learner variables in

8/13/2019 Learner Variables In

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LEARNER VARIABLES IN

SECOND LANGUAGE AQUISITION


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Learner Variables in SLA1. Learners Beliefs about Language Learning2. Learners Affective States

Anxiety

Self-Esteem Self-efficacy Willingless to communicate Inhibition Risk Taking Empathy

3. Age

4. Language Aptitude5. Learning Styles

Field Dependence-Independence Left and Right Brain Dominance Ambiguity Tolerance Reflectivity and Impulsitivity Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Styles

6. Motivation Integrative Instrumental Resultative Intrinsic and Extrinsic

7. Personality


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Abraham and Vann (1987) found some evidence thatbeliefs might affect learning outcomes in a case study of

two learners. Gerardo believed that paying conscious attention to grammar was

important, while Pedro did not and expressed a strong dislike ofmeta-language. Also, Gerardo thought that it was important topersevere in communicating, while Pedro considered topicabandonment the best strategy in some cases. Abraham and Vann

characterize Gerardos philosophy of language learning as broadand Pedros as narrow. They suggest that this might havecontributed to Gerardos better TOEFL score (523 v. 473) at theend of a course of instruction. Pedro, however, did better o a test ofspoken English, which might suggest that different views aboutlanguage learning result in different kinds of success .

Learners beliefs are also likely to be influenced by general factorssuch as personality and cognitive style as Abraham and Vanns(1987) model of L2 learning suggest.


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Little, Singleton, and Silvius (1984) surveyed randomsamples of undergraduate and postgraduate students of

foreing languages at Trinity College, Dublin.

They found that past experience, both of education in general andof language learning in particular, played a major role in shaping

attitudes to language learning (1990:14) For example, the students stated that they prefered to learn by

production activities (repeating orally and writing) rather than

through receptive activities involving listening and reading.

Litte and Singleton claim that this belief reflected the general nature

of the instruction they had experienced.


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2) Learners Affective States

Understanding how human beings feel and respond andbelieve and value is exceedingly important aspect of atheory of SLA.(Brown, H. Douglas,1941)

Learners need to feel secure and to be free of stressbefore they can focus on the learning task.

One of the beginner learners of German that Ellis and Rathbone(1987) studied reported a period during which she was unable tolearn any German because of a boyfriend problem. These andother studies testify to the complexity and dynamic nature oflearners affective states and the influence these have on their

ability to concentrate on learning .

It is not easy to study the role that affective states play inL2 learning in a systematic manner, because they are soindividualistic and changeable .


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Anxiety:Anxiety plays a major affective role in SLA. Even thoughwe all know what anxiety is and we all have experienced feeling of

anxiousness, anxiety is still not easy to define in a simple sentence.Spielberger (1983, p.1) defined anxiety as the subjective feeling oftension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with anarousal of the autonomic nervous system. More simple put,anxiety isassociated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt,apprehension or worry (Scovel,1978, p. 134).

The research on anxiety suggests that anxiety, like self-esteem, canbe experienced ar various levels (Horwitz, 2001; Oxford, 1999).

Trait anx iety is a more permanent predisposition to be anxious, itis the deepest or global and it is best viewed as an aspect ofpersonality.

State anx iety can be defined as apprehension that is experienced at aparticular moment in time as a response to a definite situation (Spielberger,1983).

Situat ion-specif ic anxiety consists of the anxiety which is aroused by aspecific type of situation or event such aspublic speaking, examinations orclass participation.


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Language anxiety is a part of situation-specific anxiety and it has 3

components; communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of

negative social evaluation.

Studies conclude that foreing language anxiety can be distinguishedfrom other types of anxiety and that it can have a negative effect on

the language learning process (Maclntyre & Gardner, 1991c,p.112).We should also know the diffirence between debi l i tat iveand

faci l i tat iveanxiety (Albert and Haber, 1960; Scovel, 1978), or

Oxford (1999) called harmful and helpfu l anxiety. In Baileys (1983) study of competitiveness and anxiety in second

language learning, facilitative anxiety was one of the keys to

success, closely related to competitiveness.

Too much and too litte anxiety may hinder the process of successful

second language learning.


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Self-Esteem:It expresses an attitude of approval ordisapproval, and indicates the extent to which individuals

believe themselves to be capable, significant, sucessful and

worthy. In short, self-esteem is a personal judgement of

worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that individuals

hold toward themselves (Coopersmith, 1967, pp. 4-5).


