lecture 4 road transport...
TRANSCRIPT
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Lecture 4-
Road Transport II
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Section 1 Infrastructure
Section 2 Operations
ROAD TRANSPORT IILECTURE STRUCTURE
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Network of road types (local to expressway)Construction (surface, gradients, lighting…)Speeds (min, max, varying)Number of lanesRegulationsEntry points
ConstructionConcreteBitumenUn-bound soil / aggregate
INFRASTRUCTURECONSTRUCTION
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Standard design life 40 – 60 yearsCost
UK - Cost per lane (motorways 2 x 3 lane) US $10m per km UK - Cost per lane (carriageway 2 x 2 lane) US $7.5m per km
Excludes tunnels, bridges, land etc
INFRASTRUCTURECONSTRUCTION
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INFRASTRUCTUREMAJOR LAND REQUIREMENTS
Source: C.A. O’Flaherty (2002), .Highways - The location, design, construction and maintenance of road pavements
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Gradient = slope of roadRoad design gradients vary with type of road
Design speed of 60 km/h - maximum gradient 8%Design speed of 140 km/h - maximum gradient 4%
Steep gradientsMajor impact on traffic flowsRequire greater engine power to maintain speedLead to greater fuel consumptionRoute avoidance = time and money
Traffic managementCrawler / escape lanesSpeed / axle restrictions
INFRASTRUCTUREGRADIENTS & CURVES
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INFRASTRUCTUREGRADIENT %
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Developed countries have substantial road networksSupport national and local economiesAllow freight to move efficiently and safelyProvide routes for electricity, gas, water and telephones
INFRASTRUCTUREROAD NETWORKS
Total (Km) Total roads (Km)
Km persquare km
Km per 1,000persons
Paved roads (Km)
Paved roads (%)
USA 6,465,799 0.71 21.0 4,209,835 65%
India 3,316,452 1.12 2.8 1,517,077 45%
China 1,930,544 0.2 1.4 1,575,571 82%
Japan 1,196,999 3.28 9.4 949,101 79%
Australia 812,972 0.04 105.8 341,448 42%
UK 398,366 1.65 6.5 398,366 100%
South Korea 103,029 1.06 2.1 80,642 78%
Source: BTS - Freight Transportation Global Highlights 2010
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SynonymsHighway – Expressway – Motorway - Interstate
A measure of how developed a country’s road network isCharacteristics
High capacityHigh speedLink between regions, communities and industrial centers
Improved road infrastructureReduces transit timeEases congestionCan be a victim of its own success
INFRASTRUCTUREEXPRESSWAY PROVISION
Source: BTS - Freight Transportation Global Highlights 2010 & OECD
Total (Km) Paved Roads (Km)
Motorway Roads (Km)
Motorways(%)
USA 4,209,835 75,000 2%
Japan 949,101 7,383 0.08%
UK 398,366 3,555 0.9%
South Korea 80,642 3,117 4%
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China’s National Trunk Highway System (NTHS)Completed 13 years ahead of schedule
1988 0 km1989 147 km2008 53,600 km2010 74,000 km
Further massive investment scheduledThe total costs US$240 billionFinanced by private companies
Drivers pay road toll to use
INFRASTRUCTUREEXPRESSWAY PROVISION - CHINA
OperationalUnder construction / planned
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INFRASTRUCTUREINTERNATIONAL NETWORKS - ASIA
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INFRASTRUCTUREINTERNATIONAL NETWORKS - EUROPE
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ConstructionMaterials, quality
MaintenanceMaterialsOperationsSchedule of maintenance
50% USA roads in poor condition (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 2009)
INFRASTRUCTUREFACTORS IMPACTING INFRASTRUCTURE
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ClimateSnow, ice, high winds, rain (earthquakes)Pollution (acid rain)May cause physical damage
Road surface / infrastructureVehicles
INFRASTRUCTUREFACTORS IMPACTING INFRASTRUCTURE
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Disruption to traffic flowsAccidents and delayCost of delay to customersCargo losses
Cost and time of repairs to infrastructureFurther delays during repair
Reduced by good design and road managementMay require seasonal weight limits
INFRASTRUCTUREIMPACT ON ROAD TRANSPORT
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Traffic loadingVolume of trafficMix of traffic
FreightPassenger
Vehicle characteristicsAxles, suspension, tyres
Axle weight is main cause of damageNumber of axlesSpacing of axlesLoad distribution
INFRASTRUCTUREFACTORS IMPACTING INFRASTRUCTURE
30 tonnes
30 tonnes
30 tonnes
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Also known as airlift axles or drop axlesLowered
Increase weight capacityDistributes weight over more wheels
