lean principles and project mapping application to project processes. submitted

Olufemi Isaac Akinjiyan. @00333369.

Lean Integrated Design and Production. @00333369.

May 2016. Project Management in Construction.

Lean Principles and Project Mapping Application to Project Processes.

University of Salford

School of the Built Environment

BSc (Hons) Architectural Design and Technology



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List of Figures

Figure 1 5

Figure 2 6

Figure 3a 7

Figure 3b 8

Figure 3c 8

Figure 4 9

Figure 5 13

Figure 6 13

Figure 7 14

Figure 8 15

Figure 9 16

Figure 10 18

Figure 11 18

Figure 12 19

Figure 13 21

Figure 14 23

Table of content

Executive Brief 2

Aim and Objective 2

1.0. Introduction 3

1.1. Project Process Explained. 3

1.2. Process Improvement. 4

2.0. Identified Project Process. 5

3.0. Explanation of the Lean Production Principles. 9

4.0. Developed Target Process. 17



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5.0. Implementing Lean Production Principles. 19

6.0. Plan for Continuous Improvement. 22

7.0. Conclusion. 24

Reference 25

Executive Brief.

The purpose of this report is simply to implement Lean Production Principles (LPP) into an

identified project process selected by the writer. This will involve explaining both the current

process selected and Lean Production Principles. After which improvement to the process will be

suggested and implemented to ascertain if the suggested process is improved or not. Also a clear

plan is derived to ensure continuous improvement to the process.

The report is divided into five parts; the first part is sub-divided into two parts (a) to give a brief

explanation of what project processes are. (b) to determine a process within the writer’s design

field, which will be explained in details and give a clear and concise explanation of the project

context. This is achieved by critically evaluating the chosen process. The second part involves an

explanation of the LPP, its theoretical benefits and discussing how these benefits will impact on

the particular context. Thirdly, developing a target process based on the consideration of

alternative approaches. Achieved by thinking critically about the choices made in developing a

target process. Fourthly, to highlight the challenges within the process and deriving appropriate

measures to deal with the highlighted challenges. This is achieved by directly implementing LPP

to the process for improvement. Lastly, developing a clear and functional plan to ensure

continuous improvement (CI) is achieved in the process afterwards.

Aims and Objectives

The aims and objectives of the report is basically to address the following issues;

To identify and critically identify a chosen project process.

To give detailed explanation of the Lean Production Principles.

To highlight the challenges within the process and deriving appropriately measures to deal with

the highlighted challenges.

To develop a clear and functional plan to ensure continuous improvement is achieved in the

process afterwards.



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1.0. Introduction.

The report is based on choosing a familiar Project Process, a Building Project Design Process is

selected by the writer based on having an Architectural background and a designer in a

multidisciplinary office. Which comprises of structural, mechanical designers and the architects

are the lead discipline. The motive is to investigate the reputation achieved by the office over the

years which is now fading away due to drop in profits. This awareness made the management

team request for a detailed report with effective ideas to improve overall productivity. The writer

is familiar with the current office operations leading to poor performance and observed daily

issues that leads to reduced productivity as;

i. The lack of well-structured brief, changes to design requirements and delayed decisions

by the client.

ii. The inappropriate approach of distributing tasks within the office, where some staffs are

overloaded and others are practically doing nothing.

iii. Not having time to produce creative designs and working in collaboration with other

designers due to time spent on solving design problems and waiting time for approval or

other issues.

iv. Design tasks usually do not start early due to lack of information from other designers

making the architect request for those information and resulting in time wasting.

Otherwise assumptions will be made by architect to start early without all input from

other designers and this leads to wasted time due to wrong input information.

v. No one is responsible for the preparation and implementing design schedules and due

dates for project completion are usually not accurate.

vi. The interference of information between drawings (architectural, structural and

mechanical drawings) on construction sites despite been produced as a team.

vii. The transferring of senior designer’s experience to young designers is in efficient due to

lack of discussion and joint design problem solving.

