Latin OnlineSeries Introduction

Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

Latin is probably the easiest of the older languages for speakers of English to learn, both because of their earlier relationship and because of the long use of Latin as the language of educational, ecclesiastical, legal and political affairs in western culture. Moreover, we use the Latin alphabet, so that the language is read without difficulty. On the other hand, the sentence structure and number of forms require a great deal of attention, since the words of sentences are placed for their emphasis, rather than in accordance with a pattern like that of the English Subject-Verb-Object sentence. It is essential, then, to learn the basic inflections of nouns and verbs.

Note: this set of lessons is for systems/browsers with Unicode support and fonts spanning the Unicode 3 character set relevant to Latin (with macrons). Lessons rendered in alternate character sets are available via links (Romanized and Unicode 2) in the left margin, and at the bottom of this page.

1. The Latin alphabet and pronunciation.

The Latin alphabet was taken over from the Greek through Etruscan. The order of the letters is therefore much the same as in Greek, as is also true of most of their pronunciation. The 23-letter alphabet is as follows:

A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z

English has maintained this order with a few modifications. In Latin the letter I was used both for its vocalic value and to represent the sound y as in yet. An elongated form of the letter, J, was later introduced. But this is generally pronounced today as in jam, while the letter Y represents the consonantal value of I. Similarly, the Latin letter V was used to represent both the vocalic value of U as in hue, and the sound w as in wet. A rounded form, U, was introduced to represent the vowel, and a doubled form, W, was introduced to represent the consonantal value. It might also be noted that the third letter of the alphabet was pronounced with its value in cat, rather than with its value in cent or in our pronunciation of Caesar.

The chief difference in pronunciation of these letters has to do with the vowels. The consonants are pronounced like their principal pronunciations in English. Whether long or short, the vowels are pronounced as in the languages of Europe. It might be noted, however, that when Latin was spoken in everyday use, it was pronounced in accordance with the pronunciation of the native language in the country, so that the pronunciation in Italy differed considerably from that in France or Germany, not to speak of England. But today it is pronounced as we assume it was in the Classical period of Latin, that is, at the beginning of our era. Its pronunciation is simple, if one remembers a few key words. Latin i and e are pronounced as in English cliché; Latin a is pronounced as in father; Latin o is pronounced as in so, and u as in sue. When two vowels are found in the same syllable, each has its normal value; the first syllable of Caesar was then pronounced with the a as in father and the e as in cliché, so that it was similar to our pronunciation of the pronoun I.

Unlike English, Latin has few silent letters. A line of verse may then be read with every letter pronounced, such as the first line of Vergil's Aeneid:

Arma virumque canō, Trōiae qui primus ab ōris'I sing of the arms and the man, who first [came] from the shores of Troy'

Or the first line of Ceasar's Gallic Wars:

Gallia est omnis divisa in partēs trēs'Gaul as a whole is divided into three parts'

2. The vocabulary.

English and Latin belong to the Indo-European language family; their earlier versions separated from each other some three thousand years ago. And until this century, much University instruction was carried on in Latin. Moreover, it was taught to many students from the High School years onward through college. University scholars often spoke to one another in Latin, as do members of the Vatican to this day. As a result, English shares many of the same words, especially in technical fields, although in modified form. Nonetheless it is useful to relate such words to their Latin counterparts.

Some words have undergone little change so that their roots are close to those of their Latin equivalents, if spelled somewhat differently, for example, English spew, Latin spuere, English stand, Latin stāre. But most of the common words that the two languages share by inheritance are somewhat concealed, many of them because of a massive change of consonants in Germanic somewhat before our era. The change was formulated by the great German scholar, Jakob Grimm, and is known as Grimm's law, which is listed even in smaller dictionaries of English. At this time, p, t, k were changed to sounds that today are represented by f, th, h. Among examples are: father, compare Latin pater; mother, compare Latin mater; horn, compare Latin cornu. And the sounds represented as bh, dh, gh in Indo-European were changed to the sounds that today are represented by b, d, g. These were also changed in Latin, where bh is represented by f, as in Latin frater, compare English brother; similarly, dh is also represented by f in Latin, as in foris, English door; and gh is represented by h among other developments, as in Latin hanser, later anser, English goose. And d, g were changed to t, k (b was rare in Indo-European). Compare Latin edere, English eat; Latin gelidus, English cold.

It is interesting to compare such cognate words, but the changes that both languages have undergone often conceal the relationships, as for the numerals for four and five. Most of the others are transparently related, in spite of the changes: Latin ūnus, one; duo, two; trēs, three; quattuor, four; quinque, five; sex, six; septem, seven; octo, eight; novem, nine; decem, ten. Since dictionaries often provide the Latin cognates of English entries, control over the Latin vocabulary can be gained by noting them.

By far the greatest number of similar words are found in technical language, where English simply took over the Latin terms as industrial, political and technological affairs became more complex, especially in the last several centuries; ecclesiastical terms were taken over as England was christianized. The words were pronounced in accordance with the English spellings, rather than with their pronunciation in Latin. Some examples from these specialties are cited here.

The industrial and technological spheres include such words as arbitrate, agent, auction, calculate, contract, junction, labor, premium, propeller, science, specimen. The political and legal sphere includes such terms as affidavit, alias, alibi, divorce, habeas corpus, injunction, subpoena. The ecclesiastical sphere includes such words as altar, confession, doctrine, infidel, repent, salvation, trinity. And other words belong to our every day vocabulary, such as animal, bonus, inertia, minimum, recipe, stimulus, vacuum. Thanks to the great number of such importations from Latin it is relatively simple to gain control of its vocabulary.

3. The sentence structure of Latin.

As is clear from the earlier quotations, the sentence order of Latin may differ considerably from that of English. In an earlier form of Latin, the verb was placed last in the sentence, as it is in the first clause of the Aeneid. But its position in the first line of Gallic Wars is quite different. The different positions are possible because of Latin inflections. In English we generally have to place together verbal phrases like 'is divided'; we can however place some adverbs between them, as in 'is often divided'. But we cannot put numerals or adjectives after the nouns they modify, as is done in partes tres. English has strict rules of placement; Latin on the other hand can move elements around for stylistic purposes, so that instead of writing omnis Gallia, the order that Caesar used is quite acceptable, as is that of partes tres.

