leisure-time sport among physical education students: a time trend analysis of sport participation...

This article was downloaded by: [University of Otago]On: 02 October 2014, At: 23:18Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

European Sport Management QuarterlyPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/resm20

Leisure-Time Sport among PhysicalEducation Students: A Time TrendAnalysis of Sport Participation StylesDr Jeroen Scheerder a , Bart Vanreusel b & Marijke Taks ca Katholicke Universiteit Lueven, Belgium and Ghert University ,Belgiumb Katholicke Universiteit Lueven , Belgiumc University of Windsor , CanadaPublished online: 17 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: Dr Jeroen Scheerder , Bart Vanreusel & Marijke Taks (2005) Leisure-Time Sportamong Physical Education Students: A Time Trend Analysis of Sport Participation Styles, EuropeanSport Management Quarterly, 5:4, 415-441, DOI: 10.1080/16184740500430306

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16184740500430306

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoeveror howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to orarising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/resm20

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/16184740500430306

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16184740500430306

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

ARTICLE

Leisure-Time Sport among PhysicalEducation Students: A Time Trend

Analysis of Sport Participation Styles

JEROEN SCHEERDER*, BART VANREUSEL**& MARIJKE TAKS***

*Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium and Ghent University, Belgium **KatholiekeUniversiteit Leuven, Belgium ***University of Windsor, Canada

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to uncover a time trend analysis of styles in activesport participation. Basic styles of sport participation are selected and compared from atime trend perspective, covering a 27-year period. The data were collected viaquestionnaire from different samples of male and female first-year university studentsin physical education. Sport participation data from 1972 (males only), 1976 (females)/1977 (males), 1982, 1988/93 and 1998/99 are considered and compared. Principalcomponents analysis was used to explore basic dimensions of sport participation ateach time interval. The 1972�/82 style analysis of the males’ sport participation resultedin a triptych of styles consisting of competitive/traditional, local recreational, andconspicuous recreational sport activities. For the girls, the 1976�/82 period yielded acompetitive/traditional versus an ostentatiously recreational style pattern. Between1982 and 1999 active sport participation as a leisure activity did not basically furtherdiverge into different styles of participation. Rather, participation in the differentmodes of sport participation seems to have intensified. The results are interpreted in abroader approach of style analysis in leisure research and from the perspective ofsocietal changes with regard to sports. It is concluded that style analysis may offer avaluable contribution to research on active sport participation.

Introduction

Since the late 1960s and the early 1970s a new period of sport has beenintroduced within the Western�/European context. This evolution, generallyknown as the Sport for All movement, has resulted in a strong increase ofacademic interest in sport participation research. Along with the promotion

Correspondence Address : Dr. Jeroen Scheerder, Department of Human Kinesiology, Faculty of

Kinesiology & Rehabilitation Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Tervuursevest 101, B-3001

Leuven, Belgium. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 1618-4742 Print/ISSN 1746-031X Online # 2005 European Association for Sport ManagementDOI: 10.1080/16184740500430306

European Sport Management Quarterly,

Vol. 5, No. 4, 415�/441, December 2005

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

of active sport participation and the growing number of sport participants,sport participation studies have largely flourished throughout this period.We now know the basic pattern of active sport involvement: what the mostpopular participation sports are, how frequently and to which extentparticipants take part, and how sport participation is related to majorclassification variables such as age, sex and social class position. Moststudies on sport participation, however, are focused on one particular pointin time, revealing a static picture. Less attention has been paid to time trendanalyses in sport participation, covering comparative data over a certainperiod of time (cf. De Haan & Breedveld, 2000; Gratton & Tice, 1994;Moens & Scheerder, 2004; Scheerder & Breedveld, 2004; Scheerder et al.,2002b, 2005).

One way to look at participation trends is by focusing on basic dimensionsof participation at different time intervals. These dimensions correspond toparticipation styles. Although statistics on sport participation are abundant,only a few empirical studies have tried to derive more general styles ofparticipation from these data (see for example Brettschneider, 1992;Brettschneider & Brautigam, 1990; Errais et al., 1979; McCarthy, 1994;McKechnie, 1974; Pociello, 1979, 1995; Pociello & Andreff, 1983;Scheerder, 2003; Scheerder et al., 2005; Vanreusel, 1985, 1990). Analysingdimensions of participation, however, is a common research technique usedin the leisure sciences. Previous leisure research has indicated that relativelystable types of participation can be traced within the diversity of leisure-timeactivities (see for example Bishop, 1970; Burton, 1971; Christenson, 1994;Ganzeboom, 1990; Glorieux & Moens, 2002; Johansson & Miegel, 1992;Peterson, 1983, 1992, 1997; Romsa, 1973; Wippler, 1968; Zeijl, 2001).Several arguments for the study of styles in leisure behaviour have beenpointed out in the literature. Theoretically, the knowledge of basicdimensions can contribute to the understanding of leisure behaviour andits economic, psychological and sociological correlates (Bishop, 1970;Glorieux & Moens, 2002; Siongers & Stevens, 2002). Practically, theknowledge of similarities and differences between leisure activity types canprovide useful insight into adequate leisure opportunities and advice (Crum,1991; Ditton, 1978; Vanreusel, 1990). From a methodological point of view,it is clear that the reduction of data into smaller categories can lead to moremanageable and probably more meaningful clusters of leisure participation(Allen & Buchanan, 1981; Glorieux & Moens, 2002). It is suggested that itmay be more relevant to recognise general sport participation patterns ofindividuals or groups, instead of gathering participation rates in differentsports. In reality though, sport participants take part in a number of sportactivities. One can imagine that in this ‘‘multiple sport behaviour’’distinctive participation styles can be distinguished and recognised.

Purpose of the Study

During the past decades important social, cultural and economic changes havetaken place in our society. Processes of individualisation, commercialisation,

416 J. Scheerder et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

materialisation, specialisation, professionalisation and differentiation highlyaffected our lifestyles (Beck, 1992; Bellah et al., 1996; Furlong & Cartmel,1997; Giddens, 1990). These societal changes also influenced the world ofsport (Crum, 1991, 1993; Digel, 1990, 1995). They induced changes in (a)sports policy (e.g., development of the Sport for All movement [DaCosta &Miragaya, 2002; De Knop et al., 2002] and programmes for eliteathletes [De Knop et al., 2004; Hagele, 1997; Van Bottenburg, 2000]);(b) sport participation preferences from traditional team sports towardsmore individual and extreme sports (e.g., gliding sports [Loret, 1995]);(c) physical education curricula (from Swedish gymnastics towards theinclusion of more ‘modern’ forms of sport [D’hoker & Van Assche, 1994];(d) the sports industry (fitness and health clubs, sportswear, sport and tourism[Crum, 1991; Taks, 2000]); and (e) the evolution of sport facilities(professional stadiums, subtropical swimming pools [Crum, 1991; Provoost,2000]).

The present study is aligned with the issue of sport participation patternsfrom a time trend perspective. In previous studies, it has been shown that theglobal sport participation pattern of a specific group can be reduced into asmaller number of basic participation styles (Scheerder et al., 1999; VanBreedam, 2001; Van de Gaer, 1997; Vanreusel, 1985). The present studyexplores and identifies basic dimensions*/or styles*/of sport participationat different time intervals and analyses whether any changes took place.Basic sport participation styles are isolated and compared from a time trendperspective, covering 27 years (since participation data are available from1972 through 1999). These basic behavioural patterns allow for anunderstanding of sport participation behaviour from a higher level ofgenerality. It is supposed that these styles of sport participation havechanged during the last three decades. More precisely, it is assumed thatoriginal patterns of sport participation have undergone processes ofdifferentiation and diversification, specialisation, commercialisation, pro-fessionalisation and individualisation. The 1970s, 1980s and 1990s arecharacterised by diverse changes with regard to society and sport inparticular, and by various policy efforts to increase participation in sport(e.g. Sport for All [DaCosta & Miragaya, 2002; Hartmann-Tews, 1996;Oja & Telama, 1991; Scheerder et al., 2002a]). Knowledge of the stylesof participation in sport is relevant for formulation of policies and strategicplanning by sport organisations, government agencies, and the media.In order to turn the focus towards active participation in sports, sportmarketers and policy makers must develop a full understanding ofparticipant consumption behaviour and how it is developed and affected.The study of sport participation trends is critical in understandingthe changing sport participation landscape. This is especially timelyand appropriate in the growing and changing sport management industry,and specifically within movements or policy put forward to involvemore people in a wider variety of sport and recreational activities. Moreneeds to be understood of the nature and aspects of changing interestsover time.

