Lecture 9-

Unitisation

Section 1 Unitisation

Section 2 Pallets

Section 3 Roll Cages

Section 4 Tote Bins

Section 5 Containers

Section 6 Unit Load Devices (ULD)

Section 7 Other Unit Loads

UNITISATIONLECTURE STRUCTURE

UNITISATIONHISTORIC GENERAL CARGO OPERATIONS

Small quantities of non-standard cargoBoxesCratesDrumsBags

Fragmented distributionLarge numbers of shippers Cargo loaded at local ports Multi-port itineraries

Constraint on trade

UNITISATIONCHARACTERISTICS OF GENERAL CARGO

Difficult stowage requirements High cost operations Labour

Very labour intensive Low handling rates

VesselVery low vessel productivity Long delivery times High freight rates

Poor cargo quality control

UNITISATIONGENERAL CARGO - HANDLING ISSUES

Productivity of conventional cargo handling (Tonnes per portworker per year)

1980s 1990s % Improvement

3,137 Tonnes

4,029Tonnes 28%

UnitisationThe assembly of separate cargo packages into a single load which has standard dimensions to allow for mechanical handling and ease of stowage for transport

StowageThe act of placing cargo in an aircraft or ship in a manner that provides for the safety of the vessel and the cargo, optimises available space and allows easy access to the cargo at the place of dischargeMay be used for any form of cargo – bulk, container, breakbulk etc.

UNITISATIONDEFINITIONS

Uniformity of shape Standard size (dimensions)Standard weights (to maximum)Gives strength to prevent crushingCapable of being stackedSuited to mechanical handling

UNITISATIONCHARACTERISTICS OF UNIT LOADS

UNITISATIONUNIT LOAD TYPES

ISO container Unit load device

Pallet

Non-ISO container Other

Tote binsRoll cages

Labour productivity and safety increasedManpower requirements reduced

UNITISATIONLABOUR PRODUCTIVITY

Productivity of conventional cargo handling (Tonnes p/per annum)

Conventional Cargo Containerised Cargo Difference

1980s 3,137 24,948 795%1990s 4,029 46,662 1,158%

% Improvement 28% 87%

Speed of handling increasesHandling process simplified

Specialized handling equipmentStandard (repetitive) handling

Reduces need for tallying individual items (counting)Handling costs reduced

Payload per move increasedVehicle / ship turnaround time decreasedHigher utilisation of warehouse & transport space

UNITISATIONHANDLING BENEFITS

Unit loads are more stableSecured to a palletStored in a container

Likelihood of damage is reducedCrushingHandlingDeliberate damageTransport movement

Reduced insurance costsImproved quality of service

UNITISATIONDAMAGE PROTECTION

385

Containerised cargoConventional cargo

Palletised cargo

Portworkers do not directly handle cargoReduces

Opportunity for pilferageVisibility of cargo

Security systems (seals)

UNITISATIONSECURITY

Improved stowageReduced damageHigher handling efficiency & labour productivityIncreased securityEasier planningSimplified tracking

UNITISATIONADVANTAGES

Section 1 Unitisation

Section 2 Pallets

Section 3 Roll Cages

Section 4 Tote Bins

Section 5 Containers

Section 6 Unit Load Devices (ULD)

Section 7 Other Unit Loads

UNITISATIONLECTURE STRUCTURE

Basic unit load technologyConstruction

WoodSteelPlastic

Wide range of sizes and designs

PALLETSCHARACTERISTICS

Book - each 210×118mm, weighing 0.0375kg

Shrink wrapped into bundles of 100

Packed into boxes - four bundles shrink wrapped together (weight 15kg)

Palletised – 32 boxes per pallet

PALLETSCREATING A LOAD

32 boxes (12,800 booklets)

1 Move!

1 booklet1 bundle

(100 booklets)1 box

(4 bundles / 400 booklets)

