LearningLearning

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

The The FathersFathers of Behaviorism of Behaviorism(1(1stst half of 20 half of 20thth century) century)

What is learning?What is learning?

Long-lasting change in behavior resulting Long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience. (behavior as from experience. (behavior as measurement of learning)measurement of learning)

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov 1849-19361849-1936 30+ years in research 30+ years in research

on Learningon Learning Tripped upon theory Tripped upon theory

of learning while of learning while studying digestionstudying digestion

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Pavlov’s ExperimentPavlov’s Experiment

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Learning to associate a neutral stimuli with Learning to associate a neutral stimuli with

another stimuli that produces reflexive, another stimuli that produces reflexive, involuntary responses. (Bell with food…)involuntary responses. (Bell with food…)

Key principlesKey principles Unconditioned stimulus: Unconditioned stimulus: USUS

Something that elicits a natural, reflexive Something that elicits a natural, reflexive response (food)response (food)

Unconditioned response: (UR=unlearned!) Unconditioned response: (UR=unlearned!) natural, involuntary response (salivation)natural, involuntary response (salivation)

Neutral stimulus (NS)Neutral stimulus (NS) NS (bell) paired with the US (food) to form NS (bell) paired with the US (food) to form

association between US and CS association between US and CS Conditioned Stimulus: (bell)Conditioned Stimulus: (bell)

When CS elicits CR (NS becomes CS)When CS elicits CR (NS becomes CS)

Conditioning ProcessesConditioning Processes AcquisitionAcquisition

Learning: when animal responds to CS Learning: when animal responds to CS without US (bell = salivation)without US (bell = salivation)

Strength of conditioning affected by order Strength of conditioning affected by order and timing of US and CSand timing of US and CS

So, what’s the most effective method of So, what’s the most effective method of conditioning? (In Pavlov’s experiment)conditioning? (In Pavlov’s experiment) Ring bell, while it is still ringing, present food Ring bell, while it is still ringing, present food

(Delayed conditioning)(Delayed conditioning) What if you ring bell after the food?What if you ring bell after the food?

Backward conditioning = ineffectiveBackward conditioning = ineffective

ExtinctionExtinction To To unlearnunlearn a behavior (suppressed) a behavior (suppressed)

Qualifies when CS no longer elicits the CRQualifies when CS no longer elicits the CR

How is it done?How is it done? Present CS without USPresent CS without US (Bell without food)(Bell without food)

Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery Sudden reappearance of a CR upon Sudden reappearance of a CR upon

presentation of CS (after extinction)presentation of CS (after extinction)

Renewal Effect: sudden reappearance of Renewal Effect: sudden reappearance of CR after extinction when return to CR after extinction when return to environment where acquisition took placeenvironment where acquisition took place

Generalization / DiscriminationGeneralization / Discrimination

GeneralizationGeneralization When a stimulus similar to CS will elicit a CR. When a stimulus similar to CS will elicit a CR.

(similar to bell sound- tapping glass with (similar to bell sound- tapping glass with spoon)spoon)

DiscriminationDiscrimination To distinguish between various stimuli To distinguish between various stimuli

(between animals, objects. Sounds etc.)(between animals, objects. Sounds etc.)

John WatsonJohn Watson““Tabula Rasa”Tabula Rasa”

1913: Publication in Psychology Review1913: Publication in Psychology Review ““behaviorist manifesto”behaviorist manifesto”

1)1) Psychology’s content should be behaviorPsychology’s content should be behavior

2)2) Method should be objective rather than introspectiveMethod should be objective rather than introspective

3)3) Its goal should be the “prediction of and control of Its goal should be the “prediction of and control of behavior” rather than the fundamental understanding of behavior” rather than the fundamental understanding of mental eventsmental events

Age 30: chair of John Hopkins Psychology departmentAge 30: chair of John Hopkins Psychology department

1915: president of American Psychological Association1915: president of American Psychological Association

John Watson: Aversive ConditioningJohn Watson: Aversive Conditioning

Little Albert Little Albert Experiment Experiment (11 months)(11 months)

Aversive conditioning Aversive conditioning (conditioning for (conditioning for negative response)negative response)

US = ratUS = rat UR = liking of ratUR = liking of rat CS =gong behind boyCS =gong behind boy CR= fear of ratCR= fear of rat Life examples?Life examples?