The highlighted points will be used as reference to develop ideas that would facilitate

improvement and overall increase productivity. LLP will be suggested as a possible way of trying

different approach for project delivery based on the fact that the office has good relationship

with a repeat client.

The next part of the report is to give a brief explanation of what project process is, its usefulness

and improvement quality. After this, a process within the writer’s design field will be identified

and explained clearly and concisely in details.

1.1. Project Process Explained.

Definition: It is important to understand what a process is within a project, Codinhoto and

Koskela (2000), makes it clear that a process is a series of steps taken to produce a product or



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service. On the other hand, Fleming (2016), defines process as a sequence of actions or

procedures performed for a given purpose and simplifies that process is what one do by utilizing

the combination of people, tools and procedure. Codinhoto and Koskela (2000), went further to

explain that a process can be viewed as a value chain. In the sense that each step within the

process should add value to the preceding step. Contributing to the creation of product or

service. Process mapping concept helps to facilitate each step in a project process when

represented in workflow diagrams. This makes it clear to identify possible improvements within

the process, such as eliminating duplicated activities, inspections, multiple reviews, approvals

and movement at work. It includes implementing pull demand system, optimizing flow,

organizing multifunctional teams and structuring task layout.

Uses: The main purpose and uses of process mapping amongst others is to understand what one

is aiming to achieve either to gain a better understanding of the current process and

communicating it effectively to parties involved or to restructure the entire process in other to

remove waste by applying the improvement techniques of the LPP. There are various techniques

in achieving a functional project process mapping, this includes; Activity Process Mapping (used

in a process current state and results into the development of a new process map that will allow

for better understanding of the change. It also facilitates the ease in transition from current to

future processes), Integrated DEFinition (IDEF) Modelling (this technique incorporates a

combination of graphics, narrative symbols and rules designed to capture the processes and

structures of an organisation. According to IDEF (2016), IDEFO is a technique developed to

express activities and actions of systems or an organization. Derived from a graphical language

called Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT). It comprises of a series of diagrams in

hierarchical order that showcase levels of project detail. This reflects how process functions

relate and operate collaboratively), Value Stream Mapping (this approach compiles all activities

and controls required to develop a product or service through the main flow from raw material

to delivery to the customer. Main purpose is to identify and eliminate waste within the process

by removing non value adding steps and Information or Material Flow (this is useful in explaining

communication or transportation routes and the waste inherent in these processes. It allows the

removal of bottlenecks or barriers from interrupting the flow of material and information).

1.2. Process Improvement:

A process is improved by using the Planning, Doing, Checking and Acting model or the Deming

cycle as explained by Codinhoto and Koskela (2000) for continuous improvement. It makes the

cycle of continuous improvement clear by reducing the differences in customer requirement and

process performance. Resulting to delivering and meeting customer’s satisfaction, value and

expectation.



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2.0. Identified Project Process.

Now that a basic understating of what project process involves, the writer identified the

process/processes involved in a Building Project from project inception to completion. Being an

Architect, the processes involved from the time a client approaches an Architect after an idea or

a building need is defined will be processed by the writer. This entails the processes involved

from initial consultation by client through to the briefing, concept formation, designing,

procurement, construction and handover. However, the traditional procurement method will be

the main process to be assessed. In other to have a structured and well defined approach for this

process, the Royal Institute of British Architect (RIBA) Plan of Work will be used as a guide as

shown in figure 1.

It is also important to outline the process by showing the flow of activities from initial

consultation by client to an Architect through to project completion in Figure 2.



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From figure above, the Client consults the Architect once a need to build is required, where the

design brief is discussed. The architect develops a strategic brief based on client requirements

and ensures the client approves the developed strategic brief. Once approved by client the

project continues to progress into the concept formation stage and planning permission is looked

into. A developed and technical design is achieved by the architect in conjunction with other

designers i.e. structural and mechanical engineers. Once design is fully developed tender is sent

out for possible building contractor to tender for the construction of the project. Construction

work commences once a building contractor is selected during the procurement stage, after

construction comes the handing over followed by the use of the building by prospective

occupants.