Cargo will only be protect if pallet is loaded correctly

PALLETSSECURING CARGO

Load should be secured within the base area of the palletShrink wrap used to secure cargoMay be applied manually or by automated machines

PALLETSSECURING CARGO

Primary cause of product damageReduces strength of goods stacked on pallet

Creates problems for Handling equipmentStorage in warehouse racking

PALLETSPALLET OVERHANG

Pallet truckWarehouse based equipmentPedestrian controlled and manually operated

Fork lift truckWarehouse transfersTo / from vehicles

Automated warehousing systemsWithin storage facility

PALLETSHANDLING

Pallet truck

Fork lift truck

Suitable for a wide variety of goodsStorage & handling

Greater product packing densityStored items can be delivered without repackingFast access to stored goodsCan be lifted with a simple fork lift truck

TransportingSuited to most commercial vehicles

ReusableCost effective

PALLETSADVANTAGES

Different size standardsCapacity restricted to 1.5 tonnesOnly offers limited protectionRange of qualityWooden pallets have a limited life ~ 4 tripsNon-wooden pallets more expensiveDamaged pallets may damage cargoReturn and maintenance of pallets

PALLETSDISADVANTAGES

Asia 1100 x 1100 mmEurope 800 x 1200 / 1000 x 1200 mm dominate

> 280 million pallets in use> 30 different sizes and types

North America 48 x 40 inches

PALLETSSIZES AND STANDARDS

Euro-pallet Industrial pallet Asia pallet

Four-way-entry-pallet Four-way-entry-pallet Four-way-entry-palletD i m e n s i o n

800 x 1200 mm 1000 x 1200 mm 1100 x 1100 mm

L o a d - b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y1500 kg 1500 kg 1300 kg

E x t r a l o a d6000 kg 6000 kg 5200 kg

D e a d l o a d25 kg 30 kg 30 kg

Pallet size impacts loading profile in road trailers / containersImpacts loading efficiency

PALLETSLOADING PROFILES

PALLETSCONTAINER LOADING PROFILES

PALLETSPALLET SHIPS

Section 1 Unitisation

Section 2 Pallets

Section 3 Roll Cages

Section 4 Tote Bins

Section 5 Containers

Section 6 Unit Load Devices (ULD)

Section 7 Other Unit Loads

Section 8 Terminology & Concepts

UNITISATIONLECTURE STRUCTURE

Usually steel with mesh bottoms, sides and shelvesFitted with wheels

Manually pushedCollapsible

For efficient storage when empty (nested)

ROLL CAGESDESCRIPTION

Common in the retail sector for delivery to shopsCarry wide range of items

ClothingGrocery items

Typically owned by users

ROLL CAGESUSES

ManualIndividual pushes / pulls cage

Electric Tug (Mover)Prevents tipping on uneven surfacesMultiple cages can be moved at one time

Towing linksReduces potential of injuries or operator fatigueCompact and easy to store

ROLL CAGESHANDLING

Roll cage tug

Sides of roll cage contain loadShrink wrap not requiredStacking less important

Wheeled Permits faster loading and unloading of vehiclesForklift truck not required

May be designed to provide product security (lockable doors)More efficient in restocking retail shelves

ROLL CAGESADVANTAGES OVER PALLETS

Expensive – 10 times cost of palletTime required to manage use

Repairs can be costlyDifficult to cleanRequire considerable space when not in use

Noisy when movedMay not be used in warehouse racking systems

ROLL CAGESDISADVANTAGES OVER PALLETS

Section 1 Unitisation

Section 2 Pallets

Section 3 Roll Cages

Section 4 Tote Bins

Section 5 Containers

Section 6 Unit Load Devices (ULD)