Leisure-Time Sport among Students 417

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

Material and Methods

Sampling

In order to get an empirical hold on sport participation, a quantitativeanalysis was carried out. Data were collected from different samples of maleand female university students in physical education, aged 17 through 20.All respondents were first-year physical education students at the Faculty ofKinesiology & Rehabilitation Sciences of the Katholieke Universiteit vanLeuven (Belgium). Students doing their first year over again as well asstudents having already subscribed to another higher education programprior to their actual physical education studies, were excluded.

In total, the leisure-time sport participation behaviour of 752 male and399 female freshmen students was registered (see Table 1). Five subgroupsare taken into account, representing different time periods: 1972 (malesonly), 1976 (females)/1977 (males),1 1982, 1988/93 and 1998/99. The1972�/1982 data originate from a previous study completed by Vanreusel(1985, 1990). This time trend analysis was continued by Scheerder et al.(1999), Van Breedam (2001) and Van de Gaer (1997), who collected andanalysed the data for the 1988�/1999 period.

The sub-samples included in this study are not representative for the 17through 20 year-old males and females in Flanders. First, along with the factthat all respondents are involved in university studies, it seems that most ofthe physical education students come from the social middle and upper classlocations (Scheerder, 2003; Van de Gaer, 1997; Vanreusel, 1985). The socialbackground of the respondents is measured by means of the parental level ofeducation.

Second, it is expected that students in physical education are highlycommitted to sport and recreational lifestyles. In their studies, Vanreusel(1985, 1990) and Van de Gaer (1997) have already reported that physicaleducation students participate to a higher extent in leisure-time sportactivities and that at the same time they also take part in a variety of sportactivities. The sport participation data for the 1998/99 subgroup arepresented in Table 2. These data indicate that, on average, male and femalephysical education students are involved in more than four sports activitiesand in more than one club-organised sport activity. Nine out of ten physical

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Sample/Subgroups

Subgroup Males Females Total Response Rates

1972 187 �/ 187 100%1977/76a 168 98 266 99%1982 111 63 174 87%1988/93 122 89 211 89%1998/99 164 149 313 89%Total 752 399 1,151

Notes: a1977�/males only; 1976�/females only.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

education students are actively participating in club-organised sportactivities, and the same number of respondents is engaged in non-organisedsport. More than 84% of the male respondents and more than 79% of thefemale respondents participate in organised as well as non-organised sport.The males’ average level of participation accounts for 8.44 hours per weekconsidered over a whole year; among the females the average level of sportparticipation equals 6.48. All of these parameters exceed the participationscores that were found in a recent study on sport participation among arepresentative sample of Flemish youth (Scheerder et al., 2003, 2005). As aconsequence, the sport behaviour pattern of our target group strongly differsfrom the overall active sport participation in society. Thus, compared togeneral participation data, students in physical education show a veryintense, diverse and variegated pattern of leisure-time sport participation.

It is remarkable that almost no gender differences occur among the sampleof physical education students. In the overall population, males are not onlymore likely to take active part in leisure-time sport, they are alsoparticipating in sport to a higher and more diverse extent (Pauwels &Scheerder, 2004; Scheerder & Pauwels, 2002; Steens et al., 2005). Except forthe average level of sport participation, this is not the case with the physicaleducation students. Thus, students in physical education represent a veryhomogenous sport group with very high scores and rates for activeparticipation in leisure-time sport.

In spite of the non-representative character of the sample in the presentstudy, some advantages are offered by selecting first-year university studentsin physical education. First, at each time interval, almost all individuals ofthe observed population participated in the study, resulting in at least 87%response-ratios which can be considered as highly satisfying (see Table 1).Second, as described before, physical education students represent a group ofsport participants with an intensive and diverse pattern of sport participa-tion. This allows for detecting a variegated spectrum of sport participationtastes and styles. Third, students in physical education can be considered tobe both pioneers and trend-setters in the area of active sport participation.

Table 2. Participation Data in Club-organised and Non-Organised Sports Among 17�/20Year-old Physical Education Students in Flanders (1998)/99 Subgroup), in Percentage of

Population

Males Females Sign.a

Participation in Leisure-time Sport 100% 100% NSAverage Number of Sports Practised (Diversity) 4.6 (9/3.2) 4.1 (9/2.6) NSParticipation in Club-organised Sport 92.7% 89.3% NSAverage Number of Club-organisedSports Practised (Diversity)

1.5 (9/1.0) 1.3 (9/0.8) NS

Participation in Non-organised Sport 91.5% 89.3% NSParticipation in Organised�/Non-organised Sport 84.1% 79.1% NSAverage Level of Sport Participation (Hrs, Min) 8,44 (9/5,22) 6,48 (9/3,54) ***

Notes: aNS�/Not Significant; ***�/p B/.001.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

These are the individuals who are most involved and likely ‘‘opinionleaders’’ in the physical activity markets*/highly active ‘‘sport specialists’’,as one could term them. In this way, our sample of physical educationstudents highly corresponds to what Rogers (1983) has described as thegroup of innovators.2 From this, it should be mentioned that physicalstudents are a convenience sample with some controls. As opposed to thelimitation of overall representation, it is assumed that changes in the generalsport participation pattern can be anticipated by looking at physicaleducation students’ sport participation habits and preferences.

Instrumentation

A standardised questionnaire was used to collect information on participa-tion in leisure-time sport activities and the socio-cultural background of thefamilies (Scheerder, 2003; Vanreusel, 1985). The respondents’ pattern ofsport participation was recorded in a retrospective way, covering the yearbefore the start of physical education studies. Participation rates of differentsports were registered. Tests of reliability and objectivity of the question-naire were carried out (Scheerder, 2003; Van Breedam, 2001; Vanreusel,1985). In order to enhance the comparative analysis, methods andprocedures were kept similar during the entire period of investigation.

Operationalisation

In this study active sport participation is defined as the participation inleisure-time sport during the year prior to the investigation. As aconsequence, sport participation during curricular physical education isexcluded. Club-organised as well as non-organised sport activities areincluded. Organised sport takes place in a club context and includescompetitive as well as recreational physical activities. Non-organised sportcan take place together with friends, family, in a youth association, orindividually. The scores for sport participation refer to the amount of timespent on leisure-time sport over a one-year period. More precisely, in orderto be identified as a sport participant one should be actively involved in oneor more sport activities for at least ten minutes per week considered over awhole year, disregarding physical education sport practices.

Statistical analysis procedure

In order to explore underlying dimensions of sport participation at each timeinterval, a multidimensional scaling technique based upon factor loadings isconducted, called Principal Components Analysis (PCA). PCA is a datareduction technique that converts a large number of interrelated items into amore simple form by making use of a limited set of components*/orpatterns of relationships. More precisely, PCA has been used in this study toidentify a number of different styles of leisure-time sport participation. Itprovides a general idea, so to speak, of how sport activities and preferences


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

are structured among our respondents. In short, PCA gives an empiricalsummary of the data by representing unifying constructs, which on their partcharacterise responses to related groups of variables (De Heus et al., 1997;Kline, 1994). Each component consists of a cluster of highly correlatingitems. To the respondents, these items have something in common on acontent level: they seem to be directed toward the same underlyingconstruct. Examination of the content of inter-correlated items shouldenable the researcher to determine which construct is referred to. Whendoing this, the items with the highest component loading*/the items thatcorrelate most highly with all other items and the component*/are mostdecisive for the interpretation of the construct (Kline, 1994). It is suggestedthat by using an orthogonal rotation (Varimax) the components aresimplified by the maximising of the variance of the loadings withincomponents, across variables. The spread in loadings is maximised andinterpreting a component becomes easier because it is obvious whichvariables correlate with it (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). In this study,Varimax rotation is employed using SAS procedures (SAS, 1990). Aminimum eigenvalue of 1.0 is used as a criterion for the number ofcomponents to be extracted. Along with this criterion, the varianceaccounted for with regard to each component amounts to five% at least.

Results

Sport participation preferences, 1970s�/1990s

All of the respondents indicated that they had participated in leisure-timesport during the year prior to the investigation. Over the years ofobservation, soccer and volleyball are the most popular sport activitiesplayed in a club-organised context, among male and female physicaleducation students respectively (Tables 3 and 4). Only in 1982, femaleswere more likely to participate in gymnastics than in volleyball. Amongmales as well as females, the non-organised sport activity with the highestreported rate of participation is recreational swimming (Tables 5 and 6).