Figure 2 identifies a broad process flow in the building project, which is very challenging to explain

the flow of activities within each processes. This resulted in processing the flow of activities

within the Procurement stage due to the assumption of the writer that a Traditional Procurement

method is adopted for the continuous repeat building projects the office embarks upon. To

investigate if process improvement can be made by removing waste and non-value adding

elements within the traditional method of procurement. The IDEF Model is used to explain the

process in details showing the context, level 1 and 2 diagrams in figures 3a to 3c respectively.

UML diagram can also be used to further explain the flow of activities within the traditional

procurement method.



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From the figures above there is a sequence in which processes are carried out, they are processed

differently and this leads to time wasting because the stages lack effective communication

amongst participants. To develop these processes further, it is suggested that processes should

be processed concurrently and communication improved in other to eliminate non value adding

elements.

Based on figure 3c, the generic process of traditional procurement method is illustrated in figure

4 highlighting time wasting due to waiting for required information, inspection and approval in

the whole process.

3.0. Explanation of the Lean Production Principles.

According to Liker (2004), Lean can be described as long term philosophy of an organization,

respect for people and learning continuously or improving a process. Whereas, Kagioglou et al.,

2007), explains that the lean philosophy is an approach focused on closing the gap that exists

between designing and production activities while value increased.

Codinhoto and Koskela (2008) emphasizes that Lean production was developed by Toyota the

car manufacturer, Taiichi Ohno (Shingo 1989) their Chief Engineer was responsible for



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implementing it. This resulted to Toyota wanting to utilize scarce resources following World War

II and to improve the quality of products offered to customers. Toyota achieved this by exploiting

the theories of Deming (1982), Juran (1979) and previously established production management

tools to introduce a customer focused method of production that is aimed at reducing waste.

Tools such as Kanban replenishment (Kanban is a Japanese word for card, Toyota used it to

manage the flow of production materials and serves as a pull production system as described by

Liker (2004), the 5S (Sort, Stabilize, Shine, Standardize and Sustain. Liker (2004), explains that

these are sets of activities used to eliminate wastes that leads to defects, injuries and errors.

Whereas, Wikipedia (2016), emphasizes that the 5S involves proper housekeeping by removing

items not required in a process to facilitate easy and fast method of obtaining tools or parts.

Liker (2004), pronounced that Just-In-Time (JIT) is a technique used by companies which allows

them to produce and deliver products with limited lead time, smaller quantities and specific

customer requirement. It also reduces the quantity of inventory companies stock and creates

flexible environment for products manufactured by the companies. These were used to develop

the new method of production. It is important to know that Lean production had set objectives

for the production system, where cars was ‘made to order’ based on specific customers’

requirements by ensuring inventories and intermediate stores are minimal to the overall

production process.

Toyota developed their lean production system by identifying waste (also known as Muda) and

finding ways to eliminate them. The elimination of these waste resulted to the lean production

system. Ohno (1988), identified seven wastes in Fleming (2016) and this inspired Monden (1992),

to identify three categories of operations that exist within any production process to include;

Value adding: These are activities that transforms data, idea, information and raw

material to meet perceived end objective and customer requirement.

Essential (or necessary) non-value adding: These are activities that are usually crucial

in an existing process but require a major change to remove the activity within the

system.

Non-value adding: These are generally wastes, they are activities that does add value

to the process and they occupy space, time and yet take up time, space and exploit

resources.