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3) Age

There is a widely-held lay belief that younger L2 learners generallydo better than older learners. This is supported by the ctitical period

hypothesis, according to which there is a fixed span of years during

which language learning can take place naturally and effortlessly,

and after which it is not possible to be completely successful.

The effects o f age on the acquis i ton of n at ive-speaker prof ic iency

This is the crucia l quest ion for the cr i t ica l per iod hypo thesis. In Neufelds(1978) study, 20 adult native speakers of English were given 18 hours of

intensive intruction in the pronunciation of Chinese and Japanese. To test

the nativeness of their pronunciation, the learners were given an imitationtest and their utterances judged on a five-point scale by native speakers

of the two languages.Nine and eight of the subjects were rated as native

for Japanese and Chinese respectively. This study suggest, therefore, thatunder the right conditions adults can achieve native ability in

pronunciation-the area of language generally considered to be the most

difficult for adults to acquire. However, his study has been strongly

criticized by the supporters of the critical period hypothesis.


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Some General Conclusions

1. Adult learners have an initial advantage where rate of learning is

concerned, particularly in grammar. They will eventually be overtaken by

child learners who receive enough exposure to the L2.

2. Only child learners are capable of acquiring a native accent in informal

learning context.

3. Children may be more likely to acquire a native grammatical

competence. The critical period for grammar may be later than for

pronunciation( around 15 years). Some adult learners, however, may

succeed in acquiring native level of grammatical accuracy in speech and

writing and even full linguistic competence.

4. Irrespective of whether native-speaker proficiency is achieved, childrenare more likely to reach higher levels of attainment in both pronunciation

and grammar than adults.

5. The process of acquiring an L2 grammar is not substantially affected by

age, but that of acquiring pronunciation may be.


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4) Language Aptitude

Language aptitude can be defined as capability of learning atask, which depends on some combination of more or lessenduring characteristics of the learner. (Carroll, 1981)

The general claim that language aptitude constitues a

relevant factor in L2 aquisition entails, in Carrolls view, a

number of more specific claims. The first one; aptitude is separate from achievement.

The second one; aptitude must be shown to be seperate from

motivation.

The third one; aptitude must be seen as stable factor, perhaps

even innate.(Learners aptitude is difficult to alter throug training.) The fourth one; aptitude is to be viewed not as a prerequisite for

L2 aquisition.

Finally, aptitude must be found to be distinct from general

intelligence .


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The two main instruments used to measure aptitude were

developed in the 1950s and 1960s.

The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) (Carroll and Sapon, 1959)

The Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) (Pimsleur, 1966)

Other less well-known aptitude tests include the Defence Language

Aptitude Battery( Petersen and Al-Haik, 1976) and The York

Language Aptitude Test(Green,1975).

Carroll (1965) identified four factors in language aptitude:

1. Phonemic coding ability (foreign sounds, spell and handle sound-

symbol relationships).

2. Grammatical sensitivity (the grammatical functions of words insentences).

3. Inductive language learning ability (patterns of correspondence and

relationships involving form and meaning).

4. Rote learning ability (form and remember associations between stimuli)


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5) Learning Styles

Learning styles might be thought of ascognitive, affective, and physiological traitsthat are relatively stable indicators of how

learners perceive, interact with, and

respond to the learning environment(Keefe, 1979, p.4).

Individuals show general tendecies toward

one style or another, but differing contextswill evoke differing styles in the same

individual.


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Field Dependence:tendect to be dependent on thetotal field so that the parts embedded within the field are

not easily perceived, although that total field is perceived

more clearly as a unified whole. (Field Sensitivity)

Development of a field dependent style has possitive

effects; you perceive the whole picture, the larger view,

the general configuration of a problem or idea or event.

Both of FI and FD are necessary for the most of the

cognitive and affective problems we face.


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Field Dependence/

Independence Field Independence:ability to perceive a

particular, relevant item or factor in a fieldof distracting items. Find the hidden monkeys in the trees.

FI style enables you to distinguish partsfrom a whole, to concentrate on somethinglike reading a book in a noisy train station.

But, too much FI may result in cognitive

tunnel vision: you see only the parts andnot their relation to the whole. You cant see the forest for the trees.


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FI and FDs Role in SLA

There are two conflicting hypotheses haveemerged.

The first hypotheses support that FI is closelyrelated to classroom learning that involves

analyis, attention to details and mastering ofexercises, drills and other focused activities.And ,they provided evidence of superiority of a FI stylefor second language success.

Abraham (1985) found that second language learnerswho were FI performed better in deductive lessons,while those with FD styles were more successful withinductive lesson designs.


