The Leadership Quarterly 21 (2010) 979–1004

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The Leadership Quarterly

j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r.com/ locate / l eaqua

Leadership, affect and emotions: A state of the science review☆

Janaki Gooty a,⁎, Shane Connelly b,1, Jennifer Griffith b,2, Alka Gupta c

a Department of Management, Belk College of Business University of North Carolina, Charlotte 9201 University City Blvd., Charlotte, NC 28223, USAb Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma, 455 West Lindsey St., Norman, OK 73019, USAc Center for Leadership Studies and School of Management, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

☆ We gratefully acknowledge comments and suggespaper.⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 704 687 7694.

E-mail addresses: jgooty@uncc.edu (J. Gooty), scon1 Tel.: +1 405 325 4580; fax: +1 405 325 9066.2 Tel.: +1 405 325 0770; fax: +1 405 325 9066.

1048-9843/$ – see front matter. Published by Elseviedoi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.10.005

a b s t r a c t

This paper presents a selective, qualitative review of affect, emotions, and emotionalcompetencies in leadership theory and research published in ten management andorganizational psychology journals, book chapters and special issues of journals from 1990to 2010. Three distinct themes emerged from this review: (1) leader affect, follower affect andoutcomes, (2) discrete emotions and leadership, and (3) emotional competencies andleadership. Within each of these themes, we examine theory (construct definition andtheoretical foundation) and methods (design, measurement and context) and summarize keyfindings. Our findings indicate that the study of affect and emotions in leadership fares wellwith regard to construct definitions across the first two themes, but not in the last theme above.Design and measurement issues across all three themes are a little less advanced. One seriousgap is in a lack of focus on levels-of-analysis theoretically and methodologically. Our reviewconcludes with recommendations for future theoretical and empirical work in this area.

Published by Elsevier Inc.

Keywords:LeadershipAffectMoodsEmotionsEmotional competencies

Leadership has a long history in the social sciences, and regardless of the leadership lens one looks through (e.g.,transformational leadership, leader–member exchange, individualized leadership, charismatic leadership) affect and emotions aredeeply intertwined with the process of leading, leader outcomes and follower outcomes. For example, transformational leadersignite followers' aspirations, instilling pride, eliciting enthusiasm, and conveying optimism regarding a desirable future(Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000; Avolio & Yammarino, 2002; Bass, 1998). In the Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) literature, affect is oneindicator of the quality of relationships between leaders and followers (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Dansereau and colleagues(Dansereau et al., 1995) cast individualized leadership as a process in which the leader's primary role is to enhance follower self-worth while charismatic leaders often inspire positive emotions in followers via articulating a compelling vision, imagery andrhetoric (Bono, Foldes, Vinson, & Muros, 2007; Shamir, Arthur, & House, 1994).

Deservedly then, affect and emotions have received much attention in the leadership literature. This attention is not entirelysurprising in that it parallels the role of affect and emotions in organizational behavior in the last two decades. Indeed somescholars have even labeled this attention the “affective revolution” (Barsade, Brief, & Spataro, 2003, p. 3) claiming a Kuhnianparadigm shift in organizational behavior from purely cognition focusedmodels to cognition and affective models of behavior. Weacknowledge and agree with these scholars that affect and emotions play an undeniable role in organizational behavior and

tions by the yearly review editor, Francis Yammarino, and an anonymous reviewer on earlier drafts of thi

nelly@ou.edu (S. Connelly), jenngriffith@ou.edu (J. Griffith), agupta1@binghamton.edu (A. Gupta).

r Inc.

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980 J. Gooty et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 21 (2010) 979–1004

leadership. Our focus, however, is on questions pertaining to the nature and quality of affect-based scholarship in leadership. Forexample, while affect and emotions are now studied in leadership research, do they advance our knowledge and application ofleadership? Are the methods in use aligned with theories of emotion and/or with theories of leadership? Are inferences alignedwith both theory and methods? In attempting to answer these questions, our first goal in this paper is to provide a state-of-thescience review of leadership, affect and emotions. The study of affect and emotions in leadership is an emerging domain and ourqualitative review examines theory, methods and quality of the science itself rather than a focus on size/magnitude ofrelationships.

More specifically, our review has two primary goals. Our first goal pertains to the state of the science with regard to theory andmethods as noted below. With regard to theory, we examine the validity of construct definitions of affect and emotions and if therelationships that are examined are grounded in established theoretical frameworks in affect and/or leadership. With regard tomethods, we examine if research designs are aligned with theories they purport to test, the quality of measurement of affectiveconstructs as well as the leadership context within which relationships are studied. This last criterion is especially important, asaffective constructs are interaction and context specific (see Gooty, Gavin, & Ashkanasy, 2009; Lazarus, 2000). The second goal ofthis review is to examine if levels-of-analysis issues are considered, given that leadership, affect and emotions are inherentlymulti-level phenomenon (see Ashkanasy, 2003; Beal, Weiss, Barros, & McDermid, 2005; Yammarino & Dansereau, 2008;Yammarino, Dionne, Chun, & Dansereau, 2005).

This review contributes to the leadership literature in the following five ways: First, our findings indicate that leadershipliterature in affect and emotions defines these constructs consistently with basic psychological theories. This is in sharp contrastwith the state of the science within the domain of organizational behavior (e.g., Barsade & Gibson, 2007; Brief & Weiss, 2002;Briner & Kiefer, 2005). The caveat to this finding could be the selective nature of this review in that we predominantly includedpapers published in top-level management and psychology journals. Nevertheless, this trend is very encouraging and needs to becontinued in the leadership literature. Second, our review indicates that explanatory theory development in this domain is scarce.Along with this concern, the literature is heavily skewed towards the beneficial effects of positive moods and emotions, withnegative moods and emotions vastly understudied. Third, our findings indicate a good balance of empirical research in the labversus naturalistic settings; however, research designs in the latter are seriously misaligned with the theories they purport to test.Fourth, psychometrically sound measures are lacking and need further attention. Fifth, theoretically and methodologically, muchremains to be done at the intra-individual, dyadic, group and organizational levels. In summary, there is an urgent need forleadership scholars to focus attention on explanatory theory, role of negative affect and emotions, development of reliable, validmeasures targeted at specific constructs of interest, and levels-of-analysis.

The remainder of our paper is organized as follows. First, we provide an overview of the theoretical andmethodological criteriathat guided this review. Next, we identify the procedure used to identify and evaluate the works included in this selective reviewand the procedure used to identify relevant themes. We then discuss three relevant themes that emerged from a theoretical,empirical and levels-of-analysis perspective. Finally, we discuss the implications of accumulated theory and empirical research forleadership scholars ending with recommendations for both future theoretical and empirical works.

1. Theoretical considerations

1.1. Defining emotion constructs

Briner and Kiefer (2005) noted that less than half (40%) of the papers they reviewed in organizational psychology researchdefined emotions in line with basic psychological theories. The remainder of the papers they reviewed either did not defineemotions or confused emotions, affect and other affect-laden constructs such as job satisfaction. This criticism of affectivescholarship (emotions in particular) is not new (see for example, Barsade et al., 2003; Barsade & Gibson, 2007; Brief &Weiss, 2002;Gooty et al., 2009).

At the outset, it is important to note that affect, mood, emotions, and emotional competencies (e.g., emotional intelligence)have elicited considerable debate in the psychology literature with regard to basic definitions and components thereof (Barrett,2006; Izard, 2009; Locke, 2005; Russell, 2003). This debatewhile still ongoing has, however, also elicited a broad level of consensuson affect, mood and emotions but not on emotional competencies (e.g., Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002). We follow thepredominant schools of thought in this regard, while noting that other ways of conceptualizing affect, mood and emotions exist.Regardless of the ways one defines these constructs our main point is that defining the constructs in accordance with basicpsychological theories is critical.

Multiple definitions of emotion abound, ranging from feeling a particular way to mood states (George & Brief, 1992) tophysiological changes (Briner & Kiefer, 2005) to neurophysiological components (e.g., Ashkanasy, 2003) to reactions to an event(Frijda, 1993; Lazarus, 1991). From Cognitive Appraisal Theory, emotion is defined as an organized mental response to an event orentity (Izard, 1991; Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988). Emotions are shorter, target-centered and more intense than moods (Fisher,2000, 2002; Gohm & Clore, 2002). Appraisal theorists suggest that emotions are associated with different assessments of theemotion inducing event, person, or situation. While there is no agreed upon list of appraisal dimensions, discrete emotional stateshave been characterized as having different patterns of valence, arousal, uncertainty, other-responsibility, individual control (vs.situational), threat, goal-obstruction and others (Ortony et al., 1988; Roseman, 1991; Scherer, 2001; Smith & Ellsworth, 1985). Insum, emotions are transient, intense reactions to an event, person or entity (e.g., Beal et al., 2005 ; Fisher, 2000, 2002; Fisher &

981J. Gooty et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 21 (2010) 979–1004

Noble, 2004; Frijda, 1993; Izard, 1991; Lazarus, 1991; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001; Ortonyet al., 1988; Weiss, Suckow, & Cropanzano, 1999; Zelenski & Larsen, 2000).

Affect refers to longer lasting positive or negative emotional experience and is classified as state affect (mood) and trait ordispositional affect. Moods are longer in duration than emotions yet shorter in duration than trait affect (Fisher, 2000; Frijda,1993). Moods activate in an individual's cognitive background, have no specific target, less intense than emotions and persist for alonger duration (Briner & Kiefer, 2005; Fisher, 2000). Trait affect is a stable, dispositional tendency in evaluating events as apositive or negative. We acknowledge that these definitions of trait affect, and state affect (which includes both moods andemotions) focus heavily on valence rather than arousal.

Definitions of a number of emotional capacities, such as empathy, emotion regulation, and emotional intelligence are alsoimportant to consider. By far the predominant model and definition of emotion regulation is that articulated by Gross (1998).Emotion regulation involves attempts to influence what emotions one experiences, when and how they are experienced andexpressed (Gross & Thompson, 2007). Gross (1998) articulated a number of specific regulation strategies, some that occur prior toa person fully experiencing or expressing an emotional state and some that occur during or even after an emotion is experienced.Regulation can be both conscious and non-conscious (Bargh & Williams, 2007).

Empathy is a second emotion capacity about which there is a fair degree of consensus. It involves understanding andexperiencing another person's feelings (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). However, someone who empathizes with others also recognizesthat their own affective state is altered by imagining what the other person is feeling and is a result of empathy (Vignemont &Singer, 2006). Thus, empathy involves more than cognitive perspective-taking.

Finally, there are number of different models, definitions, and approaches to emotional intelligence. There is still considerabledisagreement about the conceptualization and measurement of emotion-based capacities as “emotional intelligence,” althoughMayer, Salovey, and Caruso's (2000) ability-based model has more conceptual clarity than other mixed-trait models (e.g., Bar-On,1997, 2006; Goleman, 1995; Joseph & Newman, 2010). Mayer et al. (2000) define emotional intelligence as the ability to perceiveemotion in oneself and others, use emotions to facilitate thinking, understand emotions and emotion processes, and manage theexperience and expression of emotions in oneself and others.

Our review considerswhether conceptual and empirical papers on leadership and emotion provide explicit definitions of affect,discrete emotions, and emotional competencies as noted in this section.

1.2. Theoretical lens

It is challenging to delineate one consistent theoretical underpinning in leadership studies on affect, mood and emotions asmany empirical studies simply integrate multiple theoretical perspectives of leadership and affect. For example, Bono and Ilies(2006) examined the role of positive emotions in the charismatic leadership process. Many examples of how affect, mood andemotions fit into leader emergence, transformational leadership, and leader–member exchange also exist (Connelly & Ruark,2010; Wolff, Pescosolido, & Druskat, 2002). Such studies focus on current theories of leadership, extending them by explicitlyincorporating affective influences.

The second category of empirical studies relies on affect-based theories such as Affective Events Theory (AET: Weiss &Cropanzano, 1996) within which leadership serves as a context. For example, Tse, Dasborough, and Ashkanasy (2008) integrateLMX theory and AET in studying multi-level affect. Similarly, George and Zhou (2007) examined the mood as information modeland how leaders could impact subordinate moods, which in turn influence their creativity.