Ohno (1988) in Fleming (2016), stressed that the first five waste identified refers to the flow of

materials within a given system and the last two deals with men operating the system. The waste

includes the following;

Waste of Overproduction: This deals with the production of products ahead of customer order

by making too much just in case there is production shortage. This approach affects the smooth

flow of goods and services, leads to poor product quality or production and unnecessary storage

and lead time. The chances of defects are increased in over production because defects are not



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detected on time, products are damaged, inventories are increased, barrier to communication,

tying capital down and unusual work pressure are adopted. The aim of implementing lean is to

produce exactly what is required, when required and with perfect quality. This is achieved where

the Kanban system is used to prevent unplanned production by allowing work to progress only

when the next work stage is ready. Bottlenecks, work in progress, manufacturing lead time and

delivery sizes are examples of overproduction.

Waste of correction: This is waste caused due to defects, which cost money, time and results in

damaging reputations in product delivery. Bicheno (1998), explains that the principle of Cost of

Quality is used to prevent and rectify defects and it enables quantifying all activities involved in

prevention and rectifying defects. Examples of waste of correction are lost goods, damage due

to transportation, rework, errors from paperwork etc.

Waste of material movement: This involves the movement of materials or component and

handling (double) operations. These activities result to product damage and affects both quality

and productivity. Lean is implemented in waste of material movement by ensuring the reduction

in transportation and handling, for instance locating a design office relatively close to site office

to facilitate the flow of communication. Travelling distance on site and to site, storing deliveries,

handling materials etc. are all examples of waste of material movement.

Waste of processing: Unnecessary processing of materials leads to waste in the sense that when

inappropriate inputs are processed they lead to poor quality because they are not helpful rather

causes detects. LPP emphasis adopting a capable process that employs the precise training,

method, tools and a clearly stated required standards. Instances of waste in processing includes

but not limited to rework, customer’s requirement not met by product produced, inspection,

quotations etc.

Waste of inventory: This type of waste is acquired when an organisation produce product outside

customer order and stores them in stores for emergency purposes should in case the

organisation runs out of production. problems associated with waste of inventory are products

with defects are not identified easily, increases lead time, takes up space and affects

communication etc. LPP is focused on producing product based on customer pull and meeting

their requirement JIT with perfect quality by reducing inventory. Examples of the waste of

inventory include; over ordering, storage space, early deliveries, shortages caused by damage to

goods stored over time.

Waste of waiting: Waste of waiting comes to play whenever time is used inappropriately,

resulting to delay in activities within a process and it’s an indication of waste. It’s a known fact

that people generally don’t like waiting to be attended to therefore, the waiting time within a

given process should be minimized to the very minimal level zero. LPP stresses that the waiting

time should be spent on other activities such as cleaning, training of staffs, maintain etc. these



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activities helps to improve quality and productivity when adopted. Materials and labour

shortages, breaking down of plants, ineffective planning and coordination are examples of waste

of waiting.

Waste of motion: This occurs when movement that are unnecessary takes place, such as

workmen taking unnecessary positions like bending, stretching or moving in order to view better.

These movements affect the quality and productivity of output or work. In resolving this issue

the application of ergonomics of the work place should be carried out and workers should be

aware of it. Toyota achieved this by encouraging employees to familiarise themselves with

conditions that leads to waste of motion. When stretching to reach goods or materials, searching

for materials or drawings, walking to get materials are all examples of waste of motion.

Other wastes: Codinhoto and Koskela (2000), makes it clear that other researcher suggested the

eight waste or other waste, which include the waste of excessive energy, of pollution, of human

potential, of complexity etc. liker (2004), is of the opinion that the 8th waste are unused

employee’s creativity such as;

wasting ideas, lack of skills improvement and learning opportunities when employees are not

engaged in activities or decision making.

Lean production aims to optimize production system performance against perfection standard

to meet specific customer requirements by adopting the five lean principles explained by

Womack and Jones (2003). The five principles are described as;

1. Value: This is the specification of value by product or service and understanding the

value the customer wants. This is achieved by establishing customer expectation and

requirement, setting targets, controls and examining results. These are done after identifying the

products to produce.