In examining a Latin text, one should first identify the verb. Its forms are identifiable through their inflections. Similarly, the subject, if it is included in addition to the marker in the verb, should be identified. Clearly there is no such subject for canō, so that one translates it with the subject indicated by its inflection. Verb forms ending in -ō have a first person subject, in contrast with the second person canis 'you sing', canit 'he/she sings'. It is useful, therefore, to memorize the basic inflections of verbs. Similarly, the subject can be identified by its form. Gallia, like many nouns, has feminine gender, and its nominative form ends in -a.

As illustrated by these brief passages, the key to reading Latin is provided by knowledge of its inflections. While these are numerous, memorization of the basic inflections of nouns and verbs is generally adequate.

4. The forms of Latin.

4.1 Nouns, adjectives and pronouns.

These three parts of speech are inflected for five cases, besides a case of address called the vocative. The cases are as follows:

Nominative, the case of the subject; Genitive, the case indicating possession -- possessive, in grammars of English Dative, the case of the indirect object Accusative, the case of the direct object -- objective, in grammars of English Ablative, the case indicating separation

Case forms may also be determined by prepositions.

In English, only the nominative, genitive/possessive and accusative/objective have been maintained, and that only in pronouns: I is nominative, my is genitive, me is accusative. Nouns simply have a nominative and a possessive, as in dog, dog's. Adjectives are not inflected.

Latin nouns are also inflected for --

number, that is, singular and plural. three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. five declensions.

Paradigms are given in the various lessons. For illustration here, forms of nouns are shown in the first declension (most of which are feminine like via 'way'), and in the second declension (many of which are masculine such as numerus 'number'), and also the forms of the pronoun ego 'I':

    Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.Nom.   via   viae   numerus   numerī   ego   nōsGen.   viae   viārum   numerī   numerōrum   meī   nostrumDat.   viae   viīs   numerō   numerīs   mihi   nōbisAcc.   viam   viās   numerum   numerōs   mē   nosAbl.   viā   viīs   numerō   numerīs   mē   nōbis

The vocative in the first declension is the same as the nominative; in the second declension it ends in e, so that a slave, servus, would be called by saying serve.

4.2 Verbs.

Like nouns, verbs have many inflections:

They are inflected for active and passive voice. They are inflected for indicative and subjunctive mood. They are inflected for three tenses: present, past or imperfect, and future. Of these

there are two sets: the simple present set and the perfect set. The perfect forms indicate a state or completion.

The conjugations are given below. Here only a sketch is provided for understanding of the various forms and their relation to one another with first singular examples of the verb laudō 'I praise.'

Active voice   Passive voiceIndicative   Subjunctive   Indicative   Subjunctive

Presentlaudō   laudem   laudor   lauder

Imperfectlaudābam   laudārem   laudābar   laudārer

Futurelaudābō       laudābor    

Perfectlaudāvī   laudāverim   laudātus sum   laudātus sim

Past Perfectlaudāveram   laudāvissem   laudātus eram   laudātus essem

Future Perfect

laudāvero       laudātus ero    

In addition there are imperative forms, infinitives, participles, a gerund, and a supine. The imperative forms are rare in written texts, and are not illustrated here.

The present infinitive active is laudāre. The present participle active is laudans. The present infinitive passive is laudārī. The perfect participle passive is laudātus.

Because four forms provide sufficient information to produce the others for a verb, dictionaries and grammars list four principal parts. These are: the first person singular present active, e.g. laudō; the first person singular perfect active, e.g. laudāvī; the perfect participle passive, e.g. laudātus; and the present infinitive active, e.g. laudāre. It is especially important to note these for verbs of the third conjugation, because these are often irregular, e.g. edō 'I eat', ēdī, ēsus, edere; faciō 'I do', fēcī, factus, facere; scribō 'I write', scripsī, scriptus, scribere. (Dictionaries and grammars may give the principal parts with the infinitive as second form; they may also give the neuter form of the perfect participle passive, e.g. factum.)

4.3 The other parts of speech.

In addition to these four parts of speech, Latin includes adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, and prepositions. Since their functions are comparable to those of their English counterparts, they will not be discussed here.

5. Examples of texts.

Proverbs or passages from literary figures are often cited, also in English works. A few will be given here to illustrate the use of forms and patterns of syntax.

Caesar: Vēnī, vīdī, vīcī.'I came, I saw, I conquered.' [three perfect forms]

  Ferē libenter homines id quod volunt credunt.'Nearly always people believe willingly that which they wish.'

Cicero: Salus populī suprema est lex.'The welfare of the people is the supreme law.'

  Silent enim legēs inter arma.'Laws indeed are silent in war.'

Horace: Ira furor brevis est.'Anger is brief madness.'

  Integer vitae, scelerisque purus.'Blameless in life, and free of sins.'

  Dulce et decorum est pro patriā morī.'It is sweet and honorable to die for the fatherland.'

Terence: Homo sum; humanī nil ā mē alienum putō.'I am a man; I believe that nothing human is foreign to me.'

  Nummumst iam dictum quod non dictum sit prius.'Nothing has yet been said that has not been said earlier.'

Virgil:           Equō nē credite, Teucrī,Quidquid id est, timeō Danaōs et dona ferentīs.          'Do not trust in the horse, Trojans,

Whatever it is, I fear the Greeks also [when they] are bringing gifts.'  Hōs successus alit; possunt, quia posse videntur.

'Success nourishes them; they can because they think they can.'

The Latin Lessons

Note: there are great disparities in capability among personal computers in contemporary use. Unfortunately, support for Unicode® and/or the repertoire of fonts installed on your personal computer cannot be detected by a web server! Accordingly, we have prepared multiple versions of each lesson; this set of lessons is for systems/browsers for systems/browsers with Unicode support and fonts spanning the Unicode 3 character set relevant to Latin (with macrons). (You may switch to other versions via links below.) Lessons:

1. from Livy's History of Rome , Book 1, Section 1 2. from Livy's History of Rome , Book 2, Section 10 3. from Caesar's Gallic War , Book 6, Section 13 4. from Caesar's Gallic War , Book 6, Sections 15-20 5. from Caesar's Gallic War , Book 6, Sections 21-22 6. from Tacitus' Germania , Section 16 7. from Ennius' Annals , Sections 80-100 8. from Augustine's Confessions , Book 1, Section 8 9. from Einhard's On Charlemagne 10. from Virgil's Aeneid , Section 1ff.