The participation preferences indicated in Table 3 through 6 are verysimilar to those in the Flemish population (Scheerder & Pauwels, 2002;Scheerder et al., 2002a). However, the highest rates of active sportinvolvement are reported among the physical education students. Again,this indicates that the sample in this study shows a highly intense andvariegated pattern of sport participation.

The participation figures in Table 3 through 6 also indicate that thenumber of sports practised has been on the rise during the last three decades.Especially during the 1990s, participation rates of keep-fit-oriented physicalactivities like aerobics, jogging and fitness at the one hand, and participationrates of outdoor leisure activities such as mountain-biking, windsurfing,skiing and snowboarding at the other, have increased. Of course, this waspossible because the amount of sports offered by governmental as wellas private suppliers has largely expanded in the last decades (Taks, 2000).


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

Table 3. Most Popular Club-organised Sports Among 17�/20 Year-old Male PhysicalEducation Students in Flanders, 1970s�/1990s, in Percentage of Population

1972 1977 1982 1988/93 1998/99

Soccer 41.7 34.5 33.3 36.1 46.3Tennis 5.3 11.9 11.7 15.1 12.2Volleyball 12.8 20.8 18.9 12.6 9.8Basketball 7.5 6.5 8.1 8.4 9.1Track & Field 8.6 8.9 13.5 10.1 7.3Swimming 2.1 7.1 6.3 4.7 6.1Table Tennis 5.3 3.0 4.5 3.8 4.3Fitness 3.7Gymnastics 9.1 10.7 11.7 5.9 3.7Badminton 0.1 0.6 2.7 3.4 3.0Judo 5.3 4.8 3.6 3.7 3.0Karate 2.4Handball 1.6 2.4 2.7 3.7 1.8Indoor Soccer 1.8Cycling 1.2Indoor Climbing 1.2Jogging 1.2Squash Racquets 1.7 1.2

Table 4. Most Popular Club-organised Sports Among 17�/20 Year-old Female PhysicalEducation Students in Flanders, 1970s�/1990s, in Percentage of Population

1976 1982 1988/93 1998/99

Volleyball 40.8 23.8 35.2 25.5Gymnastics 37.8 38.1 18.2 14.1Tennis 14.3 11.1 13.6 13.4Track & Field 10.2 12.7 8.0 11.4Fitness 9.4Soccer 1.6 1.1 8.7Swimming 10.2 4.8 8.0 7.4Aerobics 6.7Ballet 6.7Basketball 7.1 9.5 5.7 6.0Jazz Dance 5.4Horse-riding 4.7Modern Dancea (3.1) (11.1) (13.6) 3.4Jogging 1.1 2.7Handball 4.8 3.4 2.0Jujitsu 2.0Rope-skipping 2.0Surfing 3.2 1.1 2.0Tumbling 2.0

Notes: a Before 1998/99 ‘Modern Dance’ consisted of different dance activities, such as jazzdance, ballet, aerobics, . . .


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

Table 5. Most Popular Non-organised Sports Among 17�/20 Year-old Male PhysicalEducation Students in Flanders, 1970s�/1990s, in Percentage of Population

1972 1977 1982 1988/93 1998/99

Swimming 45.5 41.1 33.3 48.7 43.3Soccer 34.2 29.6 26.2 33.6 39.0Tennis 21.9 37.5 31.6 41.2 34.8Table Tennis 32.6 37.2 29.8 39.7 31.1Jogging 4.2 25.6Fitness 23.8Basketball 12.8 10.7 8.1 21.8 22.0Volleyball 25.1 16.1 10.8 21.8 18.3Badminton 15.0 24.4 16.2 18.5 12.2Skiing 1.1 8.9 9.0 5.9 11.0Squash Racquets 8.4 9.8Track & Field 26.2 29.8 22.5 21.0 7.9Surfing 1.2 6.3 7.6 7.9Mountain-biking 7.3Indoor Climbing 6.7Cycle-touring 4.3 5.4 8.1 7.1 6.7

Table 6. Most Popular Non-organised Sports Among 17�/20 Year-old Female PhysicalEducation Students in Flanders, 1970s�/1990s, in Percentage of Population

1976 1982 1988/93 1998/99

Swimming 55.1 36.5 47.7 34.9Jogging 1.6 4.5 24.8Tennis 35.7 29.9 27.3 24.2Volleyball 21.4 12.7 17.0 22.8Skiing 10.2 9.5 21.6 21.5Fitness 18.1Table Tennis 43.9 15.9 21.6 12.8Soccer 4.1 7.9 8.0 11.4Badminton 30.6 17.5 17.0 10.7Basketball 8.2 11.1 10.2 9.4Indoor Climbing 9.4Surfing 9.5 11.4 8.7Squash Racquets 1.6 5.7 7.4Gymnastics 10.2 15.9 6.8 6.0Track & Field 21.4 27.0 29.5 6.0Aerobics 6.0Snowboarding 6.0Modern Dancea (4.1) (4.3) (2.3) 0.2

Notes: a Before 1998/99 ‘Modern Dance’ consisted of different dance activities, such as jazzdance, ballet, aerobics, . . .


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

It is also remarkable that most of the sports are more often practisedin an informal organisational context rather than in a club-organised setting.This is an indication for the ongoing popularity of the less competi-tion-oriented and rather fun-focused forms of sport participation due tosocietal processes such as individualisation, pluralisation, and commercia-lisation.

Sport participation styles, 1970s�/1990s

In all sub-groups, the initial number of sport activities can be reduced to aminimum of two and a maximum of six basic styles of sport participation.The total variance accounted for (VAF) fluctuates between 27.1 and 36.5%for the males and between 28.9 and 44.7 for the females, which areacceptable variance measures (De Heus et al., 1997; Kline, 1994).

With regard to the male physical education students, the style analysis iscarried out upon the 1972 through 1998/99 time intervals, covering a periodof more than 25 years. A visual overview of the evolution in the male sportparticipation styles is represented in Figure 1.

For the male 1972 sub-group, at the start of the Sport for All period, theactivity pattern shows two distinctive participation styles, called ‘‘competi-tive/traditional sport activities’’ and ‘‘non-competitive/traditional sportactivities’’ (Table 7). The competitive/traditional sport style includes classicball games such as soccer, basketball and volleyball. Together with the othersports in this style, these activities are mainly part of the physical educationcurriculum at school since the late 1960s.3 As opposed to the competitive/traditional mode, the non-competitive/traditional sport style consists ofactivities not belonging to the standard repertory of sports (at school), atleast not in the early 1970s. Physical activities in this style, like tennis,badminton and judo, indicate a more leisure-oriented style of sportparticipation.

The competitive/traditional sport style is replicated in the 1977 sub-groupof males and therefore seems to be stable (Table 8). Next to the competitive/traditional style, an ostentatiously recreational sport style appears in themid-1970s. This participation style includes leisure-time activities such asmountaineering, sailing, skiing and tennis. It is clear that this mode of sportparticipation requires a certain investment of free time and equipment. As aconsequence, the recreational sport style, which appeared in an embryonicform in the 1972 sub-group, is more clearly profiled in 1977. Windsurfing,however, enters the playground and shows up as a different, somewhat one-sided sport style.

For the 1982 sub-group of males, three basic types of sport participationcan be distinguished (Table 9). Again, the competitive/traditional sport styleis replicated and mainly consists of club-organised sports like volleyball,basketball, handball and gymnastics. On the other hand, the recreationalsport style bifurcates into two different types of participation. The first oneis called local recreational sport style . Swimming, cycle-touring, table tennisand ice-skating belong to this participation style, which features leisure sport


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

activities that can be practised in the neighbourhood and require a relativelylow leisure-time investment on the part of the participant. Skiing, sailing andwindsurfing cluster together and make up the ostentatiously recreationalsport style . This type of recreational sport participation is characterisedrather by a high investment of leisure-time.