Second-order ConditioningSecond-order Conditioning

Second-Order, or higher order conditioningSecond-Order, or higher order conditioning Once a CS elicits a CR, the CS can be used Once a CS elicits a CR, the CS can be used

(as a US) to condition a response to a new (as a US) to condition a response to a new stimulusstimulus

Example:Example: Dog salivates to bell (first order conditioning)Dog salivates to bell (first order conditioning) Light is paired with bell (second-order)Light is paired with bell (second-order) Light = salivationLight = salivation

Biology and Classical ConditioningBiology and Classical Conditioning

Animals / humans are biologically wired to make Animals / humans are biologically wired to make certain associations more easily than otherscertain associations more easily than others

Examples:Examples: Learned taste aversions (adaptive response)Learned taste aversions (adaptive response) Disgust reactions (Rozin and Colleagues)Disgust reactions (Rozin and Colleagues)

Fudge: shaped in squares & dog fecesFudge: shaped in squares & dog feces Bottle: labeled sucrose & cyanideBottle: labeled sucrose & cyanide Classical conditioning, but biologically predisposedClassical conditioning, but biologically predisposed

Garcia and Koelling’s ExperimentGarcia and Koelling’s Experiment

Biological Preparedness in Classical Biological Preparedness in Classical ConditioningConditioning

CSCS USUS Learned ResponseLearned ResponseLoud noiseLoud noise shockshock fearfearLoud noiseLoud noise radiation radiation (nausea)(nausea) nothingnothingSweet waterSweet water ShockShock nothingnothingSweet waterSweet water radiation radiation ((nauseanausea)) avoid wateravoid waterWhat conclusions can be drawn from this?What conclusions can be drawn from this?Results appear adaptive. Results appear adaptive. (each animal has different (each animal has different

biological predispositions to learning that enhance survival)biological predispositions to learning that enhance survival)

Thus, significance?Thus, significance?

Classical conditioning is a critical way in which Classical conditioning is a critical way in which all organisms learn to adapt to their environmentall organisms learn to adapt to their environment

Classical Conditioning in today’s world? Provide Classical Conditioning in today’s world? Provide an example for each of the following:an example for each of the following: Drug addiction / quittingDrug addiction / quitting politicianspoliticians AdvertisingAdvertising Fears / phobiasFears / phobias

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Learning based consequences…Learning based consequences… Association made between consequences and one’s Association made between consequences and one’s

behaviorbehavior

Thorndike’s Thorndike’s Law of EffectLaw of Effect:: (Early pioneer of Operant Learning)(Early pioneer of Operant Learning) Positive consequences results in strong stimulus-Positive consequences results in strong stimulus-

response connection = increased behaviorresponse connection = increased behavior Negative consequence results in weakened stimulus- Negative consequence results in weakened stimulus-

response connection = decreased behaviorresponse connection = decreased behavior Instrumental LearningInstrumental Learning: Consequence shapes : Consequence shapes

behaviorsbehaviors

Thorndike’s Cat and Puzzle Box StudyThorndike’s Cat and Puzzle Box Study

Cat’s learn gradually, not by insight.Cat’s learn gradually, not by insight. Suggests stimulus-response processSuggests stimulus-response process

Classical vs. OperantClassical vs. Operant Remember…Remember… Classical = stimuli Classical = stimuli Operant = consequences Operant = consequences

Introducing B.F. Skinner….Introducing B.F. Skinner….

““Cognitive science is the creationism of psychology.”Cognitive science is the creationism of psychology.”

““External influences, not internal thoughts feelings, External influences, not internal thoughts feelings, influence behavior.”influence behavior.”

““Recognizing that behavior is shaped by its Recognizing that behavior is shaped by its consequences is the first step in taking control of the consequences is the first step in taking control of the environment and ensuring that it delivers consequences environment and ensuring that it delivers consequences promoting desirable behavior.”promoting desirable behavior.”

““The movement toward a better society demands giving The movement toward a better society demands giving up the belief in dignity.” (Dignity is an illusion..)up the belief in dignity.” (Dignity is an illusion..)

