Leading

Unit-7

After studying this chapter,you should be able to:

1. Define Leading/leadership2. Describe elements of leadership3. Theories of Leadership4. Leadership and Managerial Effectiveness5. Motivation6. The Hierarchy need theory7. The Motivation-Hygiene Approach to

Motivation

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What Is Leadership?Leadership

The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.

Leadership is the relationship in which one person (leader) influences others to work together willingly on related tasks to attain organizational goals.

The Elements of Leadership• Leaders

– People who can influence the behaviors of others without having to rely on force.

– People who are accepted as leaders by others.

• Process: what leaders actually do.– Use noncoercive influence to shape the group’s or organization’s

goals.– Motivate others’ behavior toward goals.– Help to define organizational culture.

• Property: who leaders are.– The set of characteristics attributed to individuals perceived to be leaders.

Managers Vs Leaders

Manager Characteristics• Administers• A copy• Maintains• Focuses on systems and structures• Relies on control• Short range view• Asks how and when• Eye on bottom line• Imitates• Accepts the status quo• Classic good soldiers• Does things right

Leader Characteristics• Innovates• An original• Develops• Focuses on people• Inspires trust• Long range perspective• Asks what and why• Eye on horizon• Originates• Challenges the status quo• Own person• Does the right thing

Leadership and Managerial Effectiveness

Theories of Leadership

1.Trait Theories2.Behavioral Theories- Michigan Studies- Ohio Studies- Managerial Grid3. Situational/Contingency Theories- Fiedler’s contingency model- Path goal theory

Trait Theories

• What characteristics or traits make a person a leader?• Great Man Theory: Individuals are born either with or without

the necessary traits for leadership• Trait theories of leadership sought personality, social, physical

or intellectual traits that differentiate leaders from non leaders

• Trait view has little analytical or predictive value• Technical, conceptual and human skills (Katz 1974)

Trait Theories

LimitationsLimitations::

• No universal traits found that predict leadership No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.in all situations.

• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.“strong” situations.

• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.relationship of leadership and traits.

• Better predictor of the appearance of leadership Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.leaders.

LimitationsLimitations::

• No universal traits found that predict leadership No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.in all situations.

• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.“strong” situations.

• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.relationship of leadership and traits.

• Better predictor of the appearance of leadership Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.leaders.

Behavioral Theories

• Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.

• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.

• Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.

• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.

Behavioral Theories of Leadership

Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Ohio State StudiesInitiating Structure

The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for goal attainment.

Consideration

The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.

University of Michigan StudiesEmployee-Oriented Leader

Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members.Production-Oriented Leader

One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.

Managerial GridDeveloped in 1964 by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.

They used two dimensions (concerns for people and concern for production) as used by Ohio and Michigan studies

The task centered dimension reflects concern for production or output and the people centered dimension reflects concern for people.

The Managerial Grid

1,9Country club management

Thoughtful attention needs of peoplefor satisfying relationships leads to

A comfortable, friendly organization

atmosphere and work tempo

9,9Democratic Management

Work accomplishment is from committed people, interdependence

through a “common stake” in organization purpose leads to relationship

of trust and respect

1,1Impoverished Management

Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate

to sustain organization membership

5,5Middle of the road

Adequate organization performance possible through balancing the necessity to

get out work with maintaining morale of the people at a satisfactory level

9,1Authoritarian/Task management

Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of

work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimal degree

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Concern for productionLow High

Low

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Scandinavian StudiesDevelopment-Oriented Leader

One who values experimentation, seeking new ideas, and generating and implementing change.Researchers in Finland and Sweden question whether there are only two dimensions (production-orientation and employee-orientation) that capture the essence of leadership behavior. Their premise is that in a changing world, effective leaders would exhibit development-oriented behavior.

Contingency TheoriesFiedler’s Contingency Model

The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.

Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire

An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented.

Fiedler’s Model: Defining the SituationLeader-Member Relations

The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.

Position Power

Influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.

Task Structure

The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.

Findings from Fiedler Model

Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory

The theory that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide them the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.

The Path-Goal Theory

E X H I B I T 11–4

E X H I B I T 11–4

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness.

Leader: decreasing need for support and supervisionLeader: decreasing need for support and supervision

Follower readiness: ability and willingness

Follower readiness: ability and willingness

Unable andUnable andUnwillingUnwilling

Unable butUnable butWillingWilling

Able andAble andWillingWilling

DirectiveDirective High Task and Relationship High Task and Relationship OrientationsOrientations

Supportive Supportive Participative Participative

Able andAble andUnwillingUnwilling

MonitoringMonitoring

Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness

(Hersey and Blanchard) WillingUnwilling

Able

Unable DirectiveDirective

High TaskHigh Taskand and

Relationship Relationship OrientationsOrientations

Supportive Supportive Participative Participative MonitoringMonitoring

Follower Readiness

LeadershipLeadershipStylesStyles

The Nature of Motivation

• Motivation– The set of forces that cause people to behave in

certain ways.– The goal of managers is to maximize desired

behaviors and minimize undesirable behaviors.

• The Importance of Motivation in the Workplace– Determinants of Individual Performance

• Motivation—the desire to do the job.• Ability—the capability to do the job.• Work environment—the resources needed to do the job.

Figure 10.1The Motivation Framework

Content Perspectives on Motivation

• Content Perspectives– Focus on needs and deficiencies of individuals– Approaches to motivation that try to answer the

question, “What factors in the workplace motivate people?”

• Content Perspectives of Motivation– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs– Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory– McClelland’s Achievement,

Power, and Affiliation Needs

The Need Hierarchy Approach (Maslow)

• People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five needs:– Physiological needs for basic survival and biological function.

– Security needs for a safe physical and emotional environment.

– Belongingness needs for love and affection.

– Esteem needs for positive self-image/self-respect and recognition and respect from others.

– Self-actualization needs for realizing one’s potential for personal growth and development.

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Source: Adopted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychology Review, 1943, Vol. 50, pp. 370-396.

The Need Hierarchy Approach

• Weaknesses of Maslow’s theory– Five levels of need are not always present.– Ordering or importance of needs is not always the

same.– Cultural differences in categories and hierarchies.

The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)• People’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are

influenced by two independent sets of factors—motivation factors and hygiene factors.

• Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums:– Motivational factors (work content) are on a

continuum that ranges from satisfaction to no satisfaction.

– Hygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

The Two Factor Theory of Motivation

The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) (cont’d)

• Motivation is a two-stage process:– Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient

and not blocking motivation.– Providing employees the opportunity to experience

increase motivational factors through the use of job enrichment and the redesign of jobs.

• Criticisms of the Two-Factor Theory– Interview findings are subject to different

explanations.– Sample population was not representative.– Subsequent research has not upheld theory.

Individual Human Needs (McClelland)

• The need for achievement– The desire to accomplish a goal or task

more effectively than in the past.• The need for affiliation

– The desire for human companionship and acceptance.

• The need for power– The desire to be influential

in a group and to be in control of one’s environment.

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X

Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y

Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.