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The second of the conflicting hypotheses proposes that a

FD style will, by virtue of its assosiation with empathy,social outreach and perception of other people, yield

successful learning of the communicative aspects of a

second language

The two hypotheses are paradoxical: How could FDbe most important on the one hand and FI equally important? The anwer is both sytles are important. Depending upon the context of

learning, individual learners can vary their utilizationof FI or FD . If a task

requires FI, individuals may ivoke a FI style; if it requires FD, they may

ivoke a FD style.

In SLA, it may be incorrect to assume that learners should be

either FI or FD.


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Left and Right Brain

Dominance As the childs brain matures, various functions

become lateralized to the left or right hemisphere.

The left hemisphere is associated with logical,analytical thought, with mathematical and linearprocessing of information.

The right hemisphere perceives and remembersvisual, tactile, and auditory images; it is moreefficient in processing holistic, integrative, andemotional information.

Despite the diffirences between left and right brain,it is important to remember that the left and righthemispheres operate together as a team.


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Krashen, Seliger, and Hartnett (1974) found support for

the hypothesis that left-brain-dominant learnersappeared to be more successful in an inductiveclassroom environment.

Stevick (1982) concluded that left-brain-dominant secon

language learners are better at producing separatewords, gathering the specifics of language, carrying outsequences of operations and dealing with abstraction,classification, labeling and reorganization.Right-brain-dominant learners, on the other hand, appear to dealbetter with whole images, with generalizations, withmetaphors, and with emotional reactions and artisticexpressions.


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Left and right-brain characterictis(adapted from Torrance,1980)

Left-Brain Dominance Intellectual

Remembers names

Responds to verbal instructions andexplanations

Experiments systematically andwith control

Makes objective judgements

Planned and structured Prefers established, certain

information

Analytic reader

Reliance on language in thinkingand remembering

Prefers talking and writing

Prefers multiple-choice test

Controls feelings

Not good at interpreting bodylanguage

Rarely uses metaphors

Favors logical problem solving

Right-Brain Dominance Intuitive

Remembers faces

Responds to demonstrated, illustrated, orsymbolic instructions

Experiments randomly and with lessrestraint

Makes subjective jugments

Fluid and spontanneous Prefers elusive, uncertain information

Synthesizing reader

Reliance on images in thinking andremembering

Prefers drawing and manipulating objects

Prefers open-ended questions

More free with feelings Good at interpreting body language

Frequently uses metaphors

Favors intuitive problem solving


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Ambiguity Tolerance

Some people are open-minded in acceptingideologies and events and facts that contradicttheir own views; we can say that they areambiguity tolerant.

Others, more close-minded and dogmatic, tendto reject items that are contradictory with theirexisting system;we can say that they areambiguity intolerant.They wish to see every

proposition fit into an acceptable place in theircognitive organization, and if it does not fit, it isrejected.


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Advantages and Disadvantages of Being

Tolerant

In second language learning, a great amount of

apparently contradictory information is encountered:

words that differ from native language

rules that not only differ but that are internally inconsistent because of

certain exceptions sometimes a whole cultural system that is distant from that of the native

culture.

Succesful language learning necessitates tolerance of

such ambiguities.

However, too much tolerance of ambiguity can have a

detrimental effect. People can become wishy-washy,accepting everything without looking they are

meaningful or not.


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Advantages and Disadvantages of Being Intolerant

A certain intolerance at an optimal level prevents

learners from wishy-washiness.

But intolerance can close the mind too soon, ifambiguity is perceived as a threat; the result is

rigid, dogmatic and brittle mind that is too narrow to

be creative.

This may be particularly harmful in secondlanguage learning.


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Reflectivity and Impulsitivity

If a learner tends to make slow and more calculateddecisions,s/he is a reflectivelearner.

If s/he tends to make either a quick or gambling guess at an

answer to a problem, s/he is an impu ls ivelearner.

It has been found that children who are conceptually

reflective tend to make fewer errors in reading than impulsive

children (Kagan, 1965); however, impulsive persons are

usually faster readers, and eventually master the

psycholinguistic guessing game(Goodman, 1970) of readingso that their impulsive style of reading may not necessarily

deter comprehension.


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Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic

Styles Another dimension of learning style is the preference that learners showtoward either visual, auditory, and kinesthetic input.

Visuallearners tend to prefer reading and studying charts, drawings and othergraphic information.

Auditorylearners prefer listening to lectures and audiotapes.

Kinestheticlearners will show a preference for demonstrations and physicalactivity involving bodily movement.