Section 7 Other Unit Loads

UNITISATIONLECTURE STRUCTURE

Vary in sizeEg. x 400mm x 300mm high

May be open top or with lidStackableWhen empty may be

Stored in side each other orCollapsed

Suited to automation

TOTE BINSDESCRIPTION

May be usedWithin a single siteWithin a supply chain

Storage and handling of small itemsDistribution of fragile / perishable items

Bread & cakesVegetables

TOTE BINSUSES

Bases fitted with wheelsDesigned for loading (stacking) tote bins and plastic traysOften used in warehouses and retail distribution

TOTE BINSDOLLIES

AdvantagesLess expensiveLess likely to be damagedNo need for assembly or disassemblyFlexible loading height – no fixed sidesSave 80% space required for roll cagesFewer accidentsEasier to clean

DisadvantageMay only be used with modular loads (eg tote bins)

TOTE BINSDOLLIES OVER ROLL CAGES

TOTE BINSCOMBINING UNIT LOADS

Section 1 Unitisation

Section 2 Pallets

Section 3 Roll Cages

Section 4 Tote Bins

Section 5 Containers

Section 6 Unit Load Devices (ULD)

Section 7 Other Unit Loads

UNITISATIONLECTURE STRUCTURE

CONTAINERSDESIGNS

CONTAINERSFLEET

Source: Containerisation International, Market Analysis – World Container Census 2010

Global container fleet (2009) TEU Units

General container 23,523, 131 15,468,372

Special containers 948,691 661,936

Reefer containers 1,689,184 918,336

Tank containers 204,483 201,080

Total 26,365,489 17,249,724

Capital intensiveTerminal infrastructureTransport infrastructureContainer ownership costs

Complex managementTerminal storageContainer flowsEmpty container storage & flows

Specialized cargo requirementsTemperature sensitiveMoisture content….

Allow consolidation of small shipment loads

CONTAINERSCHARACTERISTICS

Non-governmental organisation (NGO) based in SwitzerlandProduces voluntary industry standards (not just transport)Widely used in logistics and transport

Standardisation of pallet dimensions, maritime containers

CONTAINERSSTANDARDS

CONTAINERSPAYLOAD

Payload = Max Gross Weight – Tare Weight

Used globallyStandard strength and dimensions

Strong, stackableMany years life expectancyStandard mechanical handling methodsSuited to ship, rail, road & inland waterway

Allows consolidation of loads1 container = up to 28 tonnes cargo

Mature technologyRange of designs with units for specific cargo typesWhile still conforming to the standards

Cargo protectionImproved securityReduced packagingReduced damageEasy to identify tampered containers

CONTAINERSADVANTAGES

AdvantagesGood for mixed cargos in single containerEasier handling of cargo packaged with different shapesReduced cargo damage from handlingStacking inside containerImproved handing speedReady for warehouse handling and storageFor LCL it retains integrity of individual shippers cargo

Less than container loadDisadvantages

Reduced cargo weight per containerReduced cargo space per container

CONTAINERSUNIT LOADING IN CONTAINERS

Non-palletisedBooklets - each 210×118mm, weighing 0.0375kg

Shrink wrapped in to bundles of 100Packed into boxes - four bundles shrink wrapped together (weight 16kg)

850 cartons can be loaded into 20ft containerPalletised

32 boxes per pallet640 cartons loaded into 20ft container

25% reduction in the number of booklets loaded

CONTAINERSPALLETISED VS NON-PALLETISED

850 loose cartons (340,000 booklets)

32 cartons (12,800 booklets)

640 cartons (256,000 booklets)

VS

Standard handling technologyImproved handling productivityEasily transferred between transport modesEconomies of scale for equipment manufacturers Encourages R&D in equipment design

Design facilitates dense storage (height & block)Stacking height influenced by

Container weight (empty / full)Type of container (reefer, rack etc)Availability and type of handling equipmentAccessibilityLikely dwell time

CONTAINERSHANDLING

ISO container

Stacking limits

9 high - 20’7 high - 40’ / 45’

Designed for specific cargo / shipper / tradeDo not conform to ISO standards

Strength, dimensions, payloadMay or may not be suited to twist lock handling

Non standardStackingHandlingLoadingTransportation

Closed system Often owned by individual shipperEmpty containers returned to shipper for reuse