Lesson 1

Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

This selection is taken from Livy's History of Rome, Book I.1.7-11. It describes the arrival of Aeneas and his troops in Latium after the fall of Troy. The account is mythological, presumably originated to provide the Romans with a pedigree comparable to that of the Greeks. It is given here partly to relate the myth, and partly to provide a narrative account parallel to the opening of Vergil's Aeneid, the text for the tenth unit.

The author, Titus Livius, referred to as Livy (59 B.C. - 17 A.D.), was born in Patavium, modern Padua, to an aristocratic family. He was well educated in Latin and Greek, and also in literature and rhetoric. While details of his life are scanty, it is assumed that he settled in Rome about 17 B.C., when he began his history. He was a friend of Emperor Augustus, and apparently so situated that he was able to devote himself to his great historical work. As may be assumed from this selection, he was primarily concerned with glorifying his country, for which he incorporated myths as well as facts. He was and is greatly admired for his control of the language, which as in this selection often leads to intricate and lengthy sentences.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The selection is the latter part of the account of the landing. Aeneas and his men are reported to have sailed north from Sicily, with nothing in their possession but their ships and weapons.

They landed to obtain supplies. The local king, Latinus, set out to drive them off, but as stated here he first arranged a parley with Aeneas.

Cum instructae acies constitissent, priusquam signa canerent, processisse Latinum inter primores ducemque advenarum evocasse ad conloquium.

cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when instructae -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <instructus, instructa,

instructum> arranged, ready -- ready acies -- noun; nominative plural feminine of <acies, aciei> line of battle -- lines of

battle constitissent -- verb; 3rd person plural pluperfect subjunctive of <cōnstituō,

cōnstituere, cōnstituī, cōnstitūtum> decide -- had drawn up priusquam -- adverb; <priusquam> before -- before signa -- noun; nominative plural neuter of <signum, signi> sign -- signals canerent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <canō, canere, cecinī,

cantum> sing -- had sounded processisse -- verb; perfect infinitive of <prōcēdō, procedere, processī, processum>

advance -- advanced Latinum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Latinus, Latini> Latinus --

Latinus inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among primores -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural masculine of <primoris,

primoris, primore> chieftain, leader -- his chieftains ducemque -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <dux, ducis> leader + conjunction

<-que> and -- and ... the leader advenarum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <advena, advenae> stranger,

foreigner -- of the strangers evocasse -- verb; perfect infinitive of <ēvocō, evocare, evocāvī, evocatum> call forth,

summon -- summoned ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to conloquium -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <conloquium, conloqui>

conference -- a conference

Percunctatum deinde qui mortales essent, unde aut quo casu profecti domo quidve quaerentes in agrum Laurentinum exissent.

percunctatum -- deponent verb; 3rd person perfect passive indicative of <percūnctor, percunctārī, percunctātus sum> inquire with est understood -- he inquired

deinde -- adverb; <deinde> then -- then qui -- interrogative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <quis, quis, quid> who,

what -- what mortales -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <mortalis, mortalis, mortale>

mortal -- men essent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am --

they might be unde -- adverb; <unde> from whence -- from which place aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or at least quo -- adverb; <quo> what -- by which

casu -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <casus, casus> fall, misfortune, chance -- chance

profecti -- deponent verb; nominative plural masculine of perfect participle passive of <proficīscor, proficiscī, profectus sum> set out -- had set out

domo -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <domus, domi> house -- from home quidve -- interrogative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> who,

what + conjunction <-ve> or -- or what quaerentes -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <quaerō,

quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītum> look for, search -- seeking in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in agrum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <ager, agri> land -- into the lands Laurentinum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <Laurentinus, Laurentina,

Laurentinum> Laurentinus -- of Laurentum exissent -- verb; 3rd person plural pluperfect subjunctive of <exeō, exire, exiī,

exitum> go out, leave -- they had gone out to

Postquam audierit multitudinem Troianos esse, ducem Aeneam, filium Anchisae et Veneris, cremata patria domo profugos sedem condendaeque urbi locum quaerere.

postquam -- conjunction; <postquam> after -- after audierit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive of <audiō, audīre, audīvī,

audītum> hear -- he heard multitudinem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <multitudo, multitudinis>

multitude -- people Troianos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <Troianus, Troiana, Troianum>

Trojan -- Trojans esse -- verb; infinitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- were ducem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <dux, ducis> leader -- leader Aeneam -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Aeneas, Aeneae> Aeneas --

Aeneas filium -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <filius, filii> son -- son Anchisae -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <Anchises, Anchisae> Anchises --

Anchises et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and Veneris -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <Venus, Veneris> Venus -- Venus cremata -- verb; ablative singular feminine of perfect passive participle of <cremō,

cremāre, cremāvī, cremātum> burn -- having been burnt patria -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <patria, patriae> fatherland --

fatherland domo -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <domus, domi> house -- home profugos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <profugus, profuga, profugum>

fugitive -- fugitives sedem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <sedes, sedis> seat, habitation --

dwelling place condendaeque -- verbal adjective; dative singular feminine of <condō, condere,

condidī, conditum> found + conjunction <-que> and -- and for founding urbi -- noun; dative singular feminine of <urbs, urbis> city -- city locum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <locus, loci> place -- place

quaerere -- verb; infinitive of <quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītum> look for, search -- to seek

Et nobilitatem admiratum gentis virique et animum vel bello vel paci paratum, dextra data fidem futurae amicitiae sanxisse.

et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and nobilitatem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <nobilitas, nobilitatis> renown

-- renown admiratum -- deponent verb; perfect participle passive accusative singular masculine

of <admīror, admirārī, admirātus sum> admire -- admiring gentis -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <gens, gentis> race, clan -- of the race virique -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <vir, viri> man + conjunction <-que>

and -- and of the man et -- conjunction; <et> and -- as well as animum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <animus, animi> soul, mind -- spirit vel -- conjunction; <vel> either - or -- either bello -- noun; dative singular neuter of <bellum, belli> war -- for war vel -- conjunction; <vel> either - or -- or paci -- noun; dative singular feminine of <pax, pacis> peace -- for peace paratum -- verb; accusative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of <parō,

parāre, parāvī, parātum> prepare, obtain -- prepared dextra -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <dextra, dextrae> right hand -- right

hand data -- verb; ablative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of <dō, dare,

dedī, dātum> give -- having been given fidem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <fides, fidei> faith, pledge -- pledge futurae -- adjective; future participle genitive singular feminine of <sum, esse, fuī> I

am -- (of) future amicitiae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <amicitia, amicitiae> friendship --

of friendship sanxisse -- verb; perfect infinitive of <sanciō, sancīre, sānxī, sānctum> enact -- he

enacted

Inde foedus ictum inter duces, inter exercitus salutationem factam.