The Skinner BoxThe Skinner Box

Skinner’s ReinforcementSkinner’s Reinforcement

Reinforcement : A consequence that Reinforcement : A consequence that increases likelihood of behaviorincreases likelihood of behavior

TypesTypes EffectsEffects Examples?Examples?

Positive RPositive R Add something pleasantAdd something pleasant

Negative RNegative R Remove something unpleasantRemove something unpleasant

Skinner’s PunishmentSkinner’s Punishment

Punishment: A consequence that Punishment: A consequence that decreases likelihood of behaviordecreases likelihood of behavior

TypesTypes EffectsEffects Examples?Examples?Positive PunishmentPositive Punishment Adds something negativeAdds something negative

Negative Punishment Negative Punishment Removes something pleasantRemoves something pleasant

(omission training)(omission training)

Application: Application: Reinforcement or Punishment?Reinforcement or Punishment?

Indicate for the following Indicate for the following which typewhich type of of Reinforcement or Punishment applies.Reinforcement or Punishment applies.

1.1. Taking aspirin for a headache.Taking aspirin for a headache.

2.2. Water boarding to force a confessionWater boarding to force a confession

3.3. Running home to get out of the cold.Running home to get out of the cold.

4.4. Having your license revoked for speeding.Having your license revoked for speeding.

5.5. Spanking a child for a tantrum.Spanking a child for a tantrum.

6.6. $25 for each A you make…. (Insane!)$25 for each A you make…. (Insane!)

Learning by Operant ConditioningLearning by Operant Conditioning

ShapingShaping:: Reinforcing Reinforcing the stepsthe steps used to reach a desired used to reach a desired

behavior. (single behavior: Press bar for behavior. (single behavior: Press bar for food)food)

ChainingChaining: : Reinforcing a number of separate behaviors Reinforcing a number of separate behaviors

for a more complex activity. (Obstacle for a more complex activity. (Obstacle course)course)

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

The following terms can also be applied The following terms can also be applied to to Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning. Explain an . Explain an example for each using the Skinner Box.example for each using the Skinner Box.

1.1. AcquisitionAcquisition

2.2. ExtinctionExtinction

3.3. Spontaneous recoverySpontaneous recovery

4.4. GeneralizationGeneralization

5.5. DiscriminationDiscrimination

A Quick Review!!!A Quick Review!!!

Brain defrost……Brain defrost……1.1. Pavlov is to _________ , as Skinner is to Pavlov is to _________ , as Skinner is to

_________ ._________ .2.2. Who coined the phrase behaviorism? (Baby Who coined the phrase behaviorism? (Baby

Albert and aversive conditioning…)Albert and aversive conditioning…)3.3. Pavlov’s classical conditioning involves Pavlov’s classical conditioning involves

natural, or uncontrolled responses (T-F)natural, or uncontrolled responses (T-F)4.4. Identify Skinner’s four major consequences of Identify Skinner’s four major consequences of

operant learning and give an example for operant learning and give an example for each…each…

5.5. Classical conditioning is shaped by ________ , Classical conditioning is shaped by ________ , while operant is shaped by _________ .while operant is shaped by _________ .

Types of ReinforcersTypes of Reinforcers

Primary ReinforcersPrimary Reinforcers Natural reinforcers: Examples?Natural reinforcers: Examples?

• Food, water, rest (innately pleasing)Food, water, rest (innately pleasing)

Secondary ReinforcersSecondary Reinforcers Things we’ve learned to value : Examples?Things we’ve learned to value : Examples?

• Praise, treasure box, to play video gamesPraise, treasure box, to play video games

Money as a ReinforcerMoney as a Reinforcer

Money = Money = generalized reinforcergeneralized reinforcer Can be used for anythingCan be used for anything

Token EconomyToken Economy Tokens as positive reinforcementTokens as positive reinforcement Cash in for other reinforcersCash in for other reinforcers Sound familiar?Sound familiar?

• Schools, mental institutions, prisonsSchools, mental institutions, prisons

Challenges of ParenthoodChallenges of ParenthoodWhat’s the Best Consequence…?What’s the Best Consequence…?