Regardless of the theoretical underpinning, we note how these studies contribute to and extend knowledge within theleadership literature. In addition, we also comment on theories that are explanatory versus predictive only. Affect, mood andemotions can at best be thought of as an emerging domain and explanatory theories set the stage for a greater understanding ofphenomenon in question (e.g., Sutton & Staw, 1995). From a theoretical standpoint, one additional and important consideration isthat of levels-of-analysis. Recalling the definitions of emotions and moods presented above, conceptualizing these constructs asstable individual differences would be an error. Trait affect though, does work as an inter-individual difference. We examine howintra-, inter-, dyad-, and group levels of affect, mood and emotions are conceptualized and treated in leadership research.

2. Methodological considerations

2.1. Research design and measurement

Emotions and moods are dynamic constructs as noted earlier in definitions. This conceptualization necessitates that studiesincorporate research designs capable of modeling the transient nature of moods and emotions. Typically, the designs capable ofaccommodating such dynamism are event-based experimental or field designs, daily diary studies, experience sampling methods,qualitative studies and critical incident techniques. These designs measure moods and emotions very close to their occurrencethus reducing the probability of retrospective biases (see Robinson & Clore, 2002). Several scholars (e.g., Beal et al., 2005; Briner &Kiefer, 2005) have now noted that when moods and emotions are measured as stable constructs, (1) they are misaligned withtheoretical definitions, (2) retrospective biases seep in, and individuals tend to report what they think they should have felt ratherthan what they actually experienced. In examining studies from a design and measurement standpoint, we ask: do designs andmeasurement approaches align with the affective constructs of interest?

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2.2. Context

Emotions (more so thanmoods) are context specific. Lazarus (2000) argues that emotions stem from social interactions, whichare arguably central in leadership. While some have criticized the study of leadership in experimental or laboratory settings, manytheories of social behavior have been advanced and tested in such settings. We believe that advancing the study of emotions,moods, and leadership occurs not only through field research, but also through experimental research where key causalmechanisms underlying the influence of emotion-related factors on leadership processes and outcomes (and vice versa) can beidentified. We also forward the position, however, that the elicitation and consequences of emotions and moods and leadershipcould vastly differ in naturalistic settings (Gooty et al., 2009; Lazarus, 2000). As such, we examine the representation ofexperimental and naturalistic research in the leadership literature.

3. Procedure for identifying relevant studies

We adopt a selective, qualitative and narrative methodology as the study of leadership and affect is an emerging domain. Webelieve that this descriptive methodology was necessary for examining concerns regarding the techniques and measurement ofaffect and emotions that have recently emerged (e.g., Seo, Barrett, & Jin, 2008). The techniques for identifying potentially relevantworks included at least three distinct phases. First, we conducted an online search for peer-reviewed papers published in premiermanagement and organizational psychology during 1990-2007 using eight keywords: emotions, emotion, emotional, affect,affective, affective events, emotional intelligence, and emotional labor in full text of each of these top tier publications. The journalsincluded in this first cut were Academy of Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Applied Psychology,Journal of Management, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Journal ofOrganizational Behavior, The Leadership Quarterly, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, and Personnel Psychology.This search yielded papers that were theoretical, review papers and empirical including any of the above eight key words relatedto affect and emotions.

The second sources of information for this review were edited books focused on affect and emotions. The book compilationsincluded Emotions in the Workplace: Research, Theory, and Practice (Ashkanasy, Härtel, & Zerbe, 2000); Emotions at Work: Theory,Research and Applications for Management (Payne & Cooper, 2001); Managing Emotions in the Workplace (Ashkanasy, Zerbe, &Härtel, 2002); Emotions in the Workplace: Understanding the Structure and Role of Emotions in Organizational Behavior (Lord,Klimoski, & Kanfer, 2002); Research Companion to Emotions in Organizations (Ashkanasy & Cooper, 2008). In addition, nine articlesfrom Journal of Managerial Psychology, Human performance and Journal of Applied Social Psychologywere included in this review fortheir special focus on leadership, affect and emotions. Thus, while the initial timeline for the online electronic searchwas limited to1990–2007; subsequently, articles and book chapters from the sources noted above from 1990 to 2010were added to the databaseif they were particularly important to the content of this review.

In the second phase, each author independently examined the abstracts of each paper to determine if the paper explicitlyfocused on leadership and/or had some mention of managerial affect and emotions. This step narrowed the literature down to78 papers and 21 book chapters. Papers identified as relevant by all four authors in the second phase were retained forinclusion in the review. Interestingly, the third and fourth authors included more abstracts than did the first and secondauthors.

Phase three involved reviewing all papers where one or more authors did not select a paper for inclusion. Papers needed tomeet the following criteria to be included: 1) dealt explicitly with affect, emotions, mood, or emotional competencies, and 2)linked affective constructs in some way to leadership. The abstracts of a handful of papers identified by three of the four authorswere re-read by the lead authors to ensure relevance. All of thesewere retained as relevant. Approximately 40 papers identified forinclusion by two or fewer authors were subjected to a more in-depth review. Here, the lead authors scanned the entire paper todetermine if the theoretical or empirical focus of the paper met the criteria. Most of these were eliminated, with four requiringadditional consensus discussion to determine whether they should be retained or not. After this final cut, we were left with 63papers and book chapters that were included in this review and are presented in Table 1. Two additional empirical studies wereidentified and added during the revision process bringing the total to 65.

We read all papers in listed in Table 1 with a view towards identifying a coherent organizing framework. The first authoridentified a preliminary organizing framework of four distinct themes that could coherently represent and reflect the state of thescience. Our original themes were: (1) leader affect and leader effectiveness, (2) leader affect and follower affect/outcomes, (3)discrete emotions and leadership, and (4) emotional competencies and leadership. The authors then discussed over severalresearch meetings the classification of papers into each of the four themes. After the papers were classified by theme, the first andsecond authors wrote first drafts of all four themes. At this stage, it became apparent that there was very little research on leadereffectiveness for it to merit a separate theme (i.e., we could identify only one empirical study on leader affect and leadereffectiveness). At this stage, we collapsed themes 1 and 2 into the first theme and included several sub-sections to it. After theentire paper waswritten, we took a big picture view and asked ourselves if any other way of organizing themesmade sense and/orhelped readability. We felt the three themes identified provided a coherent framework.

Thus, the final three themes identified were: (1) leader affect, follower affect and outcomes, (2) discrete emotions andleadership, and (3) emotional competencies and leadership. These three themes are summarized in Table 1. We discuss each ofthese themes below with a focus on the theoretical and methodological criteria noted earlier.

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4. Theme one: Leader affect, follower affect, and outcomes

In this section, we review theory and research related to leader affect, follower affect and various outcomes for leaders, followers andwork groups. Kanfer andKlimoski (2002) note that affect pervadeswork environments and is a key psychological driver of our cognitions(thoughts), motivation and consequently behavior. Leader affect has been extensively written about, but, the bulk of the theoretical andempirical research in this domain focuses on its effects on follower affect and their outcomes. As we look across the literature on leadermoods or state affect, it is somewhat surprising that no theories and very few empirical studies examine the effects of leaders' moods onleader outcomes. Furthermore, very fewstudies (e.g., Erez,Misangyi, Johnson, LePine, &Halverson, 2008;Newcombe&Ashkanasy, 2002)distinguish between leader felt and displayed affect and its effects on leader outcomes. Many empirical studies in this domain examinemoods at the individual and group levels, but we could not find a single study at the dyadic level, and very few studies at the intra-individual level (see Column 3, Table 1).

4.1. Theoretical perspectives on affect and leadership

Theoretical research in this domain focuses on affect, quality of exchange relationships, and inspirational leadership styles. Forexample, Davis and Gardner (2004) suggested that followers who have higher levels of trait negative affect will perceive lower qualityexchange relationshipswith their leaders anddisplaymore cynicismtowards theorganizationevenwhen theyhaveveryhigh job-relatedability. Similarly, Tse et al. (2008)posit that LMXandTeam-MemberExchange (TMX) relationships are related via anaffective response tothe LMXamemberperceiveswithher/his leader. Perhaps oneof themore intriguing theoretical ideas is seen inHansen, Ropo, andSauer's(2007) work on Aesthetic leadership. They define Aesthetics as tacit knowledge garnered from affective reactions to organizationalphenomenon and making sense of such phenomenon. Hansen et al. argue for a focus on the affective and emotional nature of leader–follower interactions, more so with the inspirational styles of leadership (e.g., transformational, charismatic and authentic) than iscurrently presumed in the literature. Diefendorff and Richard (2008) suggest a new direction in emotion displays. They posit that powerand vertical hierarchical status could affect the display of affect and emotions. Similarly, VanKleef (VanKleef, 2008; VanKleef et al., 2009)proposed the Emotions as Social Information (EASI) model, which is discussed in detail in the next theme as it is focused on discreteemotions. One fundamental aspect of thismodel, however, is relevant to how follower'smoods (termed affective reactions in EASI) couldbe affected by leaders. Van Kleef's EASI is interesting because it is based in behavioral and explicit regulation strategies rather thanautomatic contagion mechanisms (e.g., Saavedra, 2008).

4.2. Empirical research on affect and leadership

Most empirical studies in this domain draw upon Affective Events Theory (AET:Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) (e.g., Gaddis, Connelly, &Mumford, 2004; Johnson, 2008), Cognitive Appraisal Theory (Lazarus& Folkman, 1984), Transformational leadership theory, Charismaticleadership and Leader–Member Exchange (LMX). Only three empirical studies did not provide an explicit definition of moods and/oraffect, while the reminder of the studies included an explicit definition. Except for Barsade (2002) (see Table 1); all studies focused on theindividual and group levels. Thirteen studies included tests of relationships in naturalistic settings out of a possible twenty, while eightpapers included in Table 1were theoretical in nature. From a design standpoint (see column 5 in Table 1), most field studies were cross-sectional with two notable exceptions (Amabile, Schatzel, Moneta, & Kramer, 2004; Ballinger, Schoorman, & Lehman, 2009). As we lookacross this theme, a few common perspectives emerged: 1) Leader moods affect follower (and work group) moods via contagionprocesses,which in turn affect follower (andworkgroup) outcomes. 2) Leader behaviors elicit follower affective reactions (moods) and inturn impact follower outcomes. 3) Leader displayed moods affect follower ratings of their effectiveness.

4.2.1. Leader moods and follower outcomesThe relationship between leader expressed moods and its effects on followers has been explored via automatic processes such as

contagion and more conscious processes under the umbrella of AET. The dominant theoretical theme and empirical finding in thisregard is that leader positive moods engender favorable outcomes for all parties, whereas leader negative moods seem to bedetrimental. There are a few exceptions to this theme and we discuss these studies first. Consistent with the dominant theme ofbeneficial effects of leader positive moods, Johnson (2008) found that leader's displayed positive moods was positively related tofollower's ratings of their charisma. The interesting aspect of this study is that the effects of leader moods at work (both positive andnegative) were not as pronounced on follower positive moods when followers were less susceptible to emotion contagion. Followerswith greater susceptibility to contagion, though, demonstrated variability in their positivemoods in tandemwith leader's positive andnegative affect. This study points at the role of individual differences such as susceptibility to emotion contagion as a key variable inexplaining follower affective responses to leader affect.

Similarly, drawing upon AET and Cognitive Appraisal Theory, Gaddis et al. (2004) examined the effects of leader affect whiledelivering failure feedback towork groupmembers. These authorsmanipulated leader affect andmeasured subordinate perceptions ofleader effectiveness. They found that leader negative affect was related to lower leader effectiveness scores and lower groupperformance.While examining the interactive effects of affect andgoal type though, these authors found that leader negative affectwasperceived less favorably when groups were focused on promotion goals, whereas leader negative affect was perceivedmore favorablyin groupswith prevention goals. Thesefindings point to an interesting andperhapsmuchneglected function of negative affect in that itis deemedappropriate in the face of challengingsituations. This aspect is perhaps tied to the evolutionary functionofnegative affect andemotions in that they are tied to survival motivations.