inde -- adverb; <inde> from that -- then foedus -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <foedus, foederis> treaty -- a treaty ictum -- defective verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive indicative of <īcere, īcī,

ictum> strike with est understood -- was made inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- between duces -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <dux, ducis> leader -- the leaders inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- between exercitus -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <exercitus, excercitus> army -- the

armies salutationem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <salutatio, salutationis>

saluting -- saluting factam -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive indicative of <faciō, facere, fēcī,

factum> do, make -- was carried out

Aeneam apud Latinum fuisse in hospitio.

Aeneam -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Aeneas, Aeneae> Aeneas -- Aeneas

apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- at (Latinus') house Latinum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Latinus, Latini> Latinus --

Latinus fuisse -- verb; perfect infinitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- was in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in hospitio -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <hospitium, hospitii> hospitality --

hospitality

Ibi Latinum apud penates deos domesticum publico adiunxisse foedus filia Aeneae in matrimonium data.

ibi -- adverb; <ibi> there, then -- thereupon Latinum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Latinus, Latini> Latinus --

Latinus apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- in the presence of penates -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <Penates, Penatium> household gods

-- household gods deos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <deus, dei> god -- gods domesticum -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <domesticus, domestica,

domesticum> domestic -- domestic publico -- adjective; ablative singular neuter of <publicus, publica, publicum> public

-- in public adiunxisse -- verb; perfect infinitive of <adiungō, adjungere, adjūnxī, adjūnctum>

add -- added foedus -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <foedus, foederis> treaty -- treaty filia -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <filia, filiae> daughter -- daughter Aeneae -- noun; dative singular masculine of <Aeneas, Aeneae> Aeneas -- to Aeneas in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in matrimonium -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <matrimonium, matrimoni>

marriage -- marriage data -- verb; ablative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of <dō, dare,

dedī, dātum> give -- having given

Ea res utique Troianis spem adfirmat tandem stabili certaque sede finiendi erroris.

ea -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- this

res -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- event utique -- adverb; <utique> certainly -- definitely Troianis -- adjective used as substantive; dative plural masculine of <Troianus,

Troiana, Troianum> Trojan -- for the Trojans spem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <spes, spei> hope -- hope adfirmat -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <adfīrmō, adfirmāre,

adfirmāvī, adfirmātum> confirm -- confirmed tandem -- adverb; <tandem> finally -- finally

stabili -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <stabilis, stabilis, stabile> stable -- stable

certaque -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <certus, certa, certum> certain + conjunction <-que> and -- and secure

sede -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <sedes, sedis> seat, habitation -- home finiendi -- verb; gerund(ive) genitive singular masculine of <finiō, finīre, finīvī,

finītum> finish, end -- ended erroris -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <error, erroris> wandering -- their

wandering

Oppidum condunt.

oppidum -- noun; accusative singular neuter <oppidum, oppidi> city -- a city condunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of <condō, condere, condidī,

conditum> found -- they founded

Aeneas a nomine uxoris Lavinium appellat.

Aeneas -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <Aeneas, Aeneae> Aeneas -- Aeneas

a -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- after nomine -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <nomen, nominis> name -- the name uxoris -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <uxor, uxoris> wife -- of his wife Lavinium -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <Lavinium, Lavinii> Lavinium --

Lavinium appellat -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <appellō, appellāre,

appellāvī, appellātum> call -- called

Lesson TextCum instructae acies constitissent, priusquam signa canerent, processisse Latinum inter primores ducemque advenarum evocasse ad conloquium. Percunctatum deinde qui mortales essent, unde aut quo casu profecti domo quidve quaerentes in agrum Laurentinum exissent. Postquam audierit multitudinem Troianos esse, ducem Aeneam, filium Anchisae et Veneris, cremata patria domo profugos sedem condendaeque urbi locum quaerere. Et nobilitatem admiratum gentis virique et animum vel bello vel paci paratum, dextra data fidem futurae amicitiae sanxisse. Inde foedus ictum inter duces, inter exercitus salutationem factam. Aeneam apud Latinum fuisse in hospitio. Ibi Latinum apud penates deos domesticum publico adiunxisse foedus filia Aeneae in matrimonium data. Ea res utique Troianis spem adfirmat tandem stabili certaque sede finiendi erroris. Oppidum condunt. Aeneas a nomine uxoris Lavinium appellat.

TranslationWhen the arranged lines of battle had been drawn up, before the signals were sounded, Latinus advanced among his chieftains and summoned the leader of the strangers to a conference. He then asked what men they were, where they had come from, what misfortune had caused them to leave their home, and what they were seeking in the land of Laurentinum. After he heard that the people were Trojans and their leader was Aeneas, the son of Anchises and Venus, and that their city had been burned, and driven from their home they were seeking a dwelling place and a site where they might build a city, in admiration of both the renown of

the race and the spirit of the hero who was prepared either for war or for peace, he gave him his right hand and enacted a pledge of future friendship. A treaty was then struck by the leaders, and the armies saluted. Aeneas received guest friendship with Latinus. And then Latinus in the presence of his household gods added to the public treaty a domestic one by giving his daughter in marriage to Aeneas. This event definitely confirmed the hope of the Trojans of having ended their wanderings in a stable and certain home. They founded a city. Aeneas called it Lavinium after the name of his wife.

Grammar

1. Latin, a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) Language.

The basic word order of Latin is SOV. Typical sentences then have the verb in final position, as in the sentence Oppidum condunt. Because personal subjects are included in the verb form, a separate subject may be lacking.

A fuller pattern is found in the following sentence: Aeneas ab nomine uxoris Lavinium appellat. The sentence also includes an adverbial phrase placed, as frequently, before the object, which typically stands directly before the verb. Similar sentences are found at the beginning of this passage.