For each of the following, choose only one of For each of the following, choose only one of Skinner’s 4 consequences and how you would Skinner’s 4 consequences and how you would specifically enforce it.specifically enforce it.

1.1. Your ten year old, in a fit of anger, accidentally Your ten year old, in a fit of anger, accidentally breaks the living room window.breaks the living room window.

2.2. Your 11Your 11thth grade teenager tells you she is going to grade teenager tells you she is going to a movie and heads to a party.a movie and heads to a party.

3.3. Your four year old kicks you in the shin.Your four year old kicks you in the shin.

4.4. Your middle school daughter makes straight A’s.Your middle school daughter makes straight A’s.

Questions for Consideration…Questions for Consideration…

Is spanking an advisable punishment for Is spanking an advisable punishment for children?children?

To what extent should we reinforce our kids? To what extent should we reinforce our kids? For each of the following provide a specific For each of the following provide a specific reinforcement, if one is necessary.reinforcement, if one is necessary. Making good grades on your report cardMaking good grades on your report card Completing your chores all weekCompleting your chores all week

Is buying a car for your 16 year old reinforcement?Is buying a car for your 16 year old reinforcement?

Biology and Operant ConditioningBiology and Operant Conditioning

Reinforcers: Effects can VaryReinforcers: Effects can Vary Effect of reinforcer can vary depending on Effect of reinforcer can vary depending on

animal, its instincts, and situationanimal, its instincts, and situation Instinctive DriftInstinctive Drift: ignore rewards to follow natural : ignore rewards to follow natural

(instinctive) behavior(instinctive) behavior

Premack PrinciplePremack Principle If two activities- the one preferred can be used to If two activities- the one preferred can be used to

reinforce the one not preferred.reinforce the one not preferred. Example?Example?

• Eat your lima beans = “may be excused”Eat your lima beans = “may be excused”

Reinforcement SchedulesReinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement Schedules = pattern of Reinforcement Schedules = pattern of reinforcing behaviorreinforcing behavior

Administered in 2 waysAdministered in 2 ways• Ratio = number of responses madeRatio = number of responses made• Interval= passage of timeInterval= passage of time

Reinforcement SchedulesReinforcement Schedules 4 major reinforcement schedules4 major reinforcement schedules

FRFR (Fixed ratio) = Reinforcement after set (Fixed ratio) = Reinforcement after set number of responses- FR-5number of responses- FR-5

VRVR (Variable ratio) = Reinforcement after (Variable ratio) = Reinforcement after varied number of responses (average number varied number of responses (average number of responses set- VR-5)of responses set- VR-5)

FIFI (Fixed Interval) =Fixed amount of time set (Fixed Interval) =Fixed amount of time set before reward for behavior- FI 3before reward for behavior- FI 3

VIVI (variable interval) =varied amount of time (variable interval) =varied amount of time before reward (average time set- VI-3)before reward (average time set- VI-3)

Learning and ExtinctionLearning and Extinction FR and FI = faster acquisition (learning), FR and FI = faster acquisition (learning),

but faster extinctionbut faster extinction VR and VI: Slower learning but slower VR and VI: Slower learning but slower

extinctionextinction Which of these four yields the highest rate Which of these four yields the highest rate

of response?of response? FRFR

Why slower extinction with VR and VI?Why slower extinction with VR and VI?• Noticing a break in pattern is more difficultNoticing a break in pattern is more difficult• ““always that chance”always that chance”

Activity: Identifying reinforcement schedules..Activity: Identifying reinforcement schedules..

Learning with PunishmentLearning with Punishment

Escape learningEscape learning To terminate an aversive stimulus: Example?To terminate an aversive stimulus: Example?

• To disrupt English class so as to “get out”To disrupt English class so as to “get out”

Avoidance learningAvoidance learning To avoid stimulus all together: Example?To avoid stimulus all together: Example?