Table 1Leadership, affect, discrete emotions and emotional competencies.

Study Definition Theory Design Measurem nt Context Levels

Theme one: Leader affect, follower affect and outcomes1 Amabile et al.

(2004)NA a Componential

theory ofcreativity

Repeated measures Daily diaries/Qualitative/

Field Individual andGroup

2 Ballinger et al.(2009)

Yes LMX and CAT Study 1: ExperimentStudy 2: Longitudinal

Study 1: 3 itemscale from priorresearchStudy 2: PANAS

Study 1: LabStudy 2: Field

Individual

3 Barsade(2002)

Yes EmotionContagion

Experiment Affect measurebased in AffectiCircumplex mo lNon-verbalcues coded

Lab Intraindividual,Individual,Group

4 Barsade et al.(2000)

Yes Affective

Similarityand Attraction model

Cross-sectional Multidimension lPersonalityQuestionnaire

Field Individual,Group

5 Brown andKeeping(2005)

Yes TL & Affect Cross-sectional PANAS for mooTarget specificAffect (liking)

Students Individual

6 Cherulniket al. (2001)

No CL & EmotionContagion

Experiment Checklist of nonverbal cues

Lab Individual

7 Cohen-Charashand Byrne (2008)

Yes Mood-as-information, AET,Equity theory.

Theory NA NA Individual

8 Davis and Gardner(2004).

No LMX Theory NA NA Individual

9 De Cremer(2007)

No Equity theory Study 1: ExperimentStudy 2: Cross-sectional

Measured regreanger anddisappointment

Study 1: LabStudy 2: Field

Individual

10 Diefendorff andRichard (2008)

No Emotional labor Theory NA NA Individual

11 Erez, Misangyi,Vilmos Johnson,LePine,& Halverson (2008).

Yes CL and Contagion Study 1: ExperimentStudy 2: Cross-sectional

Study 1: PANAS(Follower mood .Study 2: AffectiBalance Scale (F llowermoods). PANAS(Leader trait aff t)

Lab & Field Theory atindividuallevel only.Methods atIndividualand Group

12 Gaddis et al.(2004)

Yes AET, CAT andRegulatory FocusTheory

Experiment Manipulation oleader affect

Lab Individual,Group

13 George andBettenhausen(1990)

Yes ASA, Social Influencetheory and Moods

Cross-sectional JAS Field Individual(Leader mood)Group(Outcomes)

14 George and Zhou(2007)

Yes Mood-as-information theory

Cross-sectional PANAS Field Individual

15 Hansen et al. (2007) Yes Inspirational leader-ship and Emotions

Theory NA NA Individual

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16 Harvey et al.(2007)

Yes Abusive supervision,Stress and Coping.

Cross-sectional PANAS (Trait) Field Individual

17 Hui et al.(1999)

Yes LMX theory Cross-sectional PANAS (Trait) Field Individual

18 Johnson(2008)

Yes AET & CL Cross-sectional PANAS (Trait)JAS (State affect)

Field Individual,Group

19 Madjar, Oldham,and Pratt (2002)

Yes Leader supportand moods

Cross-sectional JAS Field Individual

20 Naidoo andLord (2008)

No CL and AET Experiment PANAS(state and trait)

Lab Individual

21 Ng and Wong(2008)

Yes Coping, Depressive realism,Cognitive dissonance anddecision making.

Theory NA NA Individual

22 Nelson et al.(2008)

Yes Inspirational leadership,nonverbal cues andemotion expressivity

Theory NA NA Individualand Group

23 Newcombe andAshkanasy (2002)

Yes LMX theory Experiment Manipulationof leader affect

Lab Individual

24 Rank and Frese(2008)

Yes Moods and emotions increativity and innovation

Review andextensions

NA NA NA

25 Sy et al. (2005) Yes Mood contagion model Experiment JAS Lab Individual,Group

26 Tse et al. (2008) Yes Social Exchange Theory Cross-sectional Group positiveclimate scale

Field Group

27 Van Kleef (2008) Yes EASI Theory NA NA Intra,Individualand Dyad

Theme two: Discrete emotions and leadership28 Atwater et al. (1997) No Contingent and

noncontingent rewardand punishment

Longitudinal,Cross-sectional

Follower emotioncoded accordingto taxonomyof Mikula (1986)

Field Individual

29 Avolio et al. (2004) Yes Authentic Leadership Theory N/A N/A Individual30 Begley (1994) Yes Expressed anger

(anger-in, anger-out)Cross-sectional Multi-dimensional

Anger Inventory(Siegel, 1986)

Field Individual

31 Butterfield et al. (1996) No Organizationalpunishment

Qualitative Leader and followeremotion assessed throughqualitative interview

Field Individual

32 Connelly et al. (2002) Yes TL, CL, EI(Mayer et al.),Taxonomy ofdiscrete emotions

Theory NA NA Individual

33 Connelly andRuark (2010)

Yes TL , Transactionalleadership, circumplextheory

Experiment Manipulated leaderemotion throughdescription of pastleader interactions

Lab Individual

34 Damen,Van Knippenberg,and Van Knippenberg(2008a)

Yes Positive affect,Gray's theory ofaffective traits, Bower'snetwork theory

Experiment Manipulated leaderfacial expression aswell as description ofpast task performance

Lab Individual

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Table 1 (continued)

Study Definition Theory Design Measurement Context Levels

Theme two: Discrete emotions and leadership35 Damen, van

Knippenberg,and van Knippenberg(2008b)

Yes CL, Attribution theory,Circumplex theory,Physiologicalapproach to emotion

Experiment Manipulated leaderemotion throughadjective use in a speech.Assessed transfer ofarousal from leader tofollower with 2 items

Study 1 LabStudy 2 Field

Individual

36 Dasborough (2006) Yes AET Qualitative Follower emotionwith Larsen and Diener(1992)

Field Individual

37 Gino and Schweitzer(2008)

Yes Incidental emotions(anger, gratitude),Judgment anddecision-making

Experiment Emotions inducedthrough watchingvideo clips andwriting about them

Lab Individual

38 Glomb and Hulin(1997)

Yes Emotional labor,Gender roles

Study 1: LabStudy 2: Cross-sectional

Manipulated leaderdisplay of anger usingtwo professional actorsin video-taped betweenleader and subordinate

Lab and Field Individual

39 Lewis (2000) Yes Circumplex theory,gender and emotionstereotypes

Experiment Manipulated leaderemotional displays usingnon-verbal emotionalcues, Followers reportedaffect with JAS (Brief,Burke, George, Roberson,& Webster, 1988)

Lab Individual

40 Madera andSmith (2009)

Yes Crisis leadership,CL, Contagion

Scenario Leader emotionmanipulated through avignette, followeraffect assessed withLinguistic word countprogram

Field Individual

41 McColl-Kennedy andAnderson (2002)

No Self-regulationtheory, TL

Cross-sectional Follower frustrationand optimism

Field Individual

42 Michie and Gooty(2005)

Yes Authentic leadership,Typology of emotions(Ortony et al., 1988)

Theory N/A N/A Individual

43 Waples andConnelly (2008)

Yes CL, TL, CAT,Circumplex theory

Experiment Manipulated valenceand activating natureof leader emotionthrough visionimplementation speech

Lab Individual

Theme three: Emotional competencies and leadership44 Antonakis et al.

(2009)Yes EI (Mayer et al.) Theory N/A N/A Individual

45 Ashkanasy andTse (2000)

Yes TL, EI Theory N/A N/A Individual,Dyad

46 Boss and Sims(2008)

No ER and self-leadershiptheory

Theory N/A N/A Individual

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47 Byron (2008) Yes Emotion recognition Experiment Written descriptionsinduced leaderemotional competence

Lab Individual

48 Côté et al.(2010)

Yes EI (Mayer et al.,Schutte et al) andleader emergence

Studies 1 and2: Cross-sectional

Mayer-Salovey-CarusoEmotional IntelligenceTest, MSCEIT V2.0(Mayer, Salovey, &Caruso, 2002), EI self-reportscale (Schutte et al., 1998)

Lab Individual

49 Gardner et al.(2009)

Yes Authentic Leadership,Emotional Labor, AffectiveEvents Theory

Theory N/A N/A Individual

50 George (2000) Yes CL, TL, EI (Mayer et al.) Theory N/A N/A Individual51 Groves (2005) Yes CL, social intelligence,

EI (Mayer et al.)Experiment Follower evaluations

of leader charismaField Individual

52 Harms andCredé (2010)

Yes EI (Goleman, Boyatzis,& McKee, Bar-On, Salovey& Mayer), TL(Bass & Avolio),

Meta-Analysis N/A N/A Individual

53 Humphrey, Pollack,et al. (2008)

Yes Emotional labor Theory N/A N/A Individual

54 Hunt et al. (2008) Yes Authentic Leadership Theory N/A N/A Individual55 Kellett et al. (2002) Yes Leadership categorization

theory, empathy,EI (Mayer et al.)

Experiment Leader empathy using theEmotional CompetenceInventory (Boyatzis,Goleman, & Rhee, 2000)

Lab Individual

56 Kellett et al.(2006)

Yes Task-oriented andrelations-orientedleadership behavior

Experiment Leader emotionalintelligence with theWorkgroup EmotionalIntelligence5Profile(Jordan, 2001).

Lab Individual

57 Offerman et al.(2004)

Yes EI (Goleman,Mayer et al.)

Experiment Emotional competenceof leaders workingin groups(Goleman's ECI-U)

Field Individual,Group

58 Ostell (1996) Yes Clinical, social, andoccupational psychology

Theory N/A N/A N/A

59 Pescosolido(2002)

No CL, group emotionalmanagement,

Theory N/A N/A Group

60 Riggio and Reichard(2008)

Yes Emotional and socialskills framework

Theory N/A N/A Dyad,Individual

61 Rubin et al.(2005)

Yes TL, EI (Mayer et al.) Cross-sectional Emotion recognitionability of leaders(DANVA), leader positiveaffect (PANAS, Watson,Clark, & Tellegen, 1988)

Field Individual

62 Seo and Barrett(2007)

Yes Affect and decision-making (feeling-as-bias-inducer and feelings-as-decision-facilitator)

Cross-sectional Emotions and affectiveinfluence regulation,affective reactivity,emotion differentiation(Core affect circumflexbased measures)

Field Individual

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Table 1 (continued)

Study Definition Theory Design Measurement Context Levels

Theme three: Emotional competencies and leadership63 Wolff et al. (2002) Yes Leadership emergence,

Leadership skills andabilities, EI (Boyatzis,Mayer et al., & Goleman)

Cross-sectional Leader empathy usingBoyatzis's (1995)

Lab Individual

64 Wong andLaw (2002)

Yes ER, EI (Bar-on, Mayer et al.) Experiment Wong and Law scaleof EI developed forthis study

Lab, Field Individual

65 Zhou andGeorge (2003)

Yes Creativity (identification,info gathering,idea generation, and ideaimplementation),EI (Mayer et al.)

Theory N/A N/A Individual

Notes: AET: Affective Events Theory; CAT: Cognitive Appraisal Theory; CL: Charismatic Leadership; ER: Emotional Regulation; EI: Emotional Intelligence; LMX: Leader–member exchange; PANAS: Positive and Negative AffectSchedule; JAS: Job Affect Scale; TL: Transformational Leadership.

a The authors do not explicitly define moods and emotions, however, their daily diaries include descriptions of followers' moods and feelings.