2. Value Stream: This requires identifying and defining the value stream by mapping out and

classifying the value, focusing the beginning and end point on the customer and removing

activities that are non-value adding.

3. Flow: This involves making appropriate information and product flow by eliminating

waste. Generally aiming to develop a one-piece flow that is continuous explained by Rother et al.

(2001), harmonising all activities together, focusing on possible constraints, establishing a rate of

flow and preventing bottlenecks from delaying the progress of activities.

4. Pull: Allowing the customer to order before product is processed for manufacture and

ensuring that supplies are supplied quickly in accurate quality when required during production

or to customers.

5. Perfection: This entails continuous improvement to reach perfection, achieved by

continuously working to improve performance, product quality and productivity. Also by striving

to achieve zero defects, creating a transparent environment and increasing the rate of flow.



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In addition to the five lean principles mentioned earlier, Toyota further developed the Toyota

Production System (TPS) which is diagrammatically represented in figure 5.

Toyota based the TPS on 14 Principles and applied them to their production system, this achieved

what is known today as LPP. Toyota also used a model called the “Toyota way” to facilitate their

overall philosophy, this is explained in figure 6.



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The TPS 14 Principles are highlighted by Fleming (2016) as;

Principle 1: Basing management decisions on a long term philosophy, even at the expense of

short term financial goals.

This involves making customer commitment their focus on long term basses ensuring best quality

products are produced for customers and by not allowing financial gain to overcome customer

commitment. Building mutual trust with the people and ensuring employees maintain their

culture at all times.

Principle 2: Creating continuous process flow to bring problems to the surface.

The concept behind this principle is to implement a continuous one-piece flow to reduce waste

quickly. Implementing this principle brings about the benefits of creating flexibility, freeing up

spaces, improving safety, reducing cost of inventory etc.

Principle 3: Use the "Pull" system to avoid overproduction.

By implementing the pull system to produce only the required material once subsequent

operations signals a need for material. The Kanban system is used and this helps to reduce

overproduction.

Principle 4: Level out the workload (Heijunka).

This involves building according to overall volume of order placed by customer in a given time

and spreading the work load over the same mix or amount carried out daily. By building to order

increases inventory, poor quality and hides problems. The main focus of this principle is to

eliminate Muda (nonvalue added activities), Muri (Overburdening of equipment and people) and

Mura (Unevenness) by striking a balance within them as illustrated in figure 7 making it clear that

the focus should be on both flow and evenness.



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Principle 5: Build a culture of stopping to fix problems, aiming to get quality right the first time.

This approach gives power and authority to any worker in a process to stop the process by

signalling whenever quality issue is observed during production using the Andon system.

Principle 6: Standardize Tasks are the foundation for continuous improvement and employee

empowerment.

It involves knowing the time required for completing a job at the pace of customer request by

understanding the sequence of carrying out activities. Knowing the inventory quality available,

encouraging workers to adopt a standard procedure for working and practicing approaches in

other to facilitate improvement.

Principle 7: Use visual control so no problems are hidden.

This emphasis the ability of a worker or parties involved in a process to look at the process,

information or equipment and immediately determine the standard set to perform the task

within the process. This is explained in figure 8 where visual control is used at the train station to

direct passengers on how to get to their destinations.



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Illustrates further, that all processes and people should adopt the 5S Program (sorting, straighten,

shine, standardise and sustain). This helps to ensure working environment are tidy, productive

and efficient by helping workers to reduce time in search of required tools and ultimately to

improve working environment. The 5s program is illustrated in figure 9.

Principle 8: Use only reliable, thoroughly tested technology that serves your people and

processes.

Achieved by introducing new technology that adds value into a process by removing Muda. The

new technology is thoroughly tested to serve people and processes. Usually technology is

implemented by a pull from manufacturing and not pushed by other departments.

Principle 9: Grow leaders who thoroughly understand the work, live the philosophy, and teach It

to others.