COMPETITIVE/TRADITIONAL

NON-COMPETITIVE/TRADITIONAL

Early 1970s

Mid 1970s COMPETITIVE/TRADITIONAL




Early 1980s

Late 198 0s /Early 1990s

Late 1990s

LOCAL RECREATIONAL

CONSUMPTIVE LOCAL

RECREATIONAL

LOCAL RECREATIONAL

OSTENTATIOUSLY RECREATIONAL


INTENSIFIED OSTENTATIOUSLY RECREATIONAL


windsurfing

joggingjudo

fitness

Figure 1. Evolution in the Sport Participation Styles of Male Physical Education Students inFlanders, 1972�/1999


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

In the male 1988/93 sub-group, the competitive/traditional sport style stillexists consisting of club sports like basketball, gymnastics, volleyball andtrack & field (Table 10). At the end of the 1980s and at the beginning of the1990s, the bifurcation of the recreational sport style also seems to continue.Table tennis, tennis and badminton belong to the local recreational sportstyle , while the ostentatiously recreational sport style consists of wind-surfing, squash racquets and skiing. Clearly, jogging and judo distinguishthemselves from the previous participation styles and operate as twodifferently isolated, one-sided types of sport participation.

Table 7. PCA Loadings of Sport Participation for the Male 1972 Sub-group(after Vanreusel, 1985)

Sport Disciplines C1 C2 C3 C4

Component 1: Competitive/traditionalSoccer �/0.534 �/0.173 0.116 0.252Volleyball �/0.726 �/0.061 �/0.088 0.076Basketball �/0.644 �/0.040 0.044 �/0.147Handball �/0.475 �/0.181 �/0.278 �/0.007Swimming �/0.669 0.131 �/0.025 0.049Track & Field �/0.517 �/0.211 �/0.261 �/0.038Gymnastics �/0.528 0.043 0.102 0.212Table Tennis �/0.495 �/0.121 0.335 �/0.377

Component 2: Non-competitive/traditionalBadminton �/0.375 0.304 �/0.078 0.090Tennis �/0.237 0.531 0.218 �/0.342

Judo �/0.024 0.536 0.418 0.141Other Martial Arts 0.093 0.412 �/0.560 �/0.040Jogging 0.092 0.323 �/0.451 �/0.398

Other Ball Games �/0.042 0.428 �/0.108 0.389

Component 3Cycle-touring �/0.057 0.007 0.487 �/0.257

Sailing 0.004 �/0.147 0.019 �/0.334

Component 4

Skiing �/0.019 �/0.112 0.042 0.254Water-skiing 0.020 0.104 0.219 0.421

Dropped VariablesHorse-riding �/0.154 0.247 0.088 �/0.174Yoga �/0.010 0.178 �/0.106 0.084Mountaineering 0.193 �/0.078 �/0.000 �/0.052Dance 0.199 0.006 0.008 0.033Other Water Sports �/0.098 �/0.232 �/0.153 0.043

Variance Accounted For (VAF) 0.116 0.056 0.053 0.046Total VAF 0.271Minimum eigenvalue of each component is at least 1.0


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

Finally, in the male 1998/99 sub-group, four basic styles of sportparticipation can be distinguished (Table 11). Again, a competitive/tradi-tional sport style re-appears comprising competitive club-organisedsport activities such as volleyball, handball, gymnastics and basketball.



Component 1: Competitive/traditionalSoccer �/0.469 �/0.007 0.202 0.353Volleyball �/0.524 �/0.081 0.497 �/0.036Basketball �/0.543 �/0.116 0.063 0.245Handball �/0.559 �/0.052 �/0.196 �/0.007Swimming �/0.432 0.201 0.037 �/0.199Track & Field �/0.513 0.025 0.238 �/0.167Gymnastics �/0.496 0.036 �/0.035 �/0.480Badminton �/0.389 �/0.177 �/0.157 0.133Table Tennis �/0.591 0.095 �/0.426 0.139

Component 2: Ostentatiously RecreationalRowing 0.107 0.663 0.305 �/0.072Mountaineering �/0.069 0.591 0.204 �/0.288Skiing 0.016 0.587 �/0.163 �/0.135Sailing 0.223 0.516 �/0.119 0.393

Tennis �/0.265 0.434 �/0.299 0.317

Component 3Judo 0.188 �/0.095 �/0.355 �/0.326

Other Water Sports �/0.113 �/0.048 �/0.273 �/0.013Other Sports 0.136 �/0.041 �/0.466 �/0.354Water-skiing �/0.121 0.067 �/0.265 0.004

Component 4Other Martial Arts �/0.005 �/0.123 0.288 �/0.235

Component 5Horse-riding �/0.093 0.046 0.124 0.233Cycle-touring �/0.227 �/0.009 �/0.139 0.294

Component 6Windsurfing �/0.140 0.138 0.035 �/0.300

Dropped VariablesKrachtball 0.008 �/0.067 0.234 0.080Other Ball Games 0.289 0.085 �/0.081 �/0.203



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

The dichotomy of the recreational sport style continues to keep upright. Atthe end of the 1990’s, however, this style seems to be intensified since twoclearly profiled and well-represented clusters can be detected. Therefore, theprevious recreational participation styles are redefined as consumptive localrecreational sport style and as intensified ostentatiously recreational sportstyle . The first recreational style includes physical activities like tennis,jogging and soccer, and the second consists of sports such as skiing,windsurfing and gliding. A fourth sport mode is made up by fitness, whichdistinctively separates itself from the traditional and recreational styles.



Component 1: Competitive/traditionalSoccer 0.421 0.179 0.200 0.144Volleyball 0.678 �/0.296 �/0.129 �/0.070Basketball 0.683 �/0.305 �/0.182 0.048Handball 0.538 �/0.148 �/0.318 �/0.071Track & Field 0.452 �/0.048 0.055 �/0.363Gymnastics 0.523 �/0.269 0.142 �/0.076

Component 2: Ostentatiously RecreationalWindsurfing �/0.453 �/0.631 �/0.053 �/0.254Sailing �/0.432 �/0.622 �/0.366 �/0.045Skiing �/0.232 �/0.486 0.404 0.242Other Water Sports �/0.355 �/0.457 �/0.147 0.455

Horse-riding �/0.313 �/0.143 �/0.247 �/0.314

Component 3: Local Recreational

Ice-skating �/0.007 �/0.413 0.685 �/0.136Cycle-touring �/0.136 �/0.052 0.666 �/0.182Swimming 0.370 �/0.330 0.011 0.024Table Tennis 0.373 �/0.274 0.127 0.234

Component 4Badminton 0.005 �/0.080 0.019 0.519

Other Ball Games 0.208 �/0.048 0.046 0.421

Dropped Variables

Tennis 0.273 �/0.199 0.128 �/0.148Judo �/0.074 0.215 0.212 �/0.209Other Martial Arts 0.007 0.062 �/0.060 �/0.131Air Sports �/0.015 0.059 0.059 0.118Other Sports 0.011 �/0.282 �/0.130 �/0.343



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

With regard to the female physical education students, the time trendanalysis covers the period from the mid-1970s to the late 1990s. A visualoverview of the evolution in the female sport participation styles is presentedin Figure 2.

In the 1976 sub-group, three sport participation styles can be distin-guished (Table 12). As is the case with their male counterparts, acompetitive/traditional sport style can be identified for the femalescomprising ball games like basketball and handball and competitive sportslike track & field and gymnastics, and contrasts with a recreational sportstyle , including, among others, activities such as tennis, table tennis, skiingand water-skiing. Between these styles, a heterogeneous sport style appearsconsisting of a range of sport activities without a clear common ground.Team sports as well as individual sports, and traditional as well as non-traditional sports, are grouped in this cluster.