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The evidence for the beneficial aspects of leader positive moods is undeniable though. For example, George and Bettenhausen(1990) found that workgroups with leaders who were in a positive mood performed more prosocial behaviors and had lesserturnover. Prosocial behaviors in turn positively related to sales performance of the group. Perhaps, such leader moods actuallytravel throughout the work group via contagion processes (not addressed in this study) which in turn cause followers to engage inmore prosocial behaviors. Sy, Côté, and Saavedra (2005) provided empirical support for mood contagion mechanisms for bothpositive and negative leader moods. They found that group members individually reported being in a positive mood if the leaderwas positive whereas individuals reported negativemoodswhen leadermoodwas negative. In addition, leadermood also affectedthe collective mood (or affective tone) of the group. Leaders in a negative mood caused a negative group affective tone. Workgroups exposed to negative leader moods expended more effort than groups with positive mood leaders. Leaders in a positivemood, on the other hand, seemed to have a positive effect on work group performance. These two studies point to the benefits ofleader positive moods for prosocial behaviors and group performance, but not for effort expenditure.

In a related vein, Barsade (2002) examined the role of emotion contagion in work groups with a novel twist. She examinedintensity and arousal of leader moods in an experimental setting. She found that groups exposed to a positive affective displayreported positive moods and demonstrated better task cooperation and less conflict. Intensity and arousal of leader moods,however, had no effects. In summary, this set of studies point to two main patterns. First, leader moods travel through the workgroup via contagion and this effect seems to operate for both positive and negative moods. The valence of leader moods seems tomatter while intensity and arousal seemed to not matter as much. Second, leader positive moods seem to foster better groupoutcomes, on the whole, than leader negative moods.

In a somewhat different take on affect in work groups, Barsade, Ward, Turner, and Sonnenfeld (2000) examined homogeneityin trait positive affect in 62 top management teams. Affectively homogenous groups reported more group satisfaction and moreinfluence within the group. Leaders preferred a participative decision making style in such affectively homogenous groups. Theconcept of affective similarity in groups is interesting, yet, much remains to be done in this area. For example do such affectivelysimilar groups with high levels of trait PA fall prey to negative group processes such as groupthink? Furthermore, affectivediversity in the group might have beneficial effects on creativity outcomes and/or the performance of groups in extreme contexts.

Notably missing from the existing literature on leader moods and follower outcomes is the demarcation between what leadersfeel and what they display. For example, some studies focus on leader felt affect and suggest that it affects follower affect viacontagion processes. Affective regulation, though, in this casemight be amissingmediator in that leadersmight not always displaywhat they feel. Other studies focus on displays of leader affect, without identifying actual felt emotions. Individual differences suchas trait affect and emotional competencies (see Theme three) might further moderate the relationship between felt affect andaffect regulation. We need a greater understanding of the antecedents and consequences of this match for leaders and followers.

4.2.2. Leader behaviors and follower outcomesLeader behaviors (e.g., abusive supervision, supportive behaviors) can affect follower moods at work. The types of behaviors

enacted by leaders can be broadly classified as favorable and unfavorable. The unfavorable category includes behaviors such asabusive supervision, lack of distributive justice, autocratic leader behaviors and lower quality exchange relationships. Thesebehaviors relate to follower negative affect and negatively impact outcomes. Themost prominent of favorable leader behaviors arecharismatic leadership and supportive leadership behaviors. In the domain of unfavorable leader behaviors, Harvey, Stoner,Hochwarter, and Kacmar (2007) examined the effects of abusive supervision on follower outcomes such as job related tension andturnover intentions. Followers with higher levels of trait positive affect were better able to cope with abusive supervisors viaingratiation tactics than were followers with lower levels of trait positive affect. These findings indicate that, in the face of abusiveleader behaviors, trait positive affect acts as one psychological resource that helps individuals cope with the strain of having such aleader.

De Cremer (2007) examined the role of autocratic leader behavior and distributive justice in an experiment and a field study.Both studies revealed that followers reported more regret, anger and disappointment with the leader when autocraticleadership was high and distributive justice was low. A second study by the same author (De Cremer, 2006) showed thatautocratic leadership resulted in more positive reactions from followers when leaders displayed self-sacrifice versus self-benefit. Hui, Law, and Chen (1999) investigated subordinate trait negative affect in a manufacturing setting in China. Hui et al.found that negative affectivity had an indirect relationship with OCB (OCB needs to be expanded) via LMX quality and perceivedjob mobility.

Charismatic leader behaviors are the most widely studied favorable leader behaviors in evoking follower positive affect. Forexample, Erez and colleagues (2008) found that leader charisma typically included positive affective expressions and led tofollower positive affect. Interestingly, these authors also found that leader charisma and expressed affect had an impact on followeraffect while leader felt affect itself did not across an experimental study and field study comprising firefighters.

While leader charisma plays a role in evoking follower affect and related outcomes, much less is known regarding how leaderscan display charisma. The use of imagery and storytellingmight be one such pathway. Leader charisma attributions increased withuse of imagery in speeches. Naidoo and Lord (2008) found that leaders who used more imagery elicited more state positive affectin followers, which in turn led to higher ratings of charisma. Relatedly, Cherulnik, Donley,Wiewel, andMiller (2001) conducted anexperiment in which they examined the processes, which engender follower affect. They found, across two separate studies, thatobservers watching a charismatic leader being expressive (operationalized as visual attention towards the audience, frequencyand intensity of smiling)weremore positive and expressive themselves. This work provides some support for the role of contagion

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and unconscious affect transfer mechanisms in leader affect regulation of followers. Moreover, these findings point to theprocesses by which charismatic leader behaviors engender follower positive affect.

More recently, Damen, van Knippenberg, and van Knippenberg (2008b) suggested that positive affective displaysby leaders lead to higher ratings of charismatic leadership. Interestingly, these authors also found that the transfer ofaffect depends on intensity and arousal as much as the valence of affective displays (i.e., positive and/or negative). Damen,van Knippenberg, and van Knippenberg's (2008a) findings are somewhat different from earlier works by Barsade (2002) inwhich arousal and intensity of the mood had no effect on affect transfer. We suspect that these differences could be due to theuse of charismatic leadership in the Damen et al. (2008b) study. Perhaps, affect transfer is more prevalent when followers aresubject to the affective displays of charismatic leader. Alternatively stated, emotional arousal might be relevant when theoutcome of interest is follower perceptions of charisma. Low arousal moods could still travel from leaders to followers viaunconscious affect transfer mechanisms and in turn affect their behavioral outcomes. However, followers do not think of suchleaders as more charismatic.

The accumulated research in charismatic leadership and affect, however, is exciting and points to a simple position:Charismatic leaders make their followers feel good via the use of imagery, storytelling and nonverbal cues. Many questions andavenues for examination remain in this line of research: Are there other leader behaviors that could be charismatic beyondimagery, storytelling and positive affective displays? Are there other cognitive influences that lead to charisma attributions, which,in effect, could also instigate follower positive affect? For example, are leaders who espouse their values more charismatic? Couldit be that leaders who take a strong stance on an unjust phenomenon are more charismatic? Are there boundary conditions on theeffects of charismatic leadership in eliciting follower positive affect? For example, does charisma work in dangerous situations(e.g., military teams)? Does charisma work when conditions are tough (e.g., layoffs, downsizing, mergers, takeovers)? Nelson,Michie, and DeGroot (2008) suggest that leaders should display compassion, sadness, gratitude and regret in such difficultcircumstances. Do charismatic leaders display these negative affective states such as regret and guilt along with positive affectivestates? In addition, how do these affect and context conditions influence follower ratings of leader charisma and followerperformance?

Interestingly, most studies noted above in the domain of undesirable and desirable leader behaviors were at the individuallevel of analysis. Much less theory and research address the dyad level in leadership in general, and, groups and organizations inparticular. One study by Tse et al. (2008) examined affective climate at the work group level. Groups with a more positive affectiveclimate reported amore direct relationship between LMX andwork place friendship. The above findings might point to the criticalrole played by positive affect in workplace.

Much less is known in the leadership domain regarding the effects of leader negative affect and follower negative affect withthe exception of creativity outcomes. George and Zhou (2007) examined the dual-toning perspective in the domain of followercreativity. This perspective suggests the importance of examining both positive and negative affective states. These authors foundthat supportive leader behaviors (e.g., developmental feedback, interactional justice and trust) created a context within whichfollower creativity was highest when both positive and negative moods were strong. In a similar vein, Majdar, Oldham and Pratt(2002) examined the relationship between leader support and follower creativity. They found that leader support was related tofollower positive mood, which in turn facilitated creativity. Majdar et al., however, did not find the same effects for negativemoods.

Plausible reasons for the disconnect between the George and Zhou study and the Majdar et al. study with regard to the effectsof negative moods could be the measures in question, gender characteristics (the Majdar et al. study was mainly comprised ofwomen), timing of measurement as well as the operationalization of creativity. Nevertheless, George and Zhou's dual toningperspective deserves further empirical examination. Positive moods lead to exploration and being open to new ideas, whereasnegative moods create a careful information-processing perspective. As such, conceptually, it is appealing that taken togetherpositive and negative moods lead to better creativity when leaders are supportive.

Amabile et al. (2004) posit that the componential theory of workplace creativity has important implications for managingcreativity and innovation in the workplace. In a unique daily diary qualitative and quantitative study, they examined specificleader behaviors that could impact follower creativity. These authors found that followers reported affective reactions morefrequently than perceptual reactions to leader supportive behaviors. The positive affective reactions engendered by supportiveleaders were more diffused and mood-like (e.g., pleasantness). The negative affective reactions reported by followers revealedmany interesting findings: (1) Negative affective reactions of followers were due to the absence of leader supportive behaviorsand/or not displaying negative emotions congruent with a given context. (2) Negative affective reactions were not only morefrequent and prominent but also very sharply defined (e.g., anxiety, frustration, anger, stress) than positive affective reactions.Amabile et al. pointed out that most leadership theories are predominantly focused on positive leader behaviors, but, negativeleader behaviors seem more salient to followers as they recall them more and have stronger affective reactions to such negativeleader behaviors ( see also Dasborough, 2006 for similar findings).

Ballinger et al. (2009) provide support for the role of follower affective reactions in trusting a new leader. These authors positedthat if a follower's relationship with a departing leader was positive (via the LMX lens); followers would feel negative affect due toloss of that relationship and evaluate a new leader as less trustworthy. Followers with lower quality relationships with departingleaders, however, experience positive affect, as they perceive better goal favorability and congruence. These authors found supportfor relationship between affective reactions and trust with certain differences between contexts: In experimental settings, thedevelopment of LMX itself was not as realistic, whereas in their field study, they found significant effects for the relationshipbetween LMX quality and affective reactions.

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4.2.3. Leader moods and leader effectivenessThe theoretical perspective in the domain of leader affect and leader effectiveness is rather straightforward. The overwhelming

theme is that leader positive moods engender perceptions of leader effectiveness. A subscript to this theme seems to be thattransformational and charismatic leaders are more likely to feel positive moods and display those moods to followers. Theempirical studies that draw upon this theoretical perspective are discussed below.

Newcombe and Ashkanasy (2002) examined the effects of leaders' positive and negative feedback in a simulated performancefeedback meeting. Leaders either displayed facial affect congruent with the message they were delivering (e.g., positive-positive)or they displayed facial affect incongruent with the message (e.g., positive feedback but negative facial affect). Participants ratedleaders as most effective (conceptualized as leader negotiating latitude in this study) when they delivered positive feedback andcongruent positive affect. These authors suggested that leaders who display positive affect create a shared identity with followers,a better vision for the future and thus build better quality relationships with followers. They further note that followers attributetrust and respect based on positive affective displays. These underlying mediators though, are yet to be empirically tested.Alternatively stated, while the positive relationship between leader positive affect and followers’ perceptions of leadereffectiveness could be driven by such attributions as a belief in a better future, identification, trust or respect it might also be thatfollowers simply like such leaders more (e.g., Brown & Keeping, 2005). This relationship deserves further empirical scrutiny.Newcombe and Ashkanasy (2002) demonstrate the powerful effects of affective incongruence though, in which leaders whodisplayed negative affect while delivering positive feedback were rated as least effective.