It entails having grown leaders from within the organization like Toyota did, in other to avoid a

change of direction and eliminating unevenness. Leaders must adhere to the principles and

encourage workers accordingly. Whenever problem arises managers must be on ground to see

and understand the situation, this helps to promote the Toyota culture.

Principle 10: Develop exceptional people and teams who follow your company's philosophy.

Toyota achieved this by ensuring manager and team leader are capable and always there to

support the work of team members, problem solve issues and focusing on quality. The teams

should self-motivate, learn from each other and coordinate their work effectively. Also ensured

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5S

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology



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that new members are given adequate orientation to introduce them to TPS concept, rules of

engagement and mission.

Principle 11: Respect your extended network of partners and suppliers by challenging them and

helping them improve.

Toyota went about treating their suppliers like family, with respect and dignity. Enforcing them

to perform better and always there to help them achieve it. They employed the process of

Jishuken which helped to develop networks and supplier’s association that helps to improve their

understanding on how to implement the TPS.

Principle 12: Go and see for yourself to thoroughly understand the Situation (Genchi Genbutsu).

Toyota emphasis the need for managers and designer alike to be on ground to see how design

affects processes. It is believed that if the situation is not personally experienced, one will not

have a proper understanding of how the situation can be improved.

Principle 13: Make decisions slowly by consensus, thoroughly consider all options; implement

decisions rapidly.

The application of this principle is to avoid hasty and not thoroughly thought out decisions where

steady methodical approaches are preferred. However, Toyota ensured that the Nemawashi

process (find out cause, determine cause, consideration, build resolution and use effective

communication tools) is adopted once a decision is made by implementing the decision’s quickly

Principle 14: Become a learning organization through relentless reflection (Hansei) and

continuous improvement (Kaizen).

This principle is a combination of all other principles to Toyota as an entity where continuous

improvement (kaizen), deep reflection (Hansei), organizational and individual goals (Hoshin and

Kanri) are all implemented across the TPS. The 5 whys process is adopted as a problem solving

technique to determine the improvement.

4.0. Developed Target Process:

In developing a target process based on the consideration of alternative approaches within the

identified processes in figure 2, 3a to 3c, it is suggested by the writer that building projects should

be processed concurrently in other to eliminate waste such as; reworks, waiting for information,

approvals and ultimately removing non-value adding elements. Figure 10 illustrates a proposed

building process that should be adopted for building process in other to facilitate effective

collaborative working and eliminate waste as against the generic approach illustrated in figure 2.



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Aqua Group (1999), made it clear that the traditional procurement method does not allow

overlapping of activities within the process (see figure 11). In the sense that before invitation to

tender occurs, the bill of quantities, specification and full set of drawing must have been

developed. This takes time, leads to delay when certain information is not ready and it affects

project overall productivity.



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Based on the detailed facts above, Figure 12 below emphasises an alternative approach in making

it more efficient in terms of speed for project delivery. This approach carries out activities at the

same time where the BOQ, specification and design are developed concurrently to facilitate a

quick tender process that leads to the selection of contractors, sub-contractors, suppliers and

specialist alike on time. Overall the lead time of the process will be short, collaborating working

and effective communication is encouraged amongst designers leading to fast project delivery.

5.0. Implementing Lean Production Principles:

In other to implement LPP and improve the highlighted seven challenges stated in the

introduction of this report, the management theories explained by Koskela and Howell (2002),

that project management theories are based on three theories such as management as Planning,

Execution and Control comes into play alongside with TPS principles. It is suggested by the writer

that the following approaches should be adopted in dealing with the challenges stated earlier in

regards to the office short comings as listed below;

i. Lack of well-structured brief, design changes and delayed client decision: In correcting