A more differentiated pattern of sport participation styles shows up for thefemale students at the beginning of the 1980s (Table 13). Because the

Table 10. PCA Loadings of Sport Participation for the Male 1988/93 Sub-group(after Van de Gaer, 1997)


Component 1: Competitive/traditionalBasketball 0.782 0.037 0.301 �/0.008Gymnastics 0.777 �/0.074 0.055 0.103Volleyball 0.725 0.003 0.156 �/0.122Track & Field 0.672 �/0.040 0.049 �/0.172Handball 0.668 �/0.217 0.069 0.052Soccer 0.595 0.073 0.237 �/0.148Swimming 0.487 0.011 0.066 0.380

Component 2: Local Recreational

Badminton 0.648 0.139 �/0.264 0.114Table Tennis 0.432 0.198 �/0.514 �/0.266Tennis 0.152 0.698 �/0.308 0.099

Component 3: Ostentatiously RecreationalWindsurfing �/0.164 0.607 0.386 �/0.161Squash Racquets 0.062 0.490 �/0.255 0.446Skiing �/0.161 0.382 0.611 0.245

Component 4

Jogging 0.076 �/0.227 �/0.173 0.586

Component 5

Judo 0.075 0.208 �/0.180 �/0.455



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

heterogeneous sport style re-appears in the female 1982 sub-group, this styleseems to be typical for the sport participation pattern of females. Likewindsurfing in the male 1977 sub-group and jogging and judo in the male1988/93 sub-group, dancing emerges as an exclusive activity in the female1982 sport participation pattern. The competitive/traditional sport style alsoshows up again, comprising activities such as swimming, basketball andhandball. On the other hand, the activities in the recreational style have a

Table 11. PCA Loadings of Sport Participation for the Male 1998/99 Sub-group


Component 1: Competitive/traditional

Volleyball 0.347 0.141 0.045 0.030Basketball 0.317 0.008 �/0.077 �/0.100Handball 0.337 0.088 �/0.161 �/0.099Swimming 0.276 0.114 0.000 �/0.019Track & Field 0.194 0.074 �/0.201 �/0.176Gymnastics 0.329 0.027 �/0.099 �/0.212Squash Racquets 0.259 �/0.082 0.112 0.214

Badminton 0.219 �/0.229 0.243 �/0.091Rugby 0.188 �/0.124 0.102 �/0.073

Component 2: Consumptive Local RecreationalTennis 0.197 �/0.139 0.092 �/0.135Jogging 0.182 �/0.169 0.179 0.218

Table Tennis 0.210 �/0.270 0.272 �/0.054Soccer 0.092 �/0.219 0.131 �/0.196

Component 3Fitness 0.161 0.227 �/0.341 0.321Triathlon 0.134 0.232 �/0.381 0.158

Component 4: Intensified Ostentatiously RecreationalIndoor Climbing 0.237 �/0.073 0.092 0.427Gliding �/0.028 �/0.070 0.047 0.299

Windsurfing 0.125 �/0.214 0.175 0.224Skiing �/0.072 �/0.149 0.108 0.286

Dropped VariablesMartial Arts 0.028 �/0.067 0.068 0.110Cycle-touring �/0.038 �/0.030 �/0.040 �/0.023Snowboarding �/0.034 �/0.018 �/0.017 �/0.030Horse-riding �/0.035 �/0.100 0.060 0.057Mountain-biking 0.017 0.004 0.028 0.039Orienteering �/0.055 0.029 �/0.047 0.009Sailing 0.131 0.010 �/0.032 �/0.255



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

more outspoken character and therefore are redefined as the ostentatiouslyrecreational sport style , being represented by sports activities such as tennis,skiing and windsurfing.

Parallel to the evolution of sport participation styles among the male sub-groups during the 1980s, the styles constituted among the female 1982 sub-group re-appear among the female 1988/93 sub-group (Table 14). Thus,again the pattern of the competitive/traditional sport style versus theostentatiously recreational sport style shows up. The first mode consists ofclub-organised and competitive sports like basketball, track and field andgymnastics; the second style is represented by tennis, skiing, windsurfing andjogging. The heterogeneous sport style , however, is only slightly representedby dancing and squash racquets. Judo seems to constitute a distinct, one-dimensional sport participation style.


RECREATIONALMid 1970s




Early 1980s

Late 1980s /Early 1990s

Late 1990s BROADLY HETEROGENEOUS

HETEROGENEOUS


INTENSIFIEDLOCAL

RECREATIONAL


dance

judo

HETEROGENEOUS

HETEROGENEOUS

Figure 2. Evolution in the Sport Participation Styles of Female Physical Education Students inFlanders, 1976�/1999


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

Finally, for the female 1998/99 time interval, three main sport participa-tion styles can be traced (Table 15). The competitive/traditional sport stylepersists, comprising sport activities like badminton, basketball and swim-ming. The recreational sport style has developed into an intensified localrecreational sport style , including physical activities such as jogging,mountain-biking and squash racquets. The trend of intensification anddiversification can also be seen in the third style, the broadly heterogeneoussport style , since numerous sport activities with different organisational andformal characteristics are grouped into this hybrid sport participation cluster.

Table 12. PCA Loadings of Sport Participation for the Female 1976 Sub-group(after Vanreusel, 1985)


Component 1: Competitive/traditionalTrack & Field �/0.607 0.380 �/0.073 0.131Gymnastics �/0.364 0.121 �/0.145 0.256Basketball �/0.446 0.516 0.191 �/0.002Badminton �/0.480 0.166 �/0.207 �/0.175Soccer �/0.347 0.180 0.468 �/0.461Handball �/0.231 0.421 0.095 �/0.020

Component 2: HeterogeneousJudo 0.052 0.364 �/0.214 �/0.100Other Water Sports 0.187 0.291 �/0.025 0.164

Component 3: Heterogeneous

Volleyball �/0.581 �/0.020 �/0.015 �/0.223Dance �/0.138 �/0.193 0.542 �/0.051Other Martial Arts �/0.420 �/0.079 0.512 0.344

Component 4: RecreationalTable Tennis �/0.541 �/0.524 �/0.203 0.161Skiing �/0.245 �/0.503 0.375 �/0.005Tennis �/0.478 �/0.418 0.051 �/0.101Horse-riding �/0.342 �/0.139 �/0.345 0.287Water-skiing �/0.165 �/0.294 �/0.330 �/0.048Ice-skating �/0.412 0.008 �/0.492 �/0.184

Component 5

Other Sports �/0.227 0.181 �/0.005 0.629Sailing �/0.123 0.199 0.274 0.347

Component 6

Cycle-touring �/0.125 0.093 0.068 �/0.462Swimming �/0.301 0.076 �/0.140 �/0.252



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

Discussion

It was the aim of this study to contribute to research on sport participationstyles from a time trend perspective. The results from this study confirm thatthe sport participation pattern of a group can be reduced into basic types ofparticipation (Scheerder et al., 2004; Vanreusel, 1990). Styles of sportparticipation are distinguished and defined for each of the observed sub-groups. Moreover, the sport participation styles turned out to be stablepatterns of participation, since the basic styles have been replicated duringthe whole period of observation. Within each participation style, the sportactivities tend to be similar, whereas activities in other styles can beconsidered as contrasting or complementary physical activities. The features

Table 13. PCA Loadings of Sport Participation for the Female 1982 Sub-group(after Vanreusel, 1985)


Component 1: Competitive/traditionalSwimming 0.698 �/0.043 �/0.143 �/0.059Basketball 0.643 0.304 �/0.009 �/0.475

Handball 0.594 0.032 0.022 �/0.331Track & Field 0.542 0.195 0.369 0.012Gymnastics 0.517 0.370 �/0.311 0.021Volleyball 0.495 0.384 0.195 0.410

Component 2Dance 0.120 0.553 0.158 �/0.005

Component 3: Ostentatiously RecreationalTennis 0.464 �/0.263 �/0.099 0.321

Skiing 0.344 �/0.177 0.081 0.597Windsurfing 0.406 �/0.583 0.150 �/0.004Table Tennis 0.371 �/0.419 �/0.405 0.299

Component 4: HeterogeneousJudo 0.177 �/0.310 �/0.456 �/0.524Badminton 0.206 �/0.338 0.536 �/0.042Soccer 0.121 �/0.391 0.575 �/0.308

Component 5: Ostentatiously Recreational

Horse-riding �/0.078 �/0.112 �/0.272 0.051Ski Cross-country 0.162 �/0.098 �/0.360 �/0.002Sailing 0.087 0.141 �/0.201 0.027

Dropped VariablesOther Sports 0.021 0.185 0.053 0.032



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

which each sport participation style has in common, however, can beinterpreted in different ways. Participants of sport activities belonging to thesame cluster interact in similar behavioural settings and in similar organisa-tional structures. In this way, team sports and club-organised sport activitiesin the competitive/traditional sport style contrast with the leisure-orientedphysical activities in the recreational sport style. According to Vanreusel(1990), it is remarkable that the competitive/traditional sport participationstyle mainly consists of ‘‘product sports’’ or zero-sum physical activities,which emphasise a clear outcome, e.g. winning or loosing. On the contrary,the recreational sport style primarily features ‘‘process sports’’ or non-zero-sum physical activities. In this kind of sport, the outcome is of minorimportance, while the core idea is the participation and the performance initself.