In this domain of leader moods and leader effectiveness, there are several serious unexplored research directions. For example,theory and research suggests that moods affect individual outcomes such as creativity and decision-making. Yet, we could find noempirical research examining how leader moods could affect their own decision-making and/or creativity. For example, Ng andWong (2008) provide compelling theory on how negative affect could lead to escalation of commitment as an individual tries tocorrect a wrong decision. These authors note that Cognitive Appraisal Theory (see Ng & Wong, 2008) suggests an equallycompelling and competing hypothesis. Negative affect could also lead to reduced escalation of commitment as a way of avoidingany future negative affect. Both ideas are not only intriguing but are relevant to leadership and strategic decisionmaking. Similarly,Isen, Daubman, and Nowicki (1987) suggest that positive affect encourages creative problem solving. This perspective has yet tofind its way into how leaders might find novel solutions while experiencing positive affect (see Rank & Frese, 2008 for similartheoretical perspectives).

We note that most studies reviewed above are at the individual and group levels-of-analysis. While this body of research hasenhanced our knowledge regarding affect at individual and group levels, there exists a serious dearth of theory (with theexception of Ashkanasy, 2003; Ashkanasy & Jordan, 2008; Ashkanasy & Humphrey, in press) and research at the intra-individuallevel, dyadic and organizational levels. For example, the affect-as-information model (Schwarz & Clore, 1983), suggests thatmoods serve as inputs to decision-making. Do leaders’moods then affect how and what decisions they make across time? Cohen-Charash and Byrne (2008) suggest that moods could affect fairness perceptions in organizations. Could leader's moods affect thefairness of decisions and their interpersonal interactions with followers and peers? At the organizational level of analysis, how doleader's moods affect their negotiations with stakeholders inside and outside the organization? Does the leader's mood have animplication for short-term decision making at the organizational level? For example, their decision to allow a press release, attenda charity event on behalf of the organization, etc.? We now turn to the second theme identified in our review, and focus on theliterature concerning specific emotional states and leadership.

5. Theme two: Discrete emotions and leadership

Research on the role of emotions in organizational contexts has typically focused more heavily on positive and negative affect,relative to discrete emotions such as anger, fear, happiness and optimism (for reviews, see Barsade & Gibson, 2007; Härtel, Zerbe, &Ashkanasy, 2005). Increasingly, however, studies of leadership and emotion manipulate or measure specific emotions of bothleaders and followers, examining them as causal influences, mediators, moderators, or consequences of events within or aspects ofthe leadership situation. Theme two of this review provides a summary of these studies. As was done in the preceding theme,several important aspects of this research are highlighted, including theoretical perspectives, empirical findings andmethodological approaches.

5.1. Theoretical perspectives on discrete emotions and leadership

Several theoretical perspectives occur in papers on discrete emotions and leadership (see Theme two in Table 1). As notedpreviously, the importance of emotion for charismatic, transformational, and authentic leadership has been recognized intheoretical and empirical papers by many scholars. Some of this research considers the role of leaders' discrete emotional displayswith respect to follower attitudes, evaluations of leaders, and follower performance.

For example, in articulating their theory of authentic leadership, Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, and May (2004)focused on positive emotions, including hope, optimism, and positive emotions in general as key influences on follower attitudesand behavior. They suggest that positive emotions (along with hope and trust between the leader and followers) mediate therelationships between follower identification with the leader and follower attitudes (e.g., commitment), follower effort and jobperformance. Leader optimism has a direct influence on these outcomes. Along similar lines, Michie and Gooty (2005) proposed anumber of additional specific positive emotions that serve to distinguish authentic from inauthentic leaders. They suggested that

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frequent experiences of these other-regarding positive emotions (e.g., gratitude, goodwill, appreciation, and concern for others),will motivate leaders to act on espoused self-transcendent values, which in turn, translates into self-transcendent leaderbehaviors.

Alternatively, Davis and Gardner (2004) considered negative emotions, exploring the cognitive and affective reactions offollowers to politics in organizations within the context of LMX relationships. They suggest that attribution processes in LMXrelationships and follower individual differences (e.g., negative affect and cynicism), influence perceptions of the politicalenvironment and can lead to cynicism about the organization. The political skill of leaders and quality of the LMX relationshipmayserve as buffers to follower cynicism regarding the organization.

Other research by Connelly, Gaddis, and Helton-Fauth (2002) discusses the role of discrete positive and negative emotions intransformational leadership, socialized charismatic leadership, and personalized charismatic leadership. They propose that leadersemphasizing a particular leadership style strategically display different patterns of positive and negative emotions whenestablishing initial influence with followers, communicating a vision, and generating acceptance and commitment to the visionand associated goals. At present, there is little empirical evidence speaking directly to the emotion components of theaforementioned theories.

Empirical papers focusing on discrete emotions and leadership include a broader array of theoretical foci, reflecting a blend ofleadership and emotion-related perspectives. Several studies had leadership theories as the predominant lens through whichemotional phenomena are considered, such as transformational, charismatic and transactional leadership, leader rewards andpunishments, and leadership during organizational crises. However, a larger number of studies centered around emotion-relatedtheories and processes, such as AET, the EASI model, emotional contagion, emotions in judgment and decision-making, and angerexpression. Finally, several studies emphasized both leadership and emotion theoretical perspectives.

5.2. Empirical research on discrete emotions and leadership

Our summary of studies here is organized by whether emotions are treated as predictors or causal influences, or whether theyare assessed as outcomes of leader behavior or interaction with subordinates. Perhaps not surprisingly, all of the studies looking atemotions as causal influences are experiments, while those considering emotions as outcomes are field studies. Experiments useda range of techniques for manipulating leader emotion. One of the most common was to show video-tapes of a leader. In someexperiments, participants simply evaluated leader behaviors inferred via watching the tapes, while in other instances participantswere instructed that they were watching their leader and reported their own reactions and emotions. Leaders in these videos gavespeeches, feedback, or task instructions. Other experiments used paper vignettes to describe leaders and leader–followerinteractions. All of the field studies employed content analytic approaches to critical incident or interview data collected fromsubordinates or leaders. Finally, all studies in Theme two are at the individual level of analysis (see Table 1); only three failedto define emotions (see Column 3 in Table 1). Eight of a possible thirteen empirical studies included naturalistic studies (seeColumn 5 of Table 1) and were cross-sectional.

5.2.1. Leader emotions as a source of influence on followersConsistent with theoretical papers on emotions and transformational leadership (e.g., Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000)McColl-Kennedy

and Anderson (2002) studied relationships among transformational leadership, follower optimism and frustration, and followerperformance. Higher levels of transformational leadership were associated with greater follower optimism and less frustration.Frustration correlated negatively with follower performance while optimism correlated positively, although not as strongly. Bothemotions fully mediated the relationship of transformational leadership to follower performance.

Several studies examined the effects of leader emotion on follower or observer evaluations of the leader. Using video-tapedleader speeches, Lewis (2000) altered leader emotional displays and gender in a laboratory study. She found that people whoviewed a sad leader reported less “positive arousal” (enthusiasm) and greater “low arousal” (fatigue) versus those who viewed anemotionally neutral leader. People who viewed an angry leader reported more “negative activation” (nervous) and less “lowactivation” (relaxed) versus a neutral leader. However, the neutral leader received higher effectiveness ratings than angry or sadleaders. Male leaders displaying anger, a gender congruent emotion, were seen as more effective than those displaying sadness.However, this gender-congruence effect did not emerge in the female leader conditions, where the neutral female leaderwas ratedas most effective.

Glomb and Hulin (1997) found that, regardless of gender, leaders showing anger in interacting with a subordinate were ratedlower in effectiveness and satisfaction with supervisor. The discrepancy in these anger findings with Lewis' findings may be due tosubordinates being the target of the leader's anger. Interestingly, subordinates interacting with an angry leader were rated morefavorably on coworker satisfaction and Least Preferred Co-worker scales. Finally, a study byMadera and Smith (2009) showed thatleader displays of anger, sadness, or anger and sadness in response to an organizational crisis resulted in different evaluations ofleader effectiveness. Specifically, leaders showing anger alone were evaluated less favorably than those showing only sadness orboth emotions. However, these effects disappeared when leaders accepted responsibility for the crisis. Taken together theseresults not only demonstrate differential effects of different discrete emotions, but they highlight the importance of leader genderas well as the context in which the emotions were displayed.

Connelly and Ruark (2010) identify leadership style as another moderator of the effects of leader emotional displays onfollower perceptions and performance. Participants in this laboratory study played the role of a follower and were given a set ofmaterials describing the company and their leader. Results showed that transformational and transactional leaders displaying

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positive versus negative emotionswere perceived differently by followers. Transformational leaders were seen as equally effectiveand transformational regardless of whether they displayed positive or negative emotions, and they got better performancefrom followers with negative emotional displays. Alternatively, transactional leaders were seen as more effective andtransformational when they used positive emotions, but that the valence of their emotional displays did not influence followerperformance. Across leader types, positive emotions high in activating potential (e.g., pride, responsibility) resulted in betterfollower satisfaction, and perceptions of leader effectiveness than positive emotions low in activating potential (e.g., happiness,contentment).

The importance of follower traits in perceiving and responding to leader emotions has recently been demonstrated in severalstudies. Damen et al. (2008a) showed that an affectivematch between leaders and followers facilitates follower performance. HighPA followers receiving task instructions from an enthusiastic female leader and low PA followers receiving them from an angryfemale leader performed better than when there was an affective mismatch. A follow up study replicated and extended thesefindings with a male leader, showing that the positive or negative valence of the message was not responsible for the effects onfollower performance. In addition, affective match also positively influences follower extra-role performance. These same authorsconducted another study examining the role of transfer of arousal (to followers) as a mediator of the relationship between leaderemotional displays and follower outcomes Damen et al. (2008a). They hypothesized that positive, high arousal emotions areconsistent with follower conceptions of charismatic leaders. Accordingly, in two studies (laboratory and field) they showed thatleader displays of enthusiasm resulted in greater transfer of arousal to followers and stronger follower attributions of charismathan low arousal positive emotion (relaxation) and negative leader emotions (anger, sadness). Findings fromWaples and Connelly(2008) again demonstrate the importance of moderators. They showed that leaders displaying high activation emotions (positiveor negative) in communicating a vision led to better follower performance on a vision-related task. Additionally, follower trust inthe leader and perceptions of leader effectiveness following leader display of negative and positive emotions that are high or lowin activation depends on follower emotional competence.

Leader emotions influence not only individual follower outcomes, but team outcomes as well. The EASI model (Van Kleef,2008) served as a theoretical foundation for a study examining the effects of leader anger and happiness on team performance(Van Kleef et al., 2009). These authors proposed that leader emotional displays influence team affective reactions as well asinferences about performance. They demonstrated that positive displays resulted in more positive affective reactions andfavorable inferences about performance than negative displays. However, the impact of these two interpretive pathways (affectivevs. task information) on team performance depended on the level of team epistemic motivation or the “desire to develop andmaintain a rich and accurate understanding of situations” (p. 564). High (vs. low) epistemic motivation resulted in a strongerrelationship between task performance inferences and team performance, whereas low epistemic motivation resulted in astronger relationship between affective reactions and team performance. Thus, epistemic motivation is an important moderator,providing information about when negative and positive leader emotional displays are more effective.

Finally, in looking at emotions as causal influences, two studies looked at how the experience and expression of angerinfluenced leaders and followers. Begley (1994) adopted a physiological approach to emotions to examine the within-personeffects of anger in small business managers. Due to their differential physiological consequences, different types of angerexpressions were expected to have different direct and moderating influences on the relationship between interpersonal stressand health outcomes. Anger-in (i.e., suppressing anger expression) correlated positively with anxiety, depression, and somaticcomplaints (e.g., headache) while anger-out (i.e., expressing anger towards other people or objects in the environment) wasunrelated. High (vs. low) anger-in was also associated with larger correlations between responsibility for people, anxiety anddepression. Anger-out also moderated the responsibility-depression relationship in the same way.

