

Figure 8.5e, f

RotationRotation The turning of a The turning of a bone around its bone around its own long axisown long axis

ExamplesExamples– Between first two Between first two

vertebraevertebrae– Hip and shoulder Hip and shoulder

jointsjoints

Figure 8.5g

Special MovementsSpecial Movements

Figure 8.6a

Special MovementsSpecial Movements

Figure 8.6b

Special MovementsSpecial Movements

Figure 8.6c

Special MovementsSpecial Movements

Figure 8.6d

Special MovementsSpecial Movements

Figure 8.6e

Slide 18-36

Reference Lines (Anterior)

Slide 18-38

Reference Lines (Posterior)

aponeurosis

Frolich, Human Anatomy,UpprLimb

Biceps—anterior compartment, flexion (M-C n.) Triceps—posterior compartment, extension (radial n.)

Frolich, Human Anatomy,UpprLimb

Anterior Compartment Forearm--flexors

Flexor Carpi Radialis

Flexor Retinaculum

Medial Epicondyle

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis is deep to other flexors

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

Brachioradialis

Pronator Teres

Anterior View

Frolich, Human Anatomy,UpprLimb

Posterior Compartment of Forearm--extensors

Extensor digitorum

Extensor carpi ulnarisExt Carpi Radialis Longus

Brachioradialis

Lateral Epicondyle

Posterior View

Cartilage

Hyaline Cartilage - Translucent- has collagen fibers that are not visible with light microscope. Nose, ends of bones

Elastic Cartilage -Visible elastic fibers, very flexible. Ear pinna or auricle

Fibrous Cartilage - Bundles of collagen fibers, very obvious. Intervertebral disks

Muscular System

Over 600 muscles in your body

Control movement Voluntary muscles:

you choose to move them

Involuntary muscles: move without you telling them to move, ie. heart

Muscles

3 types Skeletal: attached to

bones to help you move

Cardiac: heart Smooth: intestines,

bladder, blood vessels, internal organs

Classification of BonesAxial skeleton – bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cageAppendicular skeleton – bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and hip

Classification of Bones: By Shape

Long bones – longer than they are wide (e.g., humerus)

Figure 6.2a

Classification of Bones: By Shape

Figure 6.2b

Short bonesCube-shaped bones of the wrist and ankleBones that form within tendons (e.g., patella)

Classification of Bones: By Shape

Flat bones – thin, flattened, and a bit curved (e.g., sternum, and most skull bones)

Figure 6.2c

Classification of Bones: By Shape

Irregular bones – bones with complicated shapes (e.g., vertebrae and hip bones)

Figure 6.2d

Function of Bones

Support – form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organsProtection – provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organsMovement – provide levers for musclesMineral storage – reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorusBlood cell formation – hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones

Bone MarkingsBulges, depressions, and holes that serve as:

Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendonsJoint surfacesConduits for blood vessels and nerves

Tuberosity – rounded projectionCrest – narrow, prominent ridge of boneTrochanter – large, blunt, irregular surfaceLine – narrow ridge of bone

Bone Markings: Projections – Sites of Muscle and Ligament

Attachment

Tubercle – small rounded projectionEpicondyle – raised area above a condyleSpine – sharp, slender projectionProcess – any bony prominence

Bone Markings: Projections – Sites of Muscle and Ligament

Attachment

Head – bony expansion carried on a narrow neckFacet – smooth, nearly flat articular surfaceCondyle – rounded articular projectionRamus – armlike bar of bone

Bone Markings: Projections – Projections That Help to Form

Joints

Bone Markings: Depressions and Openings

Meatus – canal-like passagewaySinus – cavity within a boneFossa – shallow, basinlike depressionGroove – furrowFissure – narrow, slitlike openingForamen – round or oval opening through a bone

Gross Anatomy of Bones: Bone Textures

Compact bone – dense outer layerSpongy bone – honeycomb of trabeculae filled with yellow bone marrow

Structure of Long BoneLong bones consist of a diaphysis and an epiphysisDiaphysis

Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bonesComposed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavityYellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary cavity

Structure of Long Bone

EpiphysesExpanded ends of long bonesExterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy boneJoint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilageEpiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses

Structure of Long Bone

Figure 6.3

Bone MembranesPeriosteum – double-layered protective membrane

Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissueInner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and osteoclastsRichly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels, which enter the bone via nutrient foraminaSecured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers

Endosteum – delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone

Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat BonesThin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside with endosteum-covered spongy bone (diploë) on the insideHave no diaphysis or epiphysesContain bone marrow between the trabeculae

Structure of a Flat Bone

Figure 6.4

Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow)

In infantsFound in the medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone

In adultsFound in the diploë of flat bones, and the head of the femur and humerus

Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone

Haversian system, or osteon – the structural unit of compact bone

Lamella – weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed mainly of collagenHaversian, or central canal – central channel containing blood vessels and nervesVolkmann’s canals – channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal

Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone

Osteocytes – mature bone cellsLacunae – small cavities in bone that contain osteocytesCanaliculi – hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone

Figure 6.6a, b

Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic

Osteoblasts – bone-forming cellsOsteocytes – mature bone cellsOsteoclasts – large cells that resorb or break down bone matrixOsteoid – unmineralized bone matrix composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen

Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic

Hydroxyapatites, or mineral saltsSixty-five percent of bone by massMainly calcium phosphatesResponsible for bone hardness and its resistance to compression

Bone DevelopmentOsteogenesis and ossification – the process of bone tissue formation, which leads to:

The formation of the bony skeleton in embryosBone growth until early adulthoodBone thickness, remodeling, and repair

Formation of the Bony Skeleton

Begins at week 8 of embryo developmentIntramembranous ossification – bone develops from a fibrous membraneEndochondral ossification – bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage

Intramembranous Ossification

Formation of most of the flat bones of the skull and the claviclesFibrous connective tissue membranes are formed by mesenchymal cells