The similarity between physical activities in the same sport style refers tothe meaning of each activity, rather than to its behavioural aspects.Therefore, attitudes, needs or satisfactions would be similar within thesame sport style and complementing or contrasting between different sport

Table 14. PCA Loadings of Sport Participation for the Female 1988/93 Sub-group(after Van de Gaer, 1997)


Component 1: Competitive/traditionalBasketball 0.785 �/0.220 0.157 �/0.155Track & Field 0.665 �/0.270 0.065 �/0.149Badminton 0.622 0.099 0.174 0.329Swimming 0.610 0.287 �/0.015 �/0.264Gymnastics 0.607 �/0.230 0.282 �/0.415Volleyball 0.582 0.220 0.032 0.186Handball 0.520 �/0.283 �/0.474 �/0.095Soccer 0.503 0.161 �/0.149 0.505Table Tennis 0.461 0.176 0.336 0.420

Component 2: Ostentatiously RecreationalTennis 0.238 0.727 0.077 �/0.112Skiing 0.151 0.474 �/0.360 �/0.315Windsurfing 0.273 0.409 0.138 0.174Jogging �/0.090 0.383 �/0.045 0.124

Component 3: HeterogeneousDance 0.051 0.156 0.644 �/0.407Squash Racquets �/0.102 �/0.384 0.414 0.239

Component 4Judo 0.075 �/0.012 �/0.516 0.070



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

styles. Yet, in order to test these interpretations, more research is neededwhich includes additionally socio-cultural and psychographic profile vari-ables of individuals in different styles (Scheerder et al., 2004).

The hypothesis that an evolution of sport participation styles would occurduring the 1972/1976�/1999 period is confirmed. Two main developmentsburgeoned in this period of time. They can be interpreted as contemporaryproducts resulting from a process of rationalisation and differentiation. First,during the 1970’s, a clear dichotomy between a traditional sport culture anda non-traditional sport culture was beginning to take shape. In these patternsof sport participation, different values and norms dominate. The traditional

Table 15. PCA Loadings of Sport Participation for the Female 1998/99 Sub-group


Component 1: Competitive/traditional

Badminton 0.343 0.130 0.135 0.046Table Tennis 0.293 �/0.050 0.273 �/0.111Swimming 0.256 0.108 0.066 0.034Basketball 0.256 �/0.048 �/0.056 0.149Volleyball 0.241 0.102 0.008 0.009Tennis 0.186 �/0.016 0.163 �/0.068

Component 2: Intensified Local RecreationalSquash Racquets 0.199 0.278 0.101 �/0.040Mountain-biking 0.044 0.227 �/0.211 0.106Soccer 0.158 0.211 0.045 0.090Jogging 0.032 0.174 0.061 0.073

Component 3: Broadly HeterogeneousTrack & Field �/0.042 �/0.043 0.271 0.061Indoor Climbing 0.077 0.082 0.186 0.186Cycle-touring 0.063 �/0.012 0.170 �/0.100Snowboarding 0.047 0.030 0.164 0.028

Component 4: Broadly Heterogeneous

Handball 0.016 0.028 �/0.058 0.498Skiing �/0.002 �/0.060 0.057 0.374Windsurfing 0.124 0.028 0.138 0.299

Fitness 0.025 0.023 0.100 0.276

Dropped Variables

Gymnastics 0.056 �/0.032 0.032 0.167Dance �/0.107 �/0.041 �/0.081 0.035Martial Arts �/0.021 �/0.038 0.028 0.048Horse-riding �/0.070 0.002 �/0.133 0.152Orienteering �/0.020 �/0.018 0.021 �/0.122



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

sport culture is characterised, among others, by competition, records,hierarchy and exclusion, while the non-traditional sport represents oppositeideological values, such as participation, pleasure, togetherness and inclu-sion. Of course, non-traditional sport participation motives, such asadventure, fun, fitness and recreation were already present before the1970s, but, at that time, they only played a role within the traditional sport.The extension of sport participation styles from a merely traditional to arecreational pattern can be explained by the Sport for All policy, which wasstarted up in the mid-1970s. In fact, the Sport for All movement can beunderstood as a social movement that undoubtedly facilitated and supportedthe development of a leisure-oriented sport style (Vanreusel et al, 2002).

In a second phase, from the 1980s onwards, processes of intensificationand diversification, along with processes of commercialisation and commo-dification, further developed the traditional and recreational sport participa-tion cultures into more distinctive styles of active sport involvement. Sportparticipation styles began to be consumed in a more frequent and intensiveway, and therefore are described as ‘‘intensified’’. In spite of the strongcounter-movement represented by the Sport for All, nevertheless, thetraditional sport participation style did not lose its original characteristicsat all. A move away from the competitive/traditional sport participationmodel cannot be traced in this particular sample. Thus, the traditional sportstyle still persists but no longer overrules non-traditional sporting values andnorms. As a consequence, sport is no longer only club-organised andperformance oriented in its nature, but it is also a physical activity that isoffered by different agencies on different markets and with differentorganisational characteristics, and which is practised by different profilesof participants, confirming the societal change towards more differentiationand diversification. In contrast to the traditional sport participation style,which is still characterised by a uniform and isolated pattern of participa-tion, the recreational sport participation style has lost its one-dimensionalfeature and has developed into different types of recreational participation.The picture of a rather narrow non-traditional sporting culture has beenenlarged to a wider scale of recreational physical activities (Renson, 1998).Mainly, the growing impact of a leisure-oriented sport behaviour, theemergence of a fun morality in sports and the strong emphasis on individualfitness and health have undeniably contributed to these changes (Beckers,1988; Bette, 1989; Glassner, 1989; Loret, 1995). Also broader trends insociety, like the impact of individualisation, emancipation, free-booting andglobalisation, may be seen as contributing factors to the crystallisation of therecreational sport participation style (Crum, 1993).

Our findings are in line with Crum (1991) who emphasised that themovement-cultural landscape, as he terms it, has undergone processes of‘‘sportification’’ and ‘‘de-sportification’’, indicating that ‘‘sport’’ itselfhas developed from a uniform into a multiform domain within society.In addition, authors like Digel (1990), Heinemann (1989) and Loret(1995) acknowledge that post-modern values such as quality of life, self-determination and self-realisation play an increasing role in the ongoing


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

differentiation of sport participation*/and, we should add, of sportparticipation styles.

In summary, the present paper has dealt with the issue of changes in sportparticipation styles over the last three decades. So far, this issue has onlypartially been covered in empirical studies. The results, however, indicatethat participation style analysis may offer a significant contribution to theresearch on sport participation as is the case with studies in leisureparticipation. The potential consequences of this technique for policiespromoting sport and active recreation are considerable. Nevertheless, someconcluding remarks should be drawn.

First, because of the homogeneous composition of the samples used in thisstudy as regards socio-demographic characteristics such as age and socialstatus, no social stratification patterns have been analysed with respect to thedifferent sport participation styles. Moreover, future research is needed toexamine which kind of background variables correlate with specific styles ofsport participation. Since the data show that stable participation styles canbe distinguished, more attention must be paid to the roles which age, sex andsocial class location, among others, play with regard to the differentiation ofsport participation styles.

Second, more advanced research, both theoretical and empirical, is neededto explore the relationship between life styles and sport styles. It is assumedthat sport participation styles correspond to general life styles (Brettschnei-der, 1992; Brettschneider & Brautigam, 1990). Just as clothing, spending oftime, eating patterns, or other forms of social and cultural participation, theactive involvement in leisure-time sport can be considered as an expressionof individual and social preferences and tastes. Insight into such questions,however, largely depends on the availability of time trend data from follow-up studies.

Notes

1. From the mid-1970s onwards, female students could also officially participate in physical

education university classes at the Katholieke Universiteit van Leuven. That is why

females are not represented in the 1972 subgroup.2. According to Rogers (1983), in the process of product diffusion groups of consumers can

be distinguished by means of the rapidity that new products or services are accepted.

Rogers identified five categories of consumers: (i) innovators (2,5%); (ii) early adaptors(13,5%); (iii) early majority (34%); (iv) late majority (34%); and (v) laggards (16%).

3. The late 1960s introduced a rebellious period of time, even in terms of physical education

at school. In 1968 the Swedish gymnastics system which had monopolised school

physical education in Belgium from 1908 onwards, was replaced by sporting activities.The Swedish gymnastics were thrown overboard and opened the door for ball games,

swimming, track & field, and apparatus gymnastics (Ameye & Delheye, 2004). It was the

policy of the physical education programs to promote and program more sport for all and

sport for life policies within their educational intensions. This was a grass roots

revolution typically for the spirit of 1968 which can be described as the ‘‘sportification’’

of physical education (D’hoker & Van Assche, 1994: 93�/96).