Focusing on followers, Gino and Schweitzer (2008) examine the role of anger in advice-taking. As a complex decision process,advice-taking is subject to the influence of emotion (Forgas, 1995). They focus on incidental anger and gratitude, two emotionscharacterized by other-person control. People experiencing incidental anger (anger unrelated to the situation at hand) were lessreceptive to advice and were less trusting of the person giving the advice compared to people experiencing no emotion orincidental gratitude. Gratitude resulted in the highest levels of trust and receptivity to advice and resulted in more accuratejudgments than anger or no emotion. Thus, leaders must have keen emotional perception and must help subordinates manageemotions in such a way as to build trust and ensure that feedback and guidance is followed.

Taken together, these studies highlight at least two key findings. First, it quickly becomes apparent that blanket statementsregarding the drawbacks of negative leader emotion are dangerous. Follower performance actually increased after displays ofleader anger in several studies. This leads to a second major finding. The impact of specific leader emotional displays iscontextually dependent and relies on a number of moderating factors such as affective match with followers, follower epistemicmotivation, leadership style, and, to an extent, leader gender.

However, there is a critical need for field research in the areas of discrete emotions and leadership to seewhether these kinds ofeffects generalize to organizational settings.

5.2.2. Emotions as outcomes of leadership behaviorFramedwithin a leadership rewards and punishment framework, Atwater, Camobreco, Dionne, Avolio, and Lau's (1997) study can

be categorized at the interpersonal level. They examined how Army cadets reacted to contingent and non-contingent punishmentsadministered by leaders. Their data included content coded punishment-related critical incidents for emotional reactions (amongmany others). Using Mikula's (Mikula, Sherer, & Athenstaedt, 1998) seven category taxonomy of emotional response (anger/rage orindignation, physiological arousal, confusion/surprise, helplessness/despair or self-pity, hurt/disappointment, other, no emotion) they

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found that non-contingent punishment incidents were associated with more emotional responses than contingent punishmentincidents. Therewasnodifference in relative frequencyof emotions across contingent andnon-contingent punishment and angerwasthe most frequent reaction to both punishment types.

Butterfield, Treviño, and Ball (1996) examined leaders' own emotional reactions to punishing followers, recognizing thatpunishment is an emotional experience for both followers and leaders. Structured interviews with managers from a variety oforganizations revealed that leader emotions in response to punishment incidents are mostly negative and occasionally a mixtureof positive and negative. Managers felt frustrated, angry, embarrassed, sorry, bad, and guilty. They perceived subordinatesreceiving the punishment as feeling some of these same emotions aswell as disappointed, shocked, bitter, defensive, unhappy, andawkward. Managers also discussed reactions of their other non-punished subordinates as being mostly negative, but occasionallypositive (e.g., relief, happiness, sympathy, and satisfaction). Interestingly, emotional responses of leaders and followers did notdiscriminate more effective from less effective punishment incidents.

Dasborough's (2006) qualitative study demonstrates the powerful role of affective asymmetry: subordinates recalled morenegative affective events involving their leaders than positive ones across six leader behavior themes (e.g., awareness/respect,empowerment and communication). Subordinates more readily recalled a greater number and variety of negative emotions(compared to positive emotions) and negative emotions were reported as having higher intensity.

These studies highlight the challenges inherent to the study of discrete emotions in an organizational contexts as well as theneed for more research in this area. Field research within Theme two has relied exclusively on retrospective accounts of affectiveevents by leaders and followers. These are inherently limited not only due to recall bias, but to the asymmetry often seen inresponses to negative versus positive emotional experiences, where negative emotions seem to exert stronger influence (Taylor,1991). The difficulty of gaining access to observe or assess the effects of discrete emotions in organizational settings may be whythe empirical research in naturalistic settings has drifted heavily towards emotional competencies, which are more stable. Theseare addressed in our next theme.

6. Theme three: Emotional competencies and leadership

The surge of interest in emotional capabilities and leadership has been tremendous during the last decade. Constructs fallinginto this category range from emotional intelligence abilities, emotional competencies, emotion regulation, empathy, and others.Here again, we reviewed theoretical perspectives and empirical studies examining the relationships of emotion related capabilitiesto leadership. Perhaps reflecting the nascence of this domain, most papers in this theme were theoretical. Most empirical studieswere conducted in the lab with few in the field. Individual level of analysis dominated these studies followed by the group level ofanalysis. The dyad level was a focus in two studies.

6.1. Theoretical perspectives on emotional competencies and leadership

A number of scholars have conceptually linked themulti-faceted construct of emotional intelligence (EI) to effective leadership(Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000; Bass, 2002; Caruso, Mayer, & Salovey, 2002; George, 2000). George (2000) described how various aspectsof the ability based model of EI contribute to developing collective goals, communicating the importance of work activities,generating and maintaining enthusiasm, confidence and optimism, encouraging flexible decision-making, and maintainingorganizational identity. Similarly, Ashkanasy and Tse (2000) discussed how transformational leaders are emotionally skilled incommunicating with and energizing followers, express positive emotion and empathy, and effectively regulate emotions. Thisengages followers emotionally and generates high-quality LMX relationships. Leadership scholars have also considered how the EIof leaders facilitates follower creativity by influencing affective and cognitive processes associated with key aspects of creativity:problem recognition, information gathering, idea generation, idea evaluation and revision, and idea implementation (Zhou &George, 2003).

While theories regarding the importance of leader emotional intelligence abound, debates concerning the relationship of EI toleadership and whether it is necessary for effective leadership are as yet unresolved (Antonakis, Ashkanasy, & Dasborough, 2009;Locke, 2005). These debates and controversies stem from disagreements and skepticismwith conceptions andmeasures of EI (e.g.,ability model vs. mixed models; self-report vs. performance-based) distinctness of EI from fluid intelligence, distinctness frompersonality, and unique predictive validity when controlling for general intelligence and personality. Rehashing this debate is notthe purpose of our review. While there has been much discussion about the importance of EI for leadership, very few studiesdirectly address the contribution of EI to effective leadership.3

Most leadership scholars have side-stepped the EI measurement controversy by focusing on specific emotional capabilitiessuch as empathy and emotion regulation. These concepts are given separate treatment in the literature, apart from emotionalintelligence, and offer some alternatives avenues for pursuing different measurement approaches to emotion-related capacities.

As mentioned earlier, emotion regulation has been defined by Gross (1998) as an attempt to change the nature, timing andexpression of one's emotional experience. Boss and Sims (2008) highlight the potential importance of emotion regulation tactics

3 At the time of writing our article, Joseph & Newman, 2010, published a meta-analysis suggesting that EI predicts job performance in high emotional laborjobs. This article is not included in our review as it does not directly relate to leadership, yet, along with Côté et al. (2010), might provide some initial predictivevalidity for the construct of EI.

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for decreasing both the perception of failure and experience of failure. They suggest that emotion regulation can also help to bufferself-efficacy in the face of failure, leading to faster recovery.

Ostell (1996) recognized that leaders often help employees find constructive ways to respond to emotion-inducing workevents and circumstances. Rather than a general focus on “managing feelings”, he emphasizes the importance of understandingthe nature of specific emotional states and how to recognize the features of such states in others. Drawing from clinicalperspectives and his experience as a therapist, he outlines principles for managing the emotional behavior of others such asempathizing (communicating understanding of others emotional states) avoiding unconstructive mood matching (e.g.,responding to anger with anger), avoiding confrontational mood states (e.g., responding to other's emotional reactions withannoyance), and applying emotion-specific strategies to deal with emotions. For the emotions of anger, anxiety and depression, heoffers details on strategies intended to lessen personal distress and strategies that focus on adaptive responding.

Closely related is the concept of emotional labor (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Grandey, 2000; Hochschild, 1983) which isdefined as “managing emotions and emotional expression to be consistent with organizational or occupational “display rules,”defined as expectations about appropriate emotional expression (Goffman, 1959)” (p. 2, Glomb & Tews, 2004). Given recentexplicit linkages of emotional labor and leadership (Humphrey, Pollack, & Hawver, 2008), we briefly review this literature here.Emotional labor has typically been categorized as either surface acting (e.g., faking a positive emotion) or deep acting(reappraising to change the felt emotion). While an impressive body of research has emerged in the organizational sciencesliterature regarding emotional labor, (e.g., Diefendorff, Croyle, & Gosserand, 2005; Glomb & Tews, 2004; Hennig-Thurau, Groth,Paul, & Gremler, 2006; Jordan et al., 2008), this concept has only recently been considered with respect to leadership. We find thisa tad surprising given the need for leaders to adapt their emotional displays in different ways to influence different stakeholders(Humphrey, 2008).

Theoretical work in this area has started to emerge, however, suggesting the importance of a third dimension of emotion laborto leadership - expressing felt emotions without regulation (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). Humphrey, Kellett, Sleeth, andHartman (2008), Humphrey, Pollack, et al. (2008) developed a theoretical model suggesting that emotional labor among leadersmight differ from the same construct among service workers and called for empirical research in this area. Similarly, Hunt,Gardner, and Fischer (2008) developed a typology of emotional labor and its effects on felt and perceived leader authenticityunder varying contextual conditions. Inwork that is more recent, Gardner and colleagues (Gardner, Fischer, & Hunt, 2009) forwarda conceptual model delineating the consequences of the three forms of emotion labor noted above (i.e., surface acting, deep actingand genuine emotions) to leader authenticity and well-being, follower perceptions of leader authenticity and trust in the leader.

Extending earlier research on emotion regulation in dyads by Pugh (2002), Riggio and Reichard (2008) proposed a model ofemotions and leadership emphasizing dyadic influences between leaders and followers. Key to this theory is how emotions arecommunicated and received by both members of the dyad based on their emotion sensitivity, emotion expression, and emotionregulation. These capabilities are applied within a broader emotional context, influencing attributions that leaders and followersmake about each other.

Other research suggests that empathy plays a key role in the ability of leaders to accurately perceive emotions in others andrespond with appropriate emotional expression (Humphrey, Kellett, et al., 2008). Empathy helps leaders to establish a connectionwith followers, better recognize their needs, and develop a shared identity. We turn now to the empirical research on emotionalcompetencies.

6.2. Empirical research on emotional competencies and leadership

We categorized empirical research in Theme three into four areas—emotional intelligence, emotion recognition, empathy, andother emotion related capabilities. Only a few studies included in our review explicitly examine ability-based performancemeasures of emotional intelligence (i.e., MSCEIT) to leadership criteria (e.g., Côté, Lopes, Salovey, & Miners, 2010). Much of theresearch has focused on specific constructs that have been manipulated or measured using alternatives to emotional intelligenceand emotional competence measures.

The measurement of emotional competencies bears mentioning given some of the criticism aimed at emotional intelligencemeasures and given the surprising diversity of approaches we saw in reviewing these studies. The measures of emotionalcompetencies used in the Theme three studies have their conceptual roots in theories of emotional intelligence, theories ofemotion regulation, and affective theories such as the mood-as-information model (Forgas, 1995). A range of constructs isreflected across the measures. The Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile (WEIP) (Jordan, 2001) was used to assess the abilityto identify others' emotions and the ability to express one's emotions (e.g., Kellett, Humphrey, & Sleeth, 2006). The EmotionalCompetence Inventory has been used to measure empathy as well as broader traits such as self-awareness, self-management,social awareness, and relationship management (Offerman, Bailey, Vasilopoulos, Seal, & Sass, 2004). Wong and Law (2002)developed and validated their own measure of emotional intelligence. Rubin, Munz, and Bommer (2005) assessed emotionrecognition using a performance-based measure, the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy (Nowicki & Duke, 2001).Generally, studies have had followers use these instruments to rate leaders, while a few have relied on leader self-reports.