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these issues, management as planning must be spot on by ensuring that clients brief is properly

structured, client is certain of what is required to avoid changes to requirements and decision

making by both parties should not be delayed (although making decisions slowly by thoroughly

considering all options and implementing it rapidly in accordance to principle 13 of TPS is

essential). Alongside proper planning, management as organizing is also essential in the sense

that it considers human behaviour of managers capable of planning and acting. The “V” model is

as well useful because it helps to establish the beginning of development process based on client

requirement and specification. Implementing the suggested approach will help overcome the

issue of not having a well structure brief, occurrence of changes and delay in project management

within the office.

ii. Inappropriate distributing of tasks: Uneven distribution of work load will be resolved by

employing the management by Execution theory. This entails evenly allocating tasks to staffs

usually through a central body as indicated by Koskela and Howell (2002). During this process it

is important that the classical communication theory is followed when deciding to allocate task

and when communicating the tasks to staffs either orally or verbally. This can also be controlled

by implementing principle 4 of TPS, that emphasis the levelling out of workload amongst staffs.

This approach will eliminate nonvalue adding activities, overstressing of staffs with plenty

workload and unevenness.

iii. Misuse of time: This usually occurs during the convectional theories where Flow comes

into play, Shingo pointed out in Fleming (2008), that within the transformation occurs activities

such as waiting, inspection and moving, leading to time wasting. Figure 13 illustrates this in a

building design project, where the time wasted in waiting, inspecting and moving are uncalled

for. It is suggested that a better system should be in place where staffs should use their time

wisely on other activities such as tidying up during waiting. Inspecting should be done on time by

relevant parties by eliminating separate inspection and an appropriate layout should be adopted

during moving in other for overall project progression. Collaborative working should be

encouraged amongst designer to facilitate functional designs and eliminating all nonvalue adding

activities.



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iv. Delayed start to design tasks: It essential that relevant parties with relevant information

should endeavour to release such information on time to other parties to facilitate progress.

Assumptions must not be made by Architects because they become costly if it goes wrong and

correct information should be sought at all times. The writer suggest tasks should be

standardized in an outlined procedure highlighting how information should be shared, knowing

the time required to complete a task and encouraging staffs to follow standard procedure for

information sharing as stated by Principle 6 TPS. The Architect should also endeavour to adopt

the Andon system of principle 5 by building a culture of stopping to fix problems, when necessary

information is not available in other to get quality right the first time.

v. Take responsibility for preparation and implementing design: Taking responsibility for

the preparation and implementing design entails levelling out the workload (Heijunka)

accordingly. This involves sharing the workload to other staffs who are expected to take adequate

responsibility to whatever tasks they are given either in preparation or implementation. Adopting

this method will help eliminate Muda, Muri and Mura.

vi. Interference of information: The interference of drawing on site can be put under control

by adopting principle 7 of TPS where visual controls are used to share information, showcasing

the stage a task is, the time frames etc. in other to expose hidden problems and clarify roles

amongst designers. Another method is the use of a well prepared A3 sheet to explain in details

the approach employed in solving a given problem. Once these suggestions are followed, the

interference of information on site amongst designer will be brought to minimal because

everyone will know exactly what is expected of them at a given time and the overall progress of

the project will be clear.

vii. Transfer of senior designer’s experience: To develop young designers within the office,

existing senior designers must thoroughly understand the working tasks, live the philosophy, and

teach their skills to younger designers as illustrated in principle 9 TPS. This can be carried out in

collaboration with principle 10 TPS that emphasises the development of exceptional people and



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teams who adhere to company's philosophy. Senior designer should always support, motivate

and train younger designers in problem solving matters.

6.0. Plan for Continuous Improvement.

The plan for Continuous Improvement (CI) of the established process is essential in achieving a

continuous flow of customer satisfaction, on product quality and all participant’s commitments

in the process. Toyota achieved this by adopting a daily activity system developed to exceed the

performance of simple productivity improvement. This helps to eliminate both physical and

mental hard work, teaches workers how to identify waste in processes and overall humanising

the working environment.