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

References

Allen, L. R., & Buchanan, T. (1981). Techniques for comparing leisure classification systems (SIRLS

document) . Waterloo: University of Waterloo.

Ameye, T., & Delheye, P. (2004). ‘Zweedse gymnastiek buiten!’ Een interview met Willy Laporte, Paul

Swinnen en Erik Van Assche over de introductie van sport in de lichamelijke opvoeding [‘Away with

Swedish gymnastics!’ An interview with Willy Laporte, Paul Swinnen and Erik Van Assche about the

introduction of sport into physical education]. Sportimonium , 24 (3), 58�/65.

Beck, U. (1992). Risk society. Towards a new modernity (Theory, Culture & Society) . London: Sage.

Beckers, E. (1988). Korperfassaden und Fitness�/Ideologie. Wiederkehr des Korpers in der Fitness�/

Bewegung? In N. Schulz & H. Allmer (Eds.), Fitness�/Studios. Anspruch und Wirklichkeit

(Brennpunkte der Sportwissenschaft 2 �/ Themanummer) (pp. 153�/175). Koln: Deutsche

Sporthochschule.

Bellah, R. N., Madsen, R., & Sullivan, W. M. (1996). Habits of the heart. Individualism and commitment

in American life . Berkeley, Cal.: University of California.

Bette, K.�/H. (1989). Korperspuren. Zur Semantik und Paradoxie moderner Korperlichkeit . Berlin:

Walter De Gruyter.

Bishop, D. W. (1970). Stability of the factor structure of leisure behaviour. Analysis of four communities.

Journal of Leisure Research , 2 (3), 160�/170.

Brettschneider, W.�/D., & Brautigam, M. (1990). Sport in der Alltagswelt von Jugendlichen . Frechen:

Rittersbach.

Brettschneider, W.�/D. (1992). Adolescents, leisure, sport and lifestyle. In T. Williams, L. Almond, & A.

Sparkes (Eds.), Sport and physical activity. Moving towards excellence (pp. 536�/550). London: E&

F Spon.

Burton, T. (1971). Identification of recreation types through cluster analyses. Society & Leisure. Bulletin

for Sociology of Leisure Education & Culture , 3 (1), 47�/64.

Christenson, P. (1994). Childhood patterns of music uses and preferences. Communication Reports ,

7 (2), 138�/145.

Crum, B. (1991). Over versporting van de samenleving. Reflecties over de bewegingsculturele

ontwikkelingen met het oog op sportbeleid [The sportification of the society. Reflections upon the

movement�/cultural developments with a view to sport policy]. Rijswijk: Ministry for Welfare,

Public Health & Culture.

Crum, B. (1993). The sportification of the society and the internal differentiation of sport. In EASM (Ed.),

Proceedings of the first European congress on sport management (1st EASM Congress; Groningen;

September 1993) (pp. 149�/153). Groningen: European Association of Sport Management.

DaCosta, L.P. & Miragaya, A. (Eds). (2002). Worldwide experiences and trends in Sport for All . Aachen:

Meyer & Meyer Sport.

De Haan, J. & Breedveld, K. (2000). Trends en determinanten in de sport. Eerste resultaten uit het AVO

1999 . [Trends and determinants in sport. First results from the AVO 1999 Survey] (SCP

Werkdocument 68). Den Haag: Sociaal & Cultureel Planbureau.

De Heus, P., Van der Leeden, R. & Gazendam, B. (1997). Toegepaste data�/analyse. Technieken voor

niet�/experimenteel onderzoek in de sociale wetenschappen [Applied data analysis. Techniques for

non�/experimental research]. Utrecht: Lemma.

De Knop, P., De Bosscher, V. & Leblicq, S. (2004). Onderzoek naar het topsportklimaat in Vlaanderen

[Study on the elite sport climate in Flanders]. Brussels: Free University of Brussels/Research Unit

Sport Policy & Management.

De Knop, P., Renson, R., Taks, M. & Vanreusel, B. (2002). Sport voor Allen [Sport for All]. In P. De

Knop, B. Vanreusel & J. Scheerder (Eds.), Sportsociologie. Het spel en de spelers [Sociology of sport.

The game and the players] (pp. 204�/220). Maarssen: Elsevier Gezondheidszorg.

D’hoker, M. & Van Assche, E. (1994). Lichamelijke opvoeding in het katholiek onderwijs. Een lange

weg, een moeilijk parcours [Physical education in the catholic education system. A long way, a hard


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

round]. In M. D’hoker, R. Renson & J. Tolleneer (Eds.), Voor lichaam & geest. Katholieken,

lichamelijke opvoeding en sport in de 19de en 20ste eeuw [In the pay of body and mind. Catholics,

physical education and sport in the 19th and 20th century] (KADOC Studies 17) (pp. 43�/97).

Leuven: Universitaire Pers.

Digel, H. (1990). Die Versportlichung unserer Kultur und deren Folgen fur den Sport. Ein Beitrag zur

Uneigentlichkeit des Sports. In H. Gabler, & U. Gohner (Eds.), Fur einen besseren Sport (pp. 73�/96).

Schorndorf bei Stuttgart: Hofmann.

Digel, H. (1995). Sport in a changing society. Sociological essays (Sport Science Studies 7) . Schorndorf bei

Stuttgart: Karl Hofmann.

Ditton, R. B. (1978). Clustering recreation participation data to identify recreation types (SIRLS

document) . Waterloo: University of Waterloo.

Errais, B., Leblanc, P., Malenfant�/Dauriac, C. & Metoudi, M. (1979). La complementarite des activites

professionelles et sportives en milieu industriel et urbain. In MJSL (Ed.). Sociologie du sport

(Travaux et Recherches en Education Physique et Sport 5) (pp. 83�/93). Paris: Ministere de la

Jeunesse, de Sports & des Loisirs.

Furlong, A. & Cartmel, F. (1997). Young people and social change. Individualization and risk in late

modernity (Sociology & Social Change Series). Buckingham: Open University Press.

Ganzeboom, H.B.G. (1990). Cultural and economic dimensions of lifestyle. In B. Filipoova, S. Glyptis &

W. Tokarski (Eds.), Life styles. Theories, concepts, methods and results of life style research in

international perspective (ISA RC 13; Vol. 2) (pp. 185�/241). Prague: Czechoslovak Academy of

Sciences.

Giddens, A. (1990). The consequences of modernity . Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press.

Glassner, B. (1989). Fitness and the postmodern self. Journal of Health & Social Behavior , 30 (2),

180�/191.

Glorieux, I. & Moens, M. (2002). Hoe vrij is de vrijetijd? Over de symbolische structuren van het

vermaak [How free is leisure? About the symbolic boundaries of amusement]. In M. Elchardus &

I. Glorieux (Eds.), De symbolische samenleving. Een exploratie van de nieuwe sociale en culturele

ruimtes [The symbolic society. An exploration of new social and cultural spaces] (pp. 85�/108).

Tielt: Lannoo.

Gratton, C., & Tice, A. (1994). Trends in sports participation in Britain. 1977�/1987. Leisure Studies ,

13 (1), 49�/66.

Hagele, W. (1997). Hochleistungssport. Trends, Probleme, Losungsversuche. Leistungssport , 27 (1),

58�/62.

Hartmann-Tews, I. (1996). Sport fur alle!? Strukturwandel europaischer Sportsysteme im Vergleich:

Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Frankreich, Grobbritannien (Schriftenreihe des Bundesinstituts fur

Sportwissenschaft 91). Schorndorf bei Stuttgart: Karl Hofmann.

Heinemann, K. (1989). Der ‘nicht�/sportliche’ Sport. In K. Dietrich & K. Heinemann (Eds.), Der nicht�/

sportliche Sport. Beitrage zum Wandel im Sport (Texte, Quellen, Dokumente zur Sportwissenschaft

25) (pp. 11�/28). Schorndorf bei Stuttgart: Hofmann.

Johansson, T., & Miegel, F. (1992). Do the right thing. Lifestyle and identity in contemporary youth

culture . Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International.

Kline, P. (1994). An easy guide to factor analysis . London: Routledge.

Loret, A. (1995). Generation glisse. Dans l’eau, l’air, la neige . . . la revolution du sport des ‘annees fun’

[The glide generation. In the water, the air, the snow . . . the revolution of sport in the fun years]

(Mutations 155�/156). Paris: Autrement.

McCarthy, L. M. (1994). Patterns of Irish sport participation. European Journal for Sport Management ,

1 (2), 68�/90.