• Cut English classCut English class

Pitfalls of Punishment…Pitfalls of Punishment…

According to behaviorists, what are the According to behaviorists, what are the potential pitfalls of punishment?potential pitfalls of punishment? Tells only what Tells only what notnot to do, not what to do, not what to doto do…… Creates anxiety which interferes with learningCreates anxiety which interferes with learning Only suppresses behavior, doesn’t eliminate Only suppresses behavior, doesn’t eliminate

(discrimination)(discrimination) Physical punishment = aggressive behavior Physical punishment = aggressive behavior

(correlation, not causation)(correlation, not causation)

Classical v. Operant Classical v. Operant Compare and contrast Classical and Operant Compare and contrast Classical and Operant

Conditioning.Conditioning.

SimilaritiesSimilarities Both forms of associative learningBoth forms of associative learning Both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous Both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous

recovery, generalization, discriminationrecovery, generalization, discrimination Both influenced by biology, cognitionBoth influenced by biology, cognition

DifferencesDifferences ClassicalClassical OperantOperant

Response = automaticResponse = automatic Response = voluntaryResponse = voluntary

Reward independent of actionReward independent of action Reward contingent on actionReward contingent on action

learning = autonomiclearning = autonomic response response learning = voluntary behaviorlearning = voluntary behavior

Behavioral LegacyBehavioral Legacy

Pavlov: Pavlov: Classical Conditioning- how all organisms learn to Classical Conditioning- how all organisms learn to

adapt to their environmentadapt to their environment Practical applications for fears, phobias, etc.Practical applications for fears, phobias, etc.

SkinnerSkinner Definitive insight into learned behaviorDefinitive insight into learned behavior Practical applications aboundPractical applications abound

Both asserted that learning occurs without Both asserted that learning occurs without thought (cognition)thought (cognition)

Focused Focused onlyonly on observable behavior on observable behavior

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning

How could cognitive theorists argue that How could cognitive theorists argue that cognition is influential in both classical and cognition is influential in both classical and operant conditioning?operant conditioning? Classical: CS triggers anticipation of USClassical: CS triggers anticipation of US Operant: awareness that responses = Operant: awareness that responses =

consequences and thus act to maximize consequences and thus act to maximize reinforcement (minimize punishment)reinforcement (minimize punishment)

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning Observational LearningObservational Learning

AKA ModelingAKA Modeling Observation / imitationObservation / imitation Mirror neurons (frontal lobe / neural basis for Mirror neurons (frontal lobe / neural basis for

observational learning)observational learning) Albert Banduras: Bobo Doll ExperimentAlbert Banduras: Bobo Doll Experiment

• Social learning theory (species specific)Social learning theory (species specific) Prosocial behavior (role modeling)Prosocial behavior (role modeling) Antisocial behavior (Bobo Doll Experiment)Antisocial behavior (Bobo Doll Experiment)

• Implications for television and youth?Implications for television and youth? By age 75 in U.S. 9 yrs of T.V.! (9 of 10 homes)By age 75 in U.S. 9 yrs of T.V.! (9 of 10 homes) World Pop Culture (billion tv sets)World Pop Culture (billion tv sets) MTV 17 languages / CNN 150 countriesMTV 17 languages / CNN 150 countries

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning

Latent Learning Latent Learning (“hidden”)(“hidden”) Learning that is not directly observableLearning that is not directly observable Tolman’s Rat maze studyTolman’s Rat maze study

Group 1: reward every time reached goal Group 1: reward every time reached goal Group 2: no reward when reached goalGroup 2: no reward when reached goal Group 3: no reward 1Group 3: no reward 1stst 10 days, reward on 11 10 days, reward on 11thth

Finding: Finding: Latent learningLatent learning (3 (3rdrd group had learned group had learned cognitive mapcognitive map in 1 in 1stst trial, but didn’t show it until trial, but didn’t show it until reward)reward)

Thus learning takes place without reinforcementThus learning takes place without reinforcement

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning

Insight LearningInsight Learning (“aha!”)(“aha!”) Sudden grasp of problem Sudden grasp of problem Wolfgang Kohler: ChimpanzeesWolfgang Kohler: Chimpanzees sudden insight, not gradual strengthening sudden insight, not gradual strengthening

of S-R associationof S-R association

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning

Abstract LearningAbstract Learning Higher order thinking (inferring relationships, Higher order thinking (inferring relationships,

complex problem solving)complex problem solving)