2. Modifications of the basic sentence pattern, with non-finite forms making up the verbs in clauses.

Like many writers in the Classic Latin period, Livy introduced many modifications of the basic sentence pattern. As in this passage, he often used clauses with nominal forms of verbs, such as infinitives, participles, gerunds and gerundives rather than finite verbs.

Among them are clauses consisting of an infinitive with an accusative as subject, as in processisse Latīnum 'Latinus advanced', (Latinum) evocāsse 'Latinus summoned', Latīnum adiunxisse 'Latinus added'. As in the translations here, these are best treated as finite clauses in English. But many infinitives are used, like in English, as complements to finite verbs, e.g. postquam audierit multitudinem Trōiānōs esse 'after he heard that the people were Trojans'.

Participles may also be used instead of finite verbs, as in Inde foedus ictum 'Then a treaty was struck'. Such clauses may be viewed as simple sentences with a form of 'be' as verb omitted. The passage contains many examples, such as percunctatum, profectī, quaerentēs and so on. But a highly characteristic use of participles in Latin is found with both a noun and a participle in the ablative case -- the so-called ablative absolute construction. These are comparable to subordinate clauses; an example is dextrā datā, literally 'the right hand given' but often best treated as a finite clause as in 'he gave him his right hand'. The later example, filiā datā, literally 'daughter given', could be treated similarly, though here it is translated as a participial clause.

Gerundives are adjectival and gerunds are nominals that may be inflected in the oblique cases. They are characterized by an -nd- ending. An example of a gerundive in the text is condendae urbī 'for founding a city'. An example of a gerund is finiendī erroris 'for ending of their wandering'.

As this text illustrates, classical Latin syntax is highly stylized. It should be noted that it contains few particles. These are used in many languages for indicating emphasized items. In

Latin such emphasis is indicated by shifts in word order, and often with separation of connected words. Besides shifts in word order, the inflection of nouns and of verbs is highly important for conveying nuances of meaning in the language.

3. Noun inflection.

Latin nouns are classed in five declensions that are determined by their endings. In this unit we will exemplify the first declension, which has final -a in the stem form, e.g. patria 'fatherland', and the second, most of which have final -us (from Proto-Indo-European -os), e.g. filius 'son'. Second declension nouns with bases ending in -r, e.g. vir 'man', may lack the final ending. Neuter nouns end in -um.

Nouns are inflected for gender, number, and case. There are three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Most nouns of the first declension are feminine; those of the second are masculine, e.g. filius 'son', or neuter, e.g. bellum 'war'.

There are two numbers: singular, and plural.

There are five cases -- plus the vocative, a case of address for nouns to which it may apply, such as proper nouns. In declensions, the cases are listed as follows; the basic uses given here:

Nominative, the case of the subject Genitive, the case indicating possession and relationship Dative, the case of the indirect object and to indicate direction Accusative, the case of the direct object Ablative, the case indicating separation

    1st declension         2nd declensionCase   Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.Nom.   patria   patriae  |  filius   filiī   vir   virī   bellum   bellaGen.   patriae   patriārum  |  filiī   filiōrum   virī   virōrum   bellī   bellōrumDat.   patriae   patriīs  |  filiō   filiīs   virō   virīs   bellō   bellīsAcc.   patriam   patriās  |  filium   filiōs   virum   virōs   bellum   bellaAbl.   patriā   patriīs  |  filiō   filiīs   virō   virīs   bellō   bellīs

Greek nouns of the first declension, e.g. Aeneas and Anchises, have a final -s in the nominative, but are regular in the other cases. Like other first declension nouns they have -a in the vocative.

The vocative of regular second declension nouns ends in -e, e.g. filie 'oh son'; those nouns ending in -r have no ending, e.g. vir 'oh man'.

Adjectives are inflected like nouns, but may be inflected for all three genders, e.g. m. certus, f. certa, n. certum 'certain'.

4. Verb inflection.

Verbs are classed in four conjugations, in accordance with their stem vowels:

1. those with infinitive ending in -āre belong to the first conjugation;

2. those ending in -ēre belong to the second;3. those ending in -ere belong to the third;4. those ending in -īre belong to the fourth.

Verbs are inflected for two voices (active and passive), six tenses (present, imperfect, future, perfect, past perfect and future perfect), and for two moods (indicative and subjunctive). In addition there are two numbers (singular and plural), and three persons (first, second, and third). Moreover, there is an imperative for second and third persons.

Verbs have nominal forms: three infinitives (present, perfect, and future), two participles (present and future), a gerund, gerundive, and a supine.

Dictionaries list verbs in their first person singular present indicative, or a comparable form if the verb in question is inflected only in the passive. Moreover, dictionaries and grammars provide four principal parts, from which all forms can be made. These are given below, with examples from each of the four conjugations.

Conj.   Pres.Indic.   Pres.

Infin.   Perf.Indic.   Perf. Part.

Passive1   laudō 'praise'   laudāre   laudāvī   laudātum2   moneō 'advise'   monēre   monuī   monītum3   tegō 'cover'   tegere   tēxī   tectum4   audiō 'hear'   audīre   audīvī   audītum

Although the texts included in the ten units present historical and literary information, so that verbs are chiefly in the third person, the six present indicative forms are given here to provide a basis for recognizing all forms.

      Conjugation        1   2   3   4    1 sg.   laudō   moneō   tegō   audiō    2 sg.   laudās   monēs   tegis   audīs    3 sg.   laudat   monet   tegit   audit     1 pl.   laudāmus   monēmus   tegimus   audīmus    2 pl.   laudātis   monētis   tegitis   audītis    3 pl.   laudant   monent   tegunt   audiunt  

5. The phonological system.

The phonological system of Latin is remarkably simple. It consists of sixteen consonants and five vowels, which may be long or short. In printed texts, length is not usually marked; when it is, a macron is placed over the long vowels.

The system is as follows:

    Labials   Dentals   Palato-velarsVoiceless:   p   t   k (also spelled c and q)

Voiced:   b   d   gFricatives:   f   s   h

Nasals:   m   n   ŋ (before k, g)Semivowels:   w (v)       j (often spelled i)             

Liquids:     l   r               

Vowels:   i             u      e   o          a    

The vowels have "continental" values: i and e are pronounced as in cliché; a as in father, o as in note, u as in flute.