In one study of adult learners of ESL, Joy Reid (1987) found some significantcross -cultu ral dif ferencesin visual and auditory styles.Among Reidsresults; Korean students were significantly more visually oriented thannative English-speaking Americans ; Japanese students were the leastauditory students, significantly less auditorily inclined than Chinese andArabic students.

The researches on learning styles prods us as teachers to help students firstof all to take charge of their language learning process-to becomeautonomous learners, and then to become aware of their styles,preferences, strengths and weaknesses, and finally to take appropriateaction on their second language learning challenges.


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6) Motivation

Behavioristic Cognitive Constructivist

Anticipation of reward

Desire to receive

positive reinforcement

External, individual

forces in control

Driven by basic human

needs (exploration,

manipulation, etc.)

Degree of effortexpended

Internal, individual

forces in control

Social context

Community

Social status

Security of groups

Internal, interactiveforces in control

Three views of motivation

Motivation is something that can, like self-esteem, be global, situational, ortask-oriented. Learning a foreign language requires some of all three levels of

motivation.


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Instrumental and Integrative

Orientations According to Gardners socio-educational model,

an integrat ive orientat ioninvolves an interest inlearning an L2 because of a sincere and personalinterest in the people and culture represented bythe other language group(Lambert 1974:98). It

contrasts with an instrumental or ientat ion, whichconcerns the practical value and advantages oflearning a new language.

Orientation, however, is not the same asmotivation, which is defined by Gardner aseffort + desire to achieve the goal of learning the language

+favourable attitudes towards learning the language(1985:10).


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Thus, whereas orientation refers tothe underlying reasons for studying an

L2, motivation refers to the directed

effort individual learners make to learnthe language.

According to Gardner, orientation and L2

achievement are only indirectly related,but

motivation and achievement are directly related.


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Resultative Motivation

Gardner (1985) claims that motivation constitutes a causativevariable, altough he is also prepared to accept that some

modifications of learnes attitudes can arise as a resu lt ofpos i t ive learning exper iences, particularly in courses of a

short duration.

Other studies suggest that learners motivation is stronglyaffected by their achievement.

Resultative Hypothesis claims that learners who do well aremore likely to develop motivational intensity and to be active

in the classroom.

A high level of motivation does stimulate learning, butperceived success in achieving L2 goals can help to maintain

existing motivation and even create new types.


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Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Motivation Edward Deci (1975, p. 23) defined in t r ins ic mot ivation:

Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparentreward except the activity itself. People seem to engage in theactivities for their own sakeand not because they lead to an extrinsicreward...Intrinsically motivated behaviours are aimed at bringing aboutcertain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings ofcompetence and self-determintion.

On the other hand, extr insic mo t ivat ionis fueld by the anticipationof reward from outsideand beyond the self. Typical extrinsicrewards are money, prizes, grades and even certain types ofpositive feedback.

Which form of motivation is more powerful? Maslow (1970) claimed that intrinsic motivation is clearly superior to

extrinsic. According to his hierarchy of needs, motivation is dependent onthe satisfaction first of fundemmental physical necessities (air,water,food), then of community, security, identity and self esteem, thefulfillment of which finally leads to self-actualization.


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7) Personality

In the eyes of many language teachers, thepersonality of their students constitutes a majorfactor contributing to success or failure in languagelearning. Moreover, there are dozens of tests andquestionnaires designed to tell about personality.

Among those tests, the widely popular one is theMyers-Briggs test(Myers, 1962). Borrowing fromsome of Carl Jungs (1923) types, the Myers-Briggs team tested four dichotomous styles offunctioning in the Myers-Briggs test:

Introversion vs. extroversion

Sensing vs. intuition

Thinking vs. feeling

Judging vs. perceiving


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Extroversion vs.Introversion

Extravertsare sociable, like parties, havemany friends and need excitement; they are

sensation-seekers and risk-takers, like

practical jokes and lively and active.

Introvertsare quiet, prefer reading to

meeting people, have few but close friends

and usually avoid excitement. (Eysenck andChan,1982:154)


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There are two hypotheses regarding the relationship

between extroversion/introversion and L2 learning.

The first one is that extroverted learners will do better inacquiring basic interpersonal communication skills. The

rationale for this hypothesis is that sociability will result in

more opportunities to practice, more input, and more

success in communicating in the L2. The second hypothesis is that introverted learners

typically enjoy more academic success, perhaps because

they spend more time reading and writing (Griffiths

1991b).

Which one are you?


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