RaisedSave wear on the tyres and axles when not neededIncrease traction in the remaining wheels
INFRASTRUCTURELIFT AXLES
Lift axles
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INFRASTRUCTUREAXLE WEIGHT LIMITS – ONTARIO
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Improve road traffic safetyReduce number of road traffic casualties (likelihood)Reduce the severity of injury (impact)
Reduce environmental impact Road damageNoiseVibrationEmissionsFuel use
TrucksMay have speed limiters installedGreater stopping distances
INFRASTRUCTURESPEED LIMITS
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Tractor-trailer units prone to jack knifing in adverse driving conditions
INFRASTRUCTURESPEED LIMITS - JACK KNIFING
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INFRASTRUCTUREWHICH SIDE OF THE ROAD - LEFT
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Overcome natural barriersSignificant cost and engineering requirements
AdvantagesSaves travel time by providing shorter routesReduced fuel costs and emissionsAvoids alternative routes that may be affected by extreme weather conditionsReduces traffic volumes and traffic noise in local communities
INFRASTRUCTURETUNNELS & BRIDGES
Laerdal Tunnel, Norway 24.5 Km
St. Gotthard Tunnel, Switzerland 17 Km
Dartford Crossing, UK 0.5 Km
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INFRASTRUCTURETUNNELS - SAFETY
11 died1000ºC13 trucksClosed for 2 months
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Tunnel accidentsHuman lifeIncreased congestionPollution and Repair costs
Two-tube tunnels – prevent head on collisionsFollowing fire in Gotthard tunnel (2001)
3,500 lorries per day allowed (before 5,500)Must keep 150 metres from lorry in frontHazardous cargo restrictions
2010 EU minimum road tunnel safety > 500m longStructural design
VentilationEmergency accessCommunications
Operation / managementReal time monitoringEmergency services
INFRASTRUCTURETUNNELS - SAFETY
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DesignHeightWeight limitsVolume of trafficManagement of traffic flowsRouteing implications
EnvironmentHigh windsSnow and ice conditions
INFRASTRUCTUREBRIDGE - SAFETY
Tacoma NarrowsSuspension Bridge
“Bridge Bashing”
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INFRASTRUCTUREBRIDGE - SAFETY
Gust = short bursts of high speed wind
Wind Speed (Gusts) Restrictions
>35 mph 40mph speed limit on bridge
>45 mph Bridge closed to double-decked buses
>50 mph
Bridge closed to: High-sided rigid or articulated HGVs Articulated tippers (if empty) Furniture vans Luton vans Transit van style with modification
>65 mph Bridge closed to all vehicles except cars30mph speed limit on bridge
>80 mph Bridge closed to all traffic
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Section 1 Infrastructure
Section 2 Operations
ROAD TRANSPORT IILECTURE STRUCTURE
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OPERATIONSLOADING
Load
ing
bays
Tail
Gat
esSi
de L
oadi
ngLo
adin
g B
ays
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Provide access for loading and unloading of trailersAccommodate a wide range of vehicle widths and heightsSpecialise doors used in temperature controlled stores to maintain climatic conditions
OPERATIONSLOADING - LOADING BAYS
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Typically used with rigid vehiclesAlso known as tail lift / rampsVariety of forms availableFacilitate loading and unloading of goodsAvoids need for loading bay
OPERATIONSLOADING – TAIL GATES
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Available with curtain sided trailersProvides easy access for loading and unloadingPalletised goods can be (un)loaded by fork lift trucksGoods secured by straps / netting / locking bars to prevent movement Security issues overcome through use of security wires
OPERATIONSLOADING - SIDE LOADING
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OPERATIONSLOADING - SELF LOADING TRUCKS
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OPERATIONSLOADING – GRAVITY & PUMP
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Essential to protect cargoDuring handlingFrom the environmentForces of truck movement (breaking)
Must load cargo to account forVibrationAcceleration / decelerationWeight distributionCargo characteristicsEase of access for unloadingSegmentation of cargoWeather Road / truck restrictions
25% of truck accidents in EU due to improper cargo restraint
OPERATIONSLOADING – CARGO RESTRAINT
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Direct consequences of overloadingInjury or potential loss of life to the
DriverLoading / unloading staffOther road usersGeneral public
Impact on the vehicleVehicle will become less stableBecome difficult to steerTake longer to stop Unfair competition for other hauliers The vehicle may become uninsured
Overloading is illegal