Diphthongs are pronounced as sequences of the two successive vowels, e.g. ae as in aisle, oe as in soil, ei as in rein, au as in rout.

Latin has a stress accent. In words of more than one syllable, the stress falls on the second to last syllable if it is long, but if not, then on the third to last.

Lesson 2

Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

This selection is taken from Book 2, Section 10 of Livy's history. It deals with an episode in the struggle of the Romans to maintain themselves. Aeneas is assumed to have landed in Latium shortly before 750 B.C. In the following 250 years the Romans maintained themselves, but had conflicts with other peoples, especially the Etruscans.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The Etruscans were at the gates of Rome in 503, and set out to enter the city over a bridge across the Tiber River. The Romans retreated over it into the city and set out to destroy it. While they were doing so, it was defended by three men. Horatius Cocles asked the two others to withdraw as well and then held off the Etruscans by himself until the bridge was destroyed. He then plunged into the river and swam across in full armor. The episode was greatly celebrated. It formed the topic of the poem on Horatius in Thomas Babingdon Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome of 1842. (A passage after the sentence ending in pontis was omitted, to avoid undue length of this selection.)

Cum hostes adessent, pro se quisque in urbem ex agris demigrant, urbem ipsam saepiunt praesidiis.

cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when

hostes -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <hostis, hostis> enemy -- enemies adessent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <adsum, adesse, adfuī>

be present -- appeared pro -- preposition; <pro> for, before -- for se -- reflexive pronoun; ablative of <sui> self -- self quisque -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisque, quaeque,

quodque> everyone -- each for himself in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in urbem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <urbs, urbis> city -- into the city ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from agris -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <ager, agri> land -- the fields demigrant -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of <dēmigrō, dēmigrāre,

dēmigrāvi, dēmigrātum> withdraw -- withdrew urbem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <urbs, urbis> city -- urbs ipsam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ipse, ipsa, ipsum>

self -- itself saepiunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of <saepiō, saepīre, saepsī,

saeptum> surround -- they surrounded praesidiis -- noun; dative plural neuter of <praesidium, praesidii> guard -- with

guards

Alia muris, alia Tiberi obiecto videbantur tuta.

alia -- pronoun adjective; nominative plural neuter of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- some parts

muris -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <murus, muri> wall -- by walls alia -- pronoun adjective; nominative plural neuter of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some

-- other parts Tiberi -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <Tiber, Tiberis> Tiber -- by the Tiber obiecto -- verb; ablative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of <obiciō,

obicere, obiēcī, obiectum> oppose -- in front of them videbantur -- verb; 3rd person imperfect passive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see

-- seemed tuta -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <tutus, tuta, tutum> safe -- secure

Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Cocles.

pons -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <pons, pontis> bridge -- the bridge sublicius -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <sublicius, sublicia,

sublicium> resting on piles -- resting on piles iter -- noun; accusative singular neuter <iter, itineris> way -- way paene -- adverb; <paene> almost -- almost hostibus -- noun; dative plural masculine of <hostis, hostis> enemy -- to the enemies dedit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- provided ni -- conjunction; <ni> if not, unless -- if there had not unus -- number; nominative singular masculine of <unus, una, unum> one, alone --

one vir -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <vir, viri> man -- man

fuisset -- verb; 3rd person singular past perfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- had been

Horatius -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <Horatius, Horati> Horatius -- Horatius

Cocles -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <Cocles, Coclitis> Cocles -- Cocles

Id munimentum illo die fortuna urbis Romanae habuit.

id -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- (on) this

munimentum -- noun; accusative singular of <munimentum, munimenti> defence -- defence

illo -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- on that

die -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <dies, diei> day -- day fortuna -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <fortuna, fortunae> fortune --

fortune urbis -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <urbs, urbis> city -- city Romanae -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <Romanus, Romana, Romanum>

Roman -- of Rome habuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have --

depended

Qui positus forte in statione pontis. [Sentences omitted at this point.]

qui -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- he

positus -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of <pōnō, ponere, posuī, positum> place, situate -- placed himself

forte -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <fortis, fortis, forte> strong -- in a mighty way

in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- on statione -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <statio, stationis> station, guard --

guard pontis -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <pons, pontis> bridge -- of the bridge

Circumferens inde truces minaciter oculos ad proceres Etruscorum nunc singulos provocare, nunc increpare omnes.

circumferens -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of <circumferō, circumferre, circumtūlī, circumlātum> carry around -- darting

inde -- adverb; <inde> from that -- then truces -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <trux, trucis> fierce -- fierce minaciter -- adverb; <minaciter> threateningly -- threateningly oculos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <oculus, oculi> eye -- glances ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- at proceres -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <procer, proceris> nobleman --

chiefs

Etruscorum -- adjective used as substantive; genitive plural masculine of <Etruscus, Etrusca, Etruscum> Etruscan -- of the Etruscans

nunc -- adverb; <nunc> now -- now singulos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <singulus, singula, singulum>

single, individual -- as individuals provocare -- verb; present infinitive of <prōvocō, provocāre, provocāvī, provocātum>

challenge -- he challenged nunc -- adverb; <nunc> now -- now increpare -- verb; present infinitive of <increpō, increpāre, increpuī, increpitum>

scold, rebuke -- he rebuked omnes -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all of

them

Servitia regum superborum, suae libertatis immemores alienam oppugnatum venire.

servitia -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <servitium, servitii> servitude -- as servants

regum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <rex, regis> king -- of kings superborum -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <superbus, superba, superbum>

haughty -- haughty suae -- possessive pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <suus, sua, suum> own --

their own libertatis -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <libertas, libertatis> liberty --

of ...liberty immemores -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <immemor, immemoris>

heedless -- heedless alienam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <alienus, aliena, alienum>

foreign, unfitting -- of others oppugnatum -- verb; perfect participle passive of <oppūgnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī,

oppugnātum> overthrow -- to overthrow venire -- verb; present infinitive of <veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventum> come -- were

coming

Cunctati aliquamdiu sunt, dum alius alium, ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant

cunctati -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <cunctor, cunctāri, cunctātus sum> hesitate with sunt -- hesitating

aliquamdiu -- adverb; <aliquamdiu> for a while -- for a while sunt -- auxiliary verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am with

cunctati -- ... dum -- conjunction; <dum> while -- while alius -- adjective pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <alius, alia, aliud>

other, some -- one alium -- adjective pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other,

some -- the other ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- that proelium -- noun; accusative singular neuter <proelium, proelii> battle -- battle incipiant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <incipiō, incipere, incēpī,

inceptum> begin -- they might begin

circumspectant -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of <circumspectō, circumspectāre, circumspectāvī, circumspectātum> look around -- looked