Over the year’s various quality management gurus developed techniques for improving quality

management in other to control, improve and adhere to company philosophies, leading to Total

Quality Management (TQM). According to Codinhoto and Koskela (2008), Deming cycle (PDCA) a

management philosophy plan was developed by Deming, this entails CI plan focused on every

aspect of an organisation. Illustrated in figure 14 where each stages of the cycle pinpoints

essential approaches of achieving CI cycle and the requirements for each stage includes;

Plan: This is done when procedures are improved firstly by identifying wrong issues and deriving

ideas to rectify the issues.

Do: Corrections are developed to rectify identified issues either on experimental level or small

scale. This approach helps to reduce routine activities distraction during the testing stage to

ascertain if changes will work or otherwise.

Check: This stage is checking whether the corrections made in the Do stage are achieving the

desired results or not and continuously checking main activities to ensure that output/product

quality is maintained without new issues arising.

Act: Once the experiment becomes successful, change is implemented on larger scales and the

changes employed are incorporated into the routine of the activity. Not forgetting to involve

other participants whose cooperation are needed that would be affected by the changes.

Once the PDCA cycle is completed, it is important to start the process all over again in other to

begin the plan for further improvements to the operations. By doing this one is continuously

improving the operations to achieve good product quality/output, customer satisfaction,

employee’s efficiency etc.



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They further identified other techniques demonstrated by quality management gurus to include

but not limited to;

5 whys: This is adopted to ensure root causes of problems are identified effectively. This is

achieved by asking why 5 times and the response will tell the root cause of why problems

occurred. The technique makes it clear that the first response does not necessarily showcase the

root cause. Identifying and determining relationships between various root causes of problems

and being an easy procedure to complete are major benefits of using the 5 whys technique.

5s: This technique helps in CI by following the 5 steps;

• Sort: At the stage all unnecessary items not planned for use are removed from the working

environment i.e. rubbish/dirt. Removing unnecessary items does to consume time rather allows

for immediate improvement, for example not storing materials on site.

• Straighten: After sorting is done, straighten is carried by keeping things in order in the working

environment. For example, locating specific materials in specific locations making the use of them

easy and it leads to efficient productivity because time is spent on value adding.



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• Scrub: The working environment should be maintained once cleaned and configured correctly.

It is important to identify who is responsible for cleaning and checking that the working

environment is clean by monitoring and allocating tasks to others accordingly.

• Standardise: At this stage a working procedure must be established to set standards which

must be maintained. Nakamura (1993), clarifies that, standards helps an organisation to improve

CI further and forms part of the PDCA cycle. The established standards and procedures should

include what needs to be done during abnormalities and normal circumstances.

• Self-discipline: Identifying and allocating responsibilities to people within an organisation is

important at the stage and putting in place signal warning allowing people to wait, check or do

something. This instils discipline and ensures an organisational culture of CI.

It is important to adopt these methods to continuously improve performance, however the need

for continuous improvement is not focused on anyone within the workplace, rather from high

level managers to junior operatives within the organisation. Moreover, middle managers should

be responsible for implementing CI by ensuring the performance of different aspects of the

organisation are in line with CI plan in place. To ensure that everyone is aware of CI and capable

of implementing the appropriate tools. Not forgetting to improve communication, open to

feedbacks and willing to implement positive suggestions. All other employees must follow the

strategy and be ready to participate using the tools provided and offering suggestions for CI at

all stages.

There are Other tools advocated by Imai (1986), among which are the 5S concept, 5 Whys and

the Ishikawa diagram. Greif (1991), pointed out the use of visual management, where visual

charts are used to show the quality, output and safety measures in place.

7.0. Conclusion

A conclusion is derived based on the all findings that the LLP should be implemented into the

design processes the office embarks on in continuing to provide design services for the repeat

client. It is important to stress the implementation of effective communication and collaborative

working amongst all participants in order to prevent waiting, inspecting, moving stages and

overall to eliminate all non-value adding elements within the process.



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