McKechnie, G. E. (1974). The psychological structure of leisure. Past behavior. Journal of Leisure

Research , 6 (1), 27�/45.

Moens, M., & Scheerder, J. (2004). Social determinants of sports participation revisited. The role of

socialization and symbolic trajectories. European Journal of Sport & Society , 1 (1), 35�/49.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

Oja, P. & Telama, R. (Eds). (1991). Sport for All (Proceedings of the world congress on Sport for All,

Tampere, 3�/7 June 1990). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Pauwels, G. & Scheerder, J. (2004). Tijd voor vrije tijd? Vrijetijdsparticipatie in Vlaanderen: sport,

cultuur, media, sociale participatie en recreatie [Time over free time? Leisure�/time participation in

Flanders: sport, culture, media, social participation and recreation] (Stativaria 32). Brussels:

Ministry of the Flemish Government/Planning & Statistics Administration.

Peterson, R. A. (1983). Patterns of cultural choice. American Behavioral Scientist , 26 (4), 422�/438.

Peterson, R. A. (1992). Understanding audience segmentation. From elite and mass to omnivore and

univore. Poetics , 21 , 243�/258.

Peterson, R. A. (1997). The rise and fall of highbrow snobbery as a status marker. Poetics , 25 , 75�/92.

Pociello, C. (1979). Pratiques sportives et demandes sociales. In MJSL (Ed.), Sociologie du sport

(Travaux et Recherches en Education Physique et Sport 5) (pp. 31�/48). Paris: Ministere de la

Jeunesse, de Sports & des Loisirs.

Pociello, C. & Andreff, W. (1983). Sports et societe. Approche socio�/culturelle des pratiques (Sport &

Enseignement 49). Paris: Vigot.

Pociello, C. (1995). Les cultures sportives. Pratiques, representations et mythes sportifs (Pratiques

corporelles). Paris: PUF.

Provoost, M. (2000). Het stadion. De architectuur van massasport [The stadium. The architecture of

mass sport]. Rotterdam: Nai.

Renson, R. (1998). Sport for All. New and old forms of movement culture (Paper presented at the 7th

World Congress Sport for All, Barcelona, November 19�/22, 1998).

Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovation . New York, NY: Free Press.

Romsa, G. (1973). A method of deriving outdoor recreational activity packages. Journal of Leisure

Research , 5 (4), 34�/46.

SAS (1990). SAS procedures guide . Release 6.03 edition. Cary, NC: SAS Institute.

Scheerder, J. (2003). Gelijke speelvelden? Sociale gelaagdheid van de vrijetijdssport vanuit een sociaal�/

cultureel veranderingsperspectief [Equal playing fields? Social stratification patterns of leisure�/time

sports participation from a socio�/cultural change perspective]. Leuven: KULeuven/Faculty of

Physical Education & Physiotherapy; unpublished doctoral thesis in physical education.

Scheerder, J., & Breedveld, K. (2004). Incomplete democratisation and signs of individualisation. An

analysis of trends and differences in sports participation in the Low Countries. European Journal of

Sport & Society , 1 (2), 115�/134.

Scheerder, J., Dehaese, J. & Vanreusel, B. (Eds). (2003). Jeugdsport in cijfers. De sportdeelname van

jongeren in Vlaanderen in 2000 tabellen en grafieken [Youth sport in figures. The sport participation

of young people in Flanders in 2000 tables and graphics]. Tielt: Lannoo.

Scheerder, J. & Pauwels, G. (2002). Vlaanderen sportief gepeild! Resultaten van de APS�/survey 1999

[Sport participation in Flanders. Results from the APS Survey 1999] (Stativaria 26). Brussels:

Ministry of the Flemish Government/Planning & Statistics Administration.

Scheerder, J., Taks, M. & Lagae, W. (2004). Youth sports participation styles and market segmentation

profiles. Evidence and applications. In NASSM (Ed.), 19th Conference of the North American

Society for Sport Management (Abstract Book of the NASSM 2004 Conference; Atlanta, GA; June

2�/5, 2004) (pp. 132�/133). Atlanta, GA: Sport Administration Program of Georgia State University.

Scheerder, J., Taks, M., Van de Gaer, A. & Vanreusel, B. (1999). Social changes in sport participation

patterns. A factor analysis of sport participation styles 1972�/1998 (Paper presented at the 14th

Annual Symposium of the International Sociology of Sport Association (ISSA); Hungarian University

of Physical Education; Budapest; June 26�/30, 1999).

Scheerder, J., Taks, M., Vanreusel, B. & Renson, R. (2002a). 30 jaar breedtesport in Vlaanderen:

participatie en beleid. Trends 1969�/1999 [30 Years of mass sport in Flanders: Participation and

policy. Trends 1969�/1999] (Sport & Maatschappij 1). Ghent: Publicatiefonds voor Lichamelijke

Opvoeding.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

Scheerder, J., Taks, M., Vanreusel, B. & Renson, R. (2005). Social changes in youth sports participation

styles 1969�/1999. The case of Flanders (Belgium). Sport, Education & Society , 10 (3), 321�/341.

Scheerder, J., Vanreusel, B., Taks, M., & Renson, R. (2002b). Social sports stratification in Flanders

1969�/1999. Intergenerational reproduction of social inequalities? International Review for the

Sociology of Sport , 37 (2), 219�/245.

Scheerder, J., Vanreusel, B., Taks, M., & Renson, R. (2005). Social stratification patterns in adolescents’

active sports participation behaviour. A time trend analysis 1969�/1999. European Physical

Education Review , 11 (1), 5�/27.

Siongers, J. & Stevens, F. (2002). Esthetica voor gevorderden. Over smaken en mediavoorkeuren

[Aesthetics for advanced people. About tastes and media preferences]. In M. Elchardus & I. Glorieux

(Eds.), De symbolische samenleving. Een exploratie van de nieuwe sociale en culturele ruimtes

[The symbolic society. An exploration of new social and cultural spaces] (pp. 53�/84). Tielt: Lannoo.

Steens, G., Lefevre, J., Philippaerts, R., Duquet, W., Matton, L., Wijndaele, K., Duvigneaud, N., &

Thomis, M. (2005). Hoe fit is de Vlaming? [To what extent are the Flemish people in condition?

Sport (Brussels) , 47 (1), 39�/50.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics . Amsterdam: Addison, Wesley &

Longman.

Taks, M. (2000). Sport en tewerkstelling [Sport and employment] (Sport & Society 8). Brussels: King

Baudouin Foundation.

Van Bottenburg, M. (2000). Het topsportklimaat in Nederland [The elite sport climate in the

Netherlands]. Hertogenbosch: Diopter.

Van Breedam, F. (2001). Social changes in sport participation styles . Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit van

Leuven; unpublished licentiate thesis in physical education.

Van de Gaer, A. (1997). Tijdstrendanalyse van sportdeelnamestijlen. Een empirisch onderzoek bij eerste

kandidatuurstudenten lichamelijke opvoeding [Time trend analysis of sport participation styles.

An empirical study among first�/year university students in physical education]. Leuven: Katholieke

Universiteit van Leuven; unpublished licentiate thesis in physical education.

Vanreusel, B. (1985). Tijdstrendanalyse van sportdeelnamestijlen [Time trend analysis of sport

participation styles]. Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit van Leuven; unpublished doctoral thesis in

physical education.

Vanreusel, B. (1990). Sportdeelname. Een stijlanalyse [Sport participation. A style analysis]. Hermes

(Leuven) , 21 (2�/3), 735�/747.

Vanreusel, B., Taks, M., & Renson, R. (2002). Belgium �/ Flanders. Origins, development and trends of

Sport for All. In L. P. DaCosta, & A. Miragaya (Eds.), Worldwide experiences and trends in Sport

for All (pp. 379�/400). Aachen: Meyer & Meyer Sport.

Wippler, R. (1968). Sociale determinanten van het vrijetijdsgedrag [Social determinants of leisure

behaviour] (Bouwstenen voor de kennis van de maatschappij 63). Assen: Van Gorcum.

Zeijl, E. (2001). Young adolescents’ leisure. A cross�/cultural and cross�/sectional study of Dutch and

German 10�/15 year�/olds . Leiden: Leiden University; doctoral thesis in social sciences.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f O

tago

] at

23:

18 0

2 O

ctob

er 2

014

leisure-time sport among physical education students: a time trend analysis of sport participation...

Documents