Pudor deinde commovit aciem, et clamore sublato undique in unum hostem tela coniciunt.

pudor -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <pudor, pudoris> shame -- shame deinde -- adverb; <deinde> then -- then commovit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <commoveō, commovēre, commōvī,

commōtum> move -- moved aciem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <acies, aciei> line of battle -- line of

battle et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and clamore -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <clamor, clamoris> shout -- shout sublato -- verb; ablative singular masculine of perfect participle of <sufferō, sufferre,

sustulī, sublātum> take up, lift -- having been started undique -- adverb; <undique> from every quarter -- from all sides in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- at unum -- number; accusative singular masculine of <unus, una, unum> one, alone -- a

single hostem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <hostis, hostis> enemy -- enemy tela -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <telum, teli> weapon, spear -- their javelins coniciunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cōniciō, conicere, coniēcī,

coniectum> throw -- they threw

Quae cum in obiecto cuncta scuto haesissent, neque ille minus obstinatus ingenti pontem obtineret gradu.

quae -- relative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- these

cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- while in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in obiecto -- verb; ablative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of <obiciō,

obicere, obiēcī, obiectum> oppose -- opposed cuncta -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <cunctus, cuncta, cunctum> all -- all scuto -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <scutum, scuti> shield -- shield haesissent -- verb; 3rd person plural pluperfect subjunctive of <haereō, haerēre,

haesī, haesūrum> stick -- stuck neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- no ille -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he,

she, that -- he minus -- adverb; <minus> less -- less obstinatus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <obstinatus, obstinata,

obstinatum> obstinate -- obstinately ingenti -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <ingens, ingentis> great -- strong pontem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <pons, pontis> bridge -- the bridge obtineret -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <obtineō, obtinēre,

obtenuī, obtentum> hold -- he holds gradu -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <gradus, gradus> step -- position

Iam impetu conabantur detrudere virum, cum simul fragor rupti pontis, simul clamor Romanorum alacritate perfecti operis sublatus, pavore subito impetum sustinuit.

iam -- adverb; <iam> already -- just as impetu -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <impetus, impetus> attack, charge --

by a charge conabantur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural imperfect passive of <cōnor, conārī,

conātus sum> attempt, aim -- they tried detrudere -- verb; infinitive of <dētrūdō, dētrūdere, dētrūsī, dētrūsum> dislodge -- to

dislodge virum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <vir, viri> man -- the man cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- at the same time fragor -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <fragor, fragoris> crashing, noise --

the crash rupti -- verb; genitive singular masculine of perfect participle passive of <rumpō,

rumpere, rūpī, ruptus> break -- broken pontis -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <pons, pontis> bridge -- the bridge simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- and simultaneously clamor -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <clamor, clamoris> shout -- the

shouting Romanorum -- adjective used as substantive; genitive plural masculine of <Romanus,

Romana, Romanum> Roman -- of the Romans alacritate -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <alacritas, alacritatis> delight -- in

delight perfecti -- adjective; genitive singular neuter of <perfectus, perfecta, perfectum>

complete -- completed operis -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <opus, operis> work -- at the ... work sublatus -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of

<sufferō, sufferre, sustulī, sublātum> take up, lift -- elated pavore -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <pavor, pavoris> fear, dread -- with

dread subito -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <subitus, subita, subitum> sudden

-- sudden impetum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <impetus, impetus> attack, charge

-- their charge sustinuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <sustineō, sustinēre, sustinuī,

sustentum> hold back -- held back

Tum Cocles "Tiberine pater," inquit, "te sancte precor, haec arma et hunc militem propitio flumine accipias."

tum -- adverb; <tum> then -- then Cocles -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <Cocles, Coclitis> Cocles -- Cocles Tiberine -- adjective; vocative singular masculine of <Tiberinus, Tiberini> Tiberinus

-- Tiberinus pater -- noun; vocative singular masculine of <pater, patris> father -- father inquit -- defective verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <inquam> say --

said

te -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <tu> you -- you sancte -- adjective; vocative singular masculine of <sanctus, sancta, sanctum> holy --

holy one precor -- deponent verb; 1st person singular present indicative of <precor, precārī,

precātus sum> pray -- I pray haec -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this

-- these arma -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <arma, armorum> arms -- armor et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and hunc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <hic, haec, hoc>

there, this -- this militem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <miles, militis> soldier -- soldier propitio -- adjective; ablative singular neuter of <propitius, propitia, propitium>

propitious -- propitious flumine -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <flumen, fluminis> river -- with stream accipias -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive of <accipiō, accipere,

accēpī, acceptum> receive -- receive

Ita sic armatus in Tiberim desiluit multisque superincidentibus telis incolumis ad suos tranavit

ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- in this manner sic -- adverb; <sic> so, thus -- so armatus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <armatus, armata, armatum>

armed -- armed in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- into Tiberim -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Tiber, Tiberis> Tiber -- the Tiber desiluit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <dēsiliō, dēsilīre, dēsiluī, dēsultus>

jump down -- he jumped down multisque -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <multus, multa, multum> many +

conjunction <-que> and -- and with many superincidentibus -- verb; ablative plural neuter of present participle of

<superincidō, superincindere> fall down -- falling down telis -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <telum, teli> weapon, spear -- spears incolumis -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <incolumis, incolumis,

incolume> unharmed -- unharmed ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to suos -- possessive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <suus, sua, suum> own --

his own tranavit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <trānō, tranāre, tranāvī> swim across

-- he swam across

rem ausus plus famae habituram ad posteros quam fidei.

rem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- act ausus -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of <audeō,

audēre, ausus sum> dare to do -- having dared to do plus -- adjective used as substantive; accusative singular neuter of <plus> more --

more famae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <fama, famae> report, talk -- fame

habituram -- verb; accusative singular feminine of future participle active of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- which would have

ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- among posteros -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural masculine of <posteri,

posterae, postera> future generations -- future generations quam -- adverb; <quam> than -- than fidei -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <fides, fidei> faith, pledge -- belief