There have also been a few unique approaches to assessing and studying emotional competencies in leadership settings. Seoand Barrett (2007) used a complex and context-specific approach for assessing affective influence regulation (AIR) (regulating thebias-inducing effects of feelings), affective reactivity (intensity), and emotion differentiation (of own emotions) in an experiencesampling study of stockbroker investment decisions. Once a day for 20 days, participants rated twenty-two emotion adjectivesprior to making investments. These adjectives mapped to the axes of a Circumplex model developed by Barrett and Russell (1998)

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to reflect positive/activated, positive/deactivated, negative/activated, and negative deactivated emotions. These ratings were usedto create reactivity, differentiation, and AIR indices. The AIR index was calculated by regressing an investment risk index onpleasantness and activation level to see how much each was associated with risk. Other work by (Pescosolido, 2002; Wolff et al.,2002) used a critical incident approach to examine empathy and emotion perception. Byron (2008) manipulated accuracy ofleader emotion perceptions in an experimental study. As was the case with the studies in Themes one and two, the predominanceof studies in Theme three are conceptualized and conducted at an individual level of analysis with a few exceptions. Roughly, halfof these studies were laboratory experiments and half were field studies.

A recent meta-analysis by Harms and Credé (2010) examined the relationship of EI to transformational and transactionalleadership. This study showed small estimated validities (r=.12) between EI and transformational leadership in studies usingdifferent rater sources across the predictor and criterion, with slightly higher validities for trait-based (mixed model) EI measurescompared to ability-based measures. Validity estimates were much higher when the same source rated both EI and leadershipbehavior, suggesting that common method bias and socially desirable responding influenced these results. EI showed similarlevels of correlation with contingent reward behaviors (different rater source r=.13) and showed small negative relationships tolaissez-faire and management by exception behaviors.

Côté et al. (2010) provide evidence for the positive relationship between emotional intelligence and peer ratings of leadershipemergence when controlling for key covariates to rule out alternative explanations. Their first study controlled for Big Fivepersonality traits and gender, and compared the incremental validities of an ability measure of EI with a self report measure.Results of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses showed that overall EI (ability test), the ability to perceive emotions, andthe ability to understand emotions accounted for unique variance in leader emergence, while the self report measure did not showincremental validity. Their second study extended the list of covariates to include general intelligence, Big Five, gender, and self-monitoring, again showing incremental validity for the overall EI ability, the ability to understand emotions, and the ability to useemotions.

6.2.1. Emotion recognitionEchoing some of the research discussed in Theme two, Byron's (2008) research on accuracy of non-verbal emotion perception

was guided by role congruity theory and gender stereotypes (Eagly & Karau, 2002). She used a vignette study to contrast femaleand male leaders high and low in emotion perception. Because people generally expect female leaders to display interpersonalsensitivity and communal characteristics, female leaders with accurate emotion perception were rated higher on followersatisfaction and supportiveness than male leaders with accurate emotion perception. Emotionally perceptive male leadersbenefited in a different way, with followers seeing them as more persuasive than emotionally perceptive female leaders.Followers' perceptions of a leader's ability to read others' emotions appears to associate with a bias towards gender congruence.

Rubin et al. (2005) looked at the relationship of non-verbal emotion recognition, positive affectivity, and personality (Big-five)to transformational leadership in a sample of real-world leaders. Controlling for span of control and negative affectivity, theyfound that agreeableness, positive affectivity, and emotion recognition accounted for 20% of the variance in transformationalleadership. They also hypothesized and found that emotion regulation was more positively related to transformational leadershipwhen leaders were more extraverted. This interaction term accounted for an additional 3% of variance in transformationalleadership.

6.2.2. EmpathyRelated to emotion recognition, empathy is the ability to both understand and communicate one's understanding of another

person's emotion (Vignemont & Singer, 2006). Some research has focused on the relationship of empathy to leadership. Kellett,Humphrey, and Sleeth (2002) proposed and found that emotional capabilities such as empathy are positively related to perceivedleadership. Thus, in addition to a more cognitively-based route to perceived leadership (i.e., complex task performance) empathyalso contributed to seeing a person as a leader. In a later simulated assessment center study, these same authors showed positiverelationships of empathy to task oriented and relations oriented leadership behavior (Kellett et al., 2006). Additionally, they foundthat empathymediated the relationship between two facets of emotional intelligence, identifying others’ emotions and expressingone's own emotions, and relations oriented leadership. Another study of emergent leaders in MBA teams found that leaderempathy was positively related to pattern recognition and perspective taking (perceiving beliefs, emotions and viewpoints)(Wolff et al., 2002).

6.2.3. Other emotion-related capabilitiesOthers have looked at affective information processing influences on decision-making in managers. Seo and Barrett (2007)

point to prior research showing that emotions could facilitate decisions by shifting attention to important goals and helping peopleprioritize optimal choices for a given situation. However, emotions also sometimes induce bias that can lead to less optimaldecisions. For example, emotions have been shown to influence a)mood congruent information retrieval, b) social judgments suchthat they are consistent with one's affective state, and c) favoring of short term gain that could have negative long-termconsequences. In a simulated investment decision study using experience sampling to assess affective variables, Seo and Barrettfound that affective reactivity (experiencing intense feelings during decision-making) and affective influence regulation(regulating biasing effects of emotions) were positively and uniquely related to stock investment returns generated over twentydays. Further, those who were more successful at differentiating negative emotional states (e.g., anger, disappointment,frustration) had better affective influence regulation.

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Offerman et al. (2004) looked at the relationships of Goleman (1995) and Boyatzis and Goleman's (2002) emotionalcompetencies with cognitive ability, individual and team performance, team attitudes, and leadership perceptions in students.They found that the relationships of emotional competence (EC) and cognitive ability varied for some of these outcomes. Theindividual and team-level emotional competence composite scores correlated more strongly with team performance compared tocognitive ability, while cognitive ability was more strongly associated with academic performance than EC (r=.10). Similarcorrelations were seen with the EC subscale scores for self-management, social awareness, and relationship management.Additionally, they showed that individual and team-level EC correlated positively with attitudes about the team (r=.21, r=.26).Individual EC and cognitive ability showed similar correlations with leadership effectiveness (r=.14) and leadership ranking (r=−.16, r=−.15). Hierarchical regressions controlling for personality showed that relationship management accounted forsignificant variance in leadership effectiveness (5%) and rankings (10%).

Another study of emotional intelligence and leadership focused on the development and validation of an alternative scale ofemotional intelligence (Wong & Law, 2002). Drawing on the ability-based model of EI, this measure incorporates self-report itemsto assess 1) self emotional appraisal, 2) others’ emotional appraisal, 3) regulation of emotion, and 4) use of emotion to facilitateperformance. In a series of studies, they found that follower EI correlated positively with job satisfaction and ratings of jobperformance, while leader EI correlated with satisfaction and extra-role behavior.

Pescosolido (2002) observed initial evidence for emergent leaders engaging in management of group emotion in a qualitativestudy employing observations and critical incident interviews with ten jazz groups and ten rowing teams. In sixty percent of thecritical incidents, leaders interpreted ambiguous performance feedback for the group to keep emotions positive. Empathy of theemergent leaders was also mentioned in half of the jazz group interviews and in eight of the rowing team interviews. Finally,Groves (2005) found that emotional expressivity or the non-verbal expression of emotion through facial expressions, bodylanguage, and voice tone was positively correlated with follower ratings of charismatic leadership.

Studies within Theme three examined a number of emotional competencies, including EI, emotion perception, emotiondifferentiation, affect influence regulation, empathy, and relationship management on various leadership criteria. While effectsizes varied, this research demonstrated direct and indirect effects of these variables on perception and performance criteria.Additionally, there was some attention to group-level analysis and representation of field and laboratory research.

7. Implications for leadership, affect and emotions

Our paper provided a broad, qualitative review of several important trends and findings in the area of leadership, affect andemotions. In this section, we summarize existing findings and comment on where these findings leave us with regard to ourcriteria noted at the outset (i.e., theory and methods) and an agenda for the future.

7.1. Theory

In the behavioral sciences, it is challenging to find one coherent theory that ties everything together. In leadership affect andemotions, however, we are encouraged by the similarity and consistent use of certain theoretical themes. Dominant among theemotion frameworks in use is AET (see Table 1), which has served as the explanatory framework for leader emotion and behaviorsbeing a source of followermoods (see Theme one) and emotions (see Theme two). The findings from empirical research using AETas the framework have theoretical and applied implications in that leader behaviors (both favorable and unfavorable) act asinstigators of follower moods and emotions (e.g., Dasborough, 2006). This finding lends credence to one long held proposition inleadership research that leadership affects follower and work group outcomes via its effect on follower affective reactions.

The second theoretical perspective that has received much attention is that of Contagion mechanisms (both moods andemotions) (see Table 1). Leader affective displays (i.e., both moods and emotions) affect follower and work group affective statesas well as outcomes. These effects are presumed transmitted via automatic and unconscious contagion processes. While intensityand arousal of the specific leader mood in general did not affect outcomes such as performance, intensity seem to affect followerperceptions of leader charisma. More recently, the EASI model of Van Kleef and emotion regulation research in general, offers acompelling perspective on conscious mechanisms enacted by leaders in managing followers and work group emotions.

The most dominant leadership perspectives found in the studies reviewed here cast affect and emotions as one aspect ofinspirational leadership (i.e. transformational, charismatic and authentic leadership). Relatedly, moods and emotions are positedto affect follower perceptions of quality of exchange relationships (LMX) with their leader and this perception of quality could inturn affect subsequent moods and emotions.

Unlike prior reviews of affect, moods and emotions, our review found that majority of the research in leadership does offer adefinition of affective constructs. One plausible reason for the disconnect between earlier reviews and ours could be that ourprocedure eliminated studies that did not explicitly seek to study affect, moods and emotions. With that said, there are still somestudies that confuse moods and emotions (see for example, De Cremer, 2007, in which moods and emotions are usedinterchangeably).

With respect to emotional competencies and leadership, there is still some lack of clarity regarding construct definitions.Generally, constructs in these papers have some connection to theories of emotional intelligence, which might contribute to theproblem. Papers that focused solely on constructs linked to the ability basedmodel of EI tended to provide clear definitions, as wellas those that focused on specific competencies such as empathy or emotion perception.

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7.2. Recommendations for future theoretical work

From a theoretical standpoint, even though most studies couch their work within established theoretical frameworks, muchremains to be done in the domain of explanatory theory. For example, theory and research casts positive affective and emotionalexpressions as an important aspect of charisma. The pathways underlying such attributions though are not very well understood.One explanation that many empirical studies offer is that leaders who display positive emotions engender follower positiveemotions, which in turn results in higher ratings of charisma. We do not quite know, however, why followers who experiencepositive affect and emotions attribute higher charisma to their leaders. Likewise, we know little about if and when followersattribute charisma to leaders displaying negative emotions. Some explanatory theoretical development in this regard is needed.For example, it could be that cognitive appraisals of such followers differ from those followers who are not exposed to such effects.Another missing part of this puzzle could be context. In fact, we could find no explanatory theory tying leadership and emotionstogether via context-focus.

We were somewhat surprised that one of the dominant theoretical frameworks in Psychology- Cognitive Appraisal Theory—has not found much application in leadership research on emotions with some notable exceptions (e.g., Gaddis et al., 2004). Forexample, leader's display of emotions could affect followers via their own cognitive appraisal regarding the emotion-eliciting vent.We are also somewhat surprised that this body of research casts the follower as a passive actorwith no control over what emotionsthey experience. For example, are all followers equally susceptible to leader emotions via contagion (see Johnson, 2008 for anexception)? Are there certain attributions and appraisals that drive follower's willingness to catch leader emotions versus not?These kinds of questions remain unanswered due to an excessive focus on predictive rather than explanatory theories.Explanatory theories may enable a focus on more cognitive and performance-oriented types of criteria.

Another area ripe for future theoretical work lies in the disconnect between what leaders feel and what they display. As notedin Theme two, our findings indicate that it is premature to cast negative emotions as culprits only. Yet, there are no explanatorytheories for the role of negative emotions and moods (a couple of empirical studies have looked at this) in the leadership process.For example, Tangney's work (Tangney, Wagner, Hill-Barow, Marschall, & Gramzow, 1996) on righteous anger and guilt positsthat self-conscious emotions instigate ethical acts. Michie and Gooty (2005) offered such a perspective with positive emotions, butthis area of negative emotions leading to ethical behavior is a novel one. We also suggest that the work on negative emotions islargely underrepresented in the leadership literature and this bias precludes understanding how self-conscious negative emotionscould impact ethical leadership.