OPERATIONSLOADING – OVERLOADING BY VOLUME
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Similar consequences to volume overloadingDistribution of weight important
Vertical (stability)Horizontal (axle limits)
Weigh stations measureAxle weight - weight carried by each axle Gross weight - combined weight of all axles
Stationary and non-stationary technologiesWeigh in Motion Sensors (WiMS)
Fines and penalties for overloading
OPERATIONSLOADING – OVERLOADING BY WEIGHT
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Highly regulatedVehicle dimensionsCarrying capacityUse (operations)
Choice of truck very importantSuitability for useCarrying capacityEfficiency
OPERATIONSVEHICLE CONSTRAINTS
China Korea UK Australia USA
Height 4.00m 3.50m 4.00m 4.30m 4.50m
Width 2.50m 2.50m 2.55m 2.50m 2.59m
Length – Tractor & Semi-trailer
16.50m 16.70m 16.50 to 22.75m
19.0 to 53.5m
22.9m
Max weight per axle 10.0T 10.0T 9.0T 9.1T
Maximum permitted weight
40.0T 35T 44T 45.5T to 125.2T
36.3T to 59.45T
Source: www.iru.org & UNESCAPMay vary depending on the type of goods vehicle / trailer
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High volume goodsHigh cube trailersLonger length trailers
Space optimization and ease of accessDouble stack trailers
Increases vehicle payloadAchieves fuel savings (12%)
Subject to national maximum truck dimensionsMay be restricted to certain roads and routes
OPERATIONSLOADING – SPACE
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Annual fuel consumption per articulated truckConsumption 2.66 km per litreAnnual mileage 112,600 km a yearConsumption = 42,300 litres
Annual fuel cost per articulated truckUK = US$1.98 per litre = $83,815Korea = US$1.35 per litre = $57,146China = US$1.04 per litre = $44,024USA = US$0.84¢ per litre = $35,557Saudi Arabia = US$0.067 per litre = $2,836
A 6% increase in fuel costsAdd US$5,000 to UK trucking costs per year
Taxation is a major component of fuel price
OPERATIONSFUEL COSTS
Source: www.aip.com.au
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TollsPrevalent on highways
By lane / accessBridges and tunnel accessCost vary with time of day Cost trade off against slower route alternatives
Congestion pricingTypical in city areas
Access restrictionsTo certain routes / areasDriver schedules have to be accommodated
OPERATIONSEXTERNAL COSTS
Toll
Congestion Pricing
Access Restrictions
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To protect road users from overworked and tired drivers of heavy vehicles20% of commercial driver crashes due to fatigue (2001 European Transport Safety Council)
Covers drivers undertaking the carriage of goods or carrying out business Lays down strict rules regarding
Time spent drivingBreaks during driving dayDaily and weekly rest periodsMay be recorded in log book or by tachograph
ExampleEuropean Working Time Directive (EU Regulation 561/2006/EC)
OPERATIONSMANNING - REGULATION
Tacograph
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OPERATIONSEU DRIVING REGULATIONS
Maximum daily driving: 9 hours10 hours on 2 days in week
Maximum weekly driving: Six 24-hour periods
Maximum fortnightly driving: 90 hours
Maximum driving before a break: 4½ hours
Minimum breaks after driving: 45 minutes or one break of at least 15 minutes and one of at least 30 minutes each to equal 45 minutes
Minimum daily rest (normally): 11 hours
Reduced daily rest: 9 hours on up to 3 days per week
Split daily rest: The 11-hour daily rest period may be split into two periods – the first at least 3 hours, the other at least 9 hours
Minimum weekly rest (normally): 45 hours once each fixed week
Reduced weekly rest: 24 hours (any reduction must be made up en bloc by end of the third following week)
Rest on ferries/trains: Normal daily rest (11 hours) may be interrupted not more than twice:• no more than 1 hour between parts• drivers must have access to a bunk or couchette for both parts
of rest
Source: D Lowe (2010), The Transport Managers & Operators Handbook
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Impact of regulationEU Road Transport Directive will reduce the driver working hours from 60/66 hours to 48 hours = need more drivers
Shortages due to lack of new driversUSA - 300,000 shortfall by 2012 pushing up wages by 30% by 2014
Parts of Asia, ex-Soviet Union & AfricaAIDS kills 20% of truckers per annum
OPERATIONSMANNING - SHORTAGES
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OPERATIONSROAD DEATHS 2009
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Cost of fuelEnvironmental
Reducing emissionsIncreasing fuel economy
SafetyRegulation
Drivers qualificationsDrivers hoursVehicle weights and dimensions
ManningAvailability of skilled drivers
Network availabilityCost of new infrastructure“Tolled” routes
Competition from other modes
OPERATIONSCHALLENGES