CONTAINERSNON-ISO CONTAINERS

US 53ft containerGreater volume - limited to US market (inc Hawaii)

European 2.5m & 2.55m wide trailerDesigned specifically for use with the Euro Pallet

CONTAINERSNON-ISO EXAMPLES

Originated from AmericansUsed in Japan, China & Korea

Carry merchandiseJeju tangerines

AdvantagesSuited to small volumesCan be transported by air

CONTAINERSNON-ISO EXAMPLES – 12FT CONTAINERS

CONTAINERSSHIPMENT OF WIND TURBINES

Source: www.matts-place.com/intermodal

Wind turbine blade shipment

Section 1 Unitisation

Section 2 Pallets

Section 3 Roll Cages

Section 4 Tote Bins

Section 5 Containers

Section 6 Unit Load Devices (ULD)

Section 7 Other Unit Loads

UNITISATIONLECTURE STRUCTURE

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)CONVENTIONAL VS UNITISED AIR CARGO

Conventional air cargo

Unitised air cargo

Unit loads specifically designed for air transportLightweight - aluminiumProfile shape of aircraft hold

Reduces the number of items to be loadedSpeeds up turnaround of aircraft

Based on international standardsDeveloped by IATA (International Air Transport Association)

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)DESCRIPTION

Characterised by TypeBase dimensionsPhysical details

ShapeLoad restraintHandling requirements

Two formsPallets

Sheets of aluminiumInclude rims designed to lock onto cargo net

ContainersAlso known as cans and podsUsually made of aluminiumMay have built-in refrigeration units

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)FORMS

ULD Pallet

ULD Container

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)ULD PALLETS

Source: www.startupboeing.com

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)ULD CONTAINERS

Source: www.startupboeing.com

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)ULD CONTAINERS

Source: www.startupboeing.com

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)MAIN DECK & BELLY MD-11

Specialist handling systemsPowered fixed conveying systems of tracks fitted with rollers transport the ULD onto the aircraft and within itCapable of rotating a ULD through 90o to position correctly within the plane

Hi-loadersLift and position ULD / cargo at hold door

Larger heavy-lift aircraft may be accessed by front or rear doors that lower to ground level allowing certain cargo to be loaded by fork lift truck

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)HANDLING

Hi-loader

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)HANDLING

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)AIRPORT STORAGE

Limited transferability between transport modesLimited ability to stack when on the groundSpecific to aircraft typeEasily damaged with improper handling

UNIT LOAD DEVICES (ULD)CHALLENGES

Airline direct spend on ULD repair is estimated at US$ 150-200 million a year

Section 1 Unitisation

Section 2 Pallets

Section 3 Roll Cages

Section 4 Tote Bins

Section 5 Containers

Section 6 Unit Load Devices (ULD)

Section 7 Other Unit Loads

UNITISATIONLECTURE STRUCTURE

Commodity specificWide range depending on commodity and tradeAssociated with minor dry bulk trades

AdvantagesMaximizes payload for cargo typeIncreased handling productivityReduction in manual handlingReduction in damage

ChallengesSpecialist handling equipmentProtection level variesRequires volume shipments / trade flowWho invests in equipment?

OTHER UNIT LOADSOVERVIEW

OTHER UNIT LOADSINTERMEDIATE BULK CONTAINERS

Unitised transport of bulk cargosWineChemicalsPowders

Incorporated pallet base to aid mechanical handlingMay be stacked

OTHER UNIT LOADSINTERMEDIATE BULK CONTAINERS

Also calledFlexible Intermediate Bulk Container Jumbo BagTote bag

Made from plastic / fabricLow-cost and efficient transportation

Bulky goods – sand, gravelLight weightStrong

Suited to mechanical handling

OTHER UNIT LOADSTONNE BAGS