In a related vein, the proponents of authentic leadership have relied heavily on the use of positive emotions as an integralcomponent of authenticity. Yet, in some of their works on authentic leadership development, Avolio and colleagues suggest that aleader's life experiences (termed “moments that matter”) drive authenticity later in life. Given the science in psychology that wetend to recall negative emotion events much more forcefully than positive ones (see also Dasborough, 2006), might it not be thatthese moments that matter included negative emotional experiences? For example, President Obama has publicly reflected on thenegative emotions of fear and insecurity stemming from his absentee father as a source of his drive and ambition. Perhaps, weneed more theories that articulate individual differences that cause some individuals to turn intense negative emotionalexperiences into motivational energy.

Research concerning specific cognitive and behavioral strategies leaders use to effectively regulate their own and followers’emotions is notablymissing. Gross (1998) outlined a number of specific self-emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, Ostell (1996)points to the potential value of exploring the clinical psychology literature for other ideas regarding effective emotion management.Testing for the global effects of emotion regulation may result in little progress because strategies that work for one leader may notwork for all, or, work with all followers. Additionally, more research is needed on the antecedents (individual and situational) andconsequences (cognitive processing, performance, attitudinal) of emotion regulation for both leaders and followers.

Perhaps, the most disturbing trend theoretically and empirically is the serious misalignment of levels of analysis and thegeneral lack of acknowledgement of levels of analysis. Some theoretical work on emotions and leadership as multi-levelphenomenon has started to emerge (Ashkanasy, 2003; Ashkanasy & Humphrey, in press; Ashkanasy & Jordan, 2008); however,theories on leadership affect and emotions have largely sidestepped the issue of levels in most conceptual works. In fact, AET,mood contagion, etc. are all inherently multi-level theoretical frameworks; yet, theoretical works and empirical studies that drawupon these theories neglect the levels aspect. For example, Hansen et al. in their work on Aesthetic leadership make nomention oflevels. We call for theoretical work that explicitly addresses the intra-individual level (e.g., leader emotions and decision-makingacross time, leader emotions and leadership ability/skills), dyadic level (e.g., leader and follower emotions affecting each other'soutcomes, agreement regarding what is felt versus displayed at the dyad level), group level (e.g., the influence of group moods onleader moods, construct development of group emotional tone and the roe of the leader), and organizational level. Regarding thislast aspect, theoretically, it is yet unclear what organizational emotions might refer to and/or if such a construct exists.

7.3. Methods

The empirical research reviewed here offered a good balance between experimental and cross-sectional correlational research.This is a good sign for leadership research as experiments offer perhaps the most stringent tests of moods and emotion in terms ofcontrol and alignment with basic definitions. Alternatively stated, event-based experimental designs align with the definitions ofmoods and emotions. The use of cross-sectional correlational research, however, presents challenges that cast skepticism onaccumulated findings. A small percentage of the studies reviewed here across all three themes treated moods and emotions as

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dynamic constructs requiring longitudinal/repeatedmeasures. The use of daily diaries (Amabile et al., 2004) and experience sampling(Bono et al., 2007) help align field-based research with the definition of moods and emotions as dynamic constructs. The majority ofempirical research, however, is drawn from snapshot examinations of moods and emotions. The treatment of affective constructs asstable is an underlying assumption in cross-sectional correlational research and this scheme is not designed to study moods andemotions per their definitions. As in earlier reviews of moods and emotions (e.g., Barsade & Gibson, 2007; Briner & Kiefer, 2005), wefind that this misalignment of research designs with theory in leadership, moods and emotions is a serious challenge.

Related to the above concern, which by definition precludes a focus on the intra-individual level, we could not find a singleempirical study in a naturalistic setting at the dyadic level in leadership, affect and emotions. This is somewhat troublesome giventhat emotions are context and interaction-specific. The accumulated empirical research in leadership, moods and emotions isreally just telling us one side of the story - that of follower perceptions of leader affective displays. At the group level, severalstudies examine effects of leader moods and emotions on followers and work group outcomes. At the organizational level, wecould find no published empirical work on leadership, affect and emotions.

In addition to this glaring neglect of levels of analysis, some studies demonstrate theories at an individual level whereasmethods and analysis are at individual and group levels. For example, Erez et al. theorize all relationships at individual level,whereas their analysis strategies include individual and group levels. Similarly, Hui et al. (1999) employ LMX as their theoreticalframework, which is a dyadic theory, whereas their methods and analysis are at individual level. To make matters worse, somestudies (e.g., Hui et al., 1999) collect interdependent data wherein one leader rates multiple followers and the dependencies insuch data is not acknowledged or treated. Sy et al. (2005), on the other hand, provide an example of a studywhere both theory andmethods are aligned from a levels perspective (e.g., theory and methods are both at the individual and group levels).

The measurement in leadership, affect and emotions is also less stringent than it needs be. Rarely did we find detailedpsychometric evidence for any of the measures used. The most frequently used measures for moods were the Positive andNegative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and Job Affect Scale (JAS) (see Table 1) which are used repeatedly in organizational behavior ingeneral, but psychometric properties of these measures is rarely discussed. Themeasurement of emotions seems to bemuchmorewidespread in that authors typically use adjectives and checklists drawn from established emotion models. While this practice isnot unadvisable, rigorous psychometric work for these measures is scarce.

With regard to context, twenty-seven of a possible forty-three empirical studies included a naturalistic setting. Taken together,about 62% of the accumulated empirical research across all three themes was conducted in settings where the natural effects ofmoods and emotions might have emerged. Many of these studies also included a lab study. These findings are encouraging forleadership as Briner and Kiefer (2005) and Gooty et al. (2009) reported that themajority of studies they reviewedwere conductedin the lab. Leadership and emotions especially are context specific so, we are encouraged by the good balance between lab-basedstudies versus field studies.

7.4. Recommendations for future methodological work

The most pertinent direction methodologically for leadership and emotions scholars is a focus on research design. For exampleand as noted above, the designs employed in leadership, affect and emotions are not always capable testingwhat they propose dueto misalignment between the definition of moods and emotions and cross-sectional research. Such designs do not capture thedynamic nature of affective constructs. We call for more studies based on repeated measures, experience sampling, daily diaries,and qualitative studies when the study is conducted in naturalistic settings.

The second area deserving attention is psychometric work in measurement of moods and emotions. Only one empirical paperdirectly focused on psychometrics of the measures used in leadership, affect and emotions (e.g., Wong & Law, 2002). In theemotional competencies area, psychometric work in new scale development is required for assessing emotion perception,regulation strategies, empathy, and other emotional competencies. Research examining EI should employ the ability-based modeland measure, which offers greater conceptual clarity and psychometric support than mixed-trait models. The advice of Antonakiset al. (2009) regarding research on emotional intelligence and leadership applies more broadly to the literature on emotions andleadership. Specifically, they remind us of several useful validity considerations, use of self-reported measures, common-sourcevariance, use of measures designed specifically to tap the construct of interest, use of leaders in real-world contexts, and control forhierarchical nesting if appropriate.

The third area in need of urgent attention is a focus on reporting effect sizes. Admittedly, many studies in this domain arepioneers in the study of leadership, affect and emotions, yet, we found that many studies did not report effect sizes. This makes itchallenging to draw valid conclusions regarding the practical relevance of most works in this domain.

As noted in theoretical section, a focus on intra-individual, dyadic and organizational levels of analysis will be required in thefuture. This type of multi-level research will require multi-level analytical techniques such as Random Coefficient Modeling(RCM), Within And Between Analysis (WABA), and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), etc. more often. Indeed, notably missingfrom the empirical research here is amethods treatise detailing the use of appropriate techniques for the study of leadership, affectand emotions at each of these different levels of analysis.

8. Limitations and overall implications

One of the most striking limitations of our review is that it is highly selective. By definition and procedure, we only reviewedthose studies that explicitly focused on leadership, affect and emotions. Such a narrow focus helped us clearly delineate what we

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see in the literature but many peripheral themes are left out. For example, our review chose to exclude emotional labor, in partbecause it has only recently been explicitly linked to leadership, and for reasons of parsimony. Perhaps, future research couldexamine the accumulated knowledge in organizational display rules and emotional labor.

Another limitation, stemming from the same reasons of parsimony and manageability, is our focus on the elite journals inmanagement and organizational psychology only.We did include special issues of other journals and books (e.g., Journal of AppliedSocial Psychology and Research Companion to Emotions in Organizations); however, it was simply implausible to include allmanagement and organizational journals, as well as unpublished research, in our review. Perhaps, a future quantitative review ofthe literature could include broader sources.

A third limitation of our review is that we started out defining affect, moods and emotions and based our entire review (e.g.,organization of themes, inferences) on these definitions. Our definitions align with the dominant theoretical foundations inpsychology; nevertheless, we acknowledge that other ways of defining each of these constructs exist (see for example Izard,2009).

Despite these limitations, our review yielded a number of specific recommendations for future research: the following pointsare our overarching recommendations for the future:

1. An explicit focus on followership is required. For example, a vast body of literature examines the role of charismatic leadershipin eliciting positive emotions or abusive leaders evoking negative emotions in followers. However, little to nothing is knownregarding follower behaviors that impact leader emotions and affect leader's style, behaviors and perhaps quality ofexchanges. We believe this is an area ripe for investigation, one in which, the follower is an active partner in the leader–follower relationship, and, is influenced by, but also influences the leader.

2. The function of emotions in instigating or suppressing moral and ethical leadership behavior is an urgent need. Gibson andCallister (2010) and Tangney and colleagues (1996) suggest that anger, guilt, shame and pride could motivate an individual tocorrect wrongdoings, and act on one's values. Yet, not much has been done in the leadership domain with discrete emotionsand ethical behaviors.

3. The role of trust and emotions in leading and following is under-researched. Trust is an important relationship quality betweenleaders and followers (e.g., Dirks & Ferrin, 2002). While much has been done in the domain of cognitive influences on trust inleadership, much less research attention has focused upon affective influences in trusting one's leader.

4. Our review indicates a disproportionate interest in positive emotions and leadership, while, negative emotions and leadershipare either under-researched and/or always considered the culprits in leading. More systematic scientific inquiry in thisdomain is needed (see also Seo, Barrett, & Bartunek, 2004).

5. An alignment of levels of analysis in theory, methods and inferences is urgently needed. From a theoretical standpoint, thistranslates into explanatory theory development with careful consideration of levels at which constructs and relationshipsoccur. From amethodological standpoint, to understand interactions between leaders and followers, one couldmodel emotionepisodes (or emotion events), which translate into repeated measures research designs, which in turn could requiremethodological techniques that can handle the complexity of non-independent data.

6. Measurement development in leadership literature in general is needed and more so for discrete emotions and emotioncompetencies. For example, many theoretical papers cast emotions such as interest and gratitude as important drivers of theleader–follower relationship yet measures for such emotions are not readily available.

7. A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods might advance the study of affect and leadership.8. Theoretical models and empirical tests of affective influences in leadership could incorporate the role of direct and indirect

influences of emotion constructs (moderation and mediation).9. Reporting effect sizes is largely neglected (for an exception see Côté et al., 2010). We encourage future leadership scholars to

report effect sizes for affective influences as well as some information on how these effect sizes represent meaningfuladvances over prior research in this area. A further recommendation in this area is that existing established works inpsychology (e.g., cognitive appraisal theory) need to be more fully explored in leadership research.

10. Empirical tests of the role of ability-based measures of EI in leadership are required.

In sum, the study of affect, moods and emotions in leadership has yielded a variety of interesting findings to date. Given thework that remains, we believe the next decade will continue to be thought-provoking and emotion inducing for scholars andpractitioners. Our conclusion in this review is rather straightforward: The future in the science of affect, emotions, and leadershipcalls for enhanced rigor and relevance (e.g., explanatory theories, properly aligned research designs, levels of analysis, reportingeffect sizes) combined with the sustained excitement that is so characteristic of this body of research.

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