Lesson TextCum hostes adessent, pro se quisque in urbem ex agris demigrant, urbem ipsam saepiunt praesidiis. Alia muris, alia Tiberi obiecto videbantur tuta. Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Cocles. Id munimentum illo die fortuna urbis Romanae habuit. Qui positus forte in statione pontis. [Sentences omitted at this point.] Circumferens inde truces minaciter oculos ad proceres Etruscorum nunc singulos provocare, nunc increpare omnes. Servitia regum superborum, suae libertatis immemores alienam oppugnatum venire. Cunctati aliquamdiu sunt, dum alius alium, ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant Pudor deinde commovit aciem, et clamore sublato undique in unum hostem tela coniciunt. Quae cum in obiecto cuncta scuto haesissent, neque ille minus obstinatus ingenti pontem obtineret gradu. Iam impetu conabantur detrudere virum, cum simul fragor rupti pontis, simul clamor Romanorum alacritate perfecti operis sublatus, pavore subito impetum sustinuit. Tum Cocles "Tiberine pater," inquit, "te sancte precor, haec arma et hunc militem propitio flumine accipias." Ita sic armatus in Tiberim desiluit multisque superincidentibus telis incolumis ad suos tranavit rem ausus plus famae habituram ad posteros quam fidei.

TranslationWhen the enemies appeared, the Romans withdrew, everyone for himself, from the fields into the city, and they surrounded the city itself with guards. Some parts seemed to be secure by their walls, others by the Tiber in front of them. The bridge resting on piles almost provided a way in to the enemies, if there had not been one man, Horatius Cocles. He was the defense on the day that the fortune of the city of Rome depended. He by chance was placed on guard of the bridge. ... Then darting around fierce glances threateningly at the chiefs of the Etruscans, he now challenged them individually, now rebuked all of them as servants of haughty kings heedless of their own liberty who were coming to overthrow that of others. They hesitated for a while -- one looked after the other that they might begin the battle. Then they moved the line of battle, and with a haughty shout they threw their spears from all sides at a single enemy. When these all struck on his opposing shield, he no less obstinately held the bridge with great dispatch. Just as they tried to dislodge him by a charge, at the same time the crash of the falling bridge and the shouting of the Roman elated with delight at the completed work checked the charge with sudden dread. Then Cocles said: "Father Tiber, I pray you, oh holy one, that you receive these arms and this soldier with a propitious stream." In the manner armed as he was, he jumped down into the Tiber, and unharmed by the falling spears he swam across to his own. He had dared to perform a deed that would have more favor than belief among future generations.

Grammar

6. Historical Present.

The historical present, also known as the dramatic present, refers to use of the present tense with past meaning. As the alternate designation indicates, it may be found where the author

seeks to accentuate a statement. Used in older English literature, as by Shakespeare, it now is pretty well restricted to popular narration, as when a narrator uses sequences like "an' then he says...." Instances are found in these selections, such as adfirmat, condunt, and appellat in the first unit, adessent, demigrant, and saepiunt in the second; these forms in the first sentence of the second selection were clearly used to reflect the dangerous situation for the Romans. Infinitives may be used similarly, e.g. evocāre and quaerere in the first unit.

7. The subjunctive.

Beside the indicative mood, which expresses certainty, subjunctive mood forms are found for the present, the preterite, the perfect, and the pluperfect, active and passive. As a general characteristic, the subjunctive forms indicate uncertainty. In keeping with this meaning, they are used in many subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctions and pronouns. A typical use is found in the first sentence of this selection, cum hostēs adessent..., and also in the first sentence of the initial unit, cum ... constitissent.... The uncertainty is greater in the second sentence of that unit, where a question is asked: quī mortalēs essent and at its conclusion exissent. A use without conjunction is found in the prayer of Horatius to the Tiber: precor ... accipiās 'I ask that you accept.' As in this translation, subjunctive forms may correspond to English sentences that express fact, but often they are best represented by modal auxiliaries.

In the identification of verbal forms of these texts, those in the indicative are not especially so noted.

8. The third declension of nouns.

While nouns of the first and second declensions have bases ending in vowels and are accordingly regular, those of the third conjugation end in consonants or -i, with a possible consequent modification of the base in some forms. An example is the word for king, rex, which has a base ending in -g; when the nominative ending -s is added, the -g- is devoiced, and the two sounds are represented by -x. When the ending begins with a vowel, however, the base is unmodified, as in the genitive regis. Other modifications of bases may be determined from dictionary entries, which typically provide the genitive as well as the nominative.

Nouns in this declension may be masculine, feminine or neuter. Like the endings of the base, the gender must be noted from the dictionary entries.

Nom sg   rex   pons   genus   homo   urbsGen sg   regis   pontis   generis   hominis   urbisDat sg   regī   pontī   generī   hominī   urbīAcc sg   regem   pontem   genus   hominem   urbemAbl sg   rege   ponte   genere   homine   urbe

 Nom pl   regēs   pontēs   genera   hominēs   urbēsGen pl   regum   pontum   generum   hominum   urbiumDat pl   regibus   pontibus   generibus   hominibus   urbibusAcc pl   regēs   pontēs   genera   hominēs   urbēsAbl pl   regibus   pontibus   generibus   hominibus   urbibus

9. The perfect forms of verbs.

The perfect system of verbs is parallel to the present system. It consists of the simple perfect, the pluperfect or past perfect, and the future perfect, with indicative and subjunctive forms except for the future perfect, and passive forms beside the active. In general it implies past time, often with the meaning of completed action.

As the forms in these two units indicate, it is made in a variety of ways. In the first conjugation, as well as the fourth, it is generally made with a -v- suffix and further endings. In the second conjugation, and also the fourth, the marker is often -u-. The third conjugation verbs have a variety of markers, among them -s-. The differences among verbs provide the reason for learning the principal parts of verbs; these are generally included in dictionary entries. Examples are given here of the verbs cited in the section 4 of the grammar as well as forms of dō and haereō. Instead of the ending -erunt in the third plural, a short form -ere may be found, both with long -e-.

1 sg   laudāvī   monuī   tēxī   audīvī   dedī   haesī2 sg   laudāvistī   monuistī   texistī   audivīstī   dēdīstī   haesistī3 sg   laudāvit   monuit   tēxit   audīvit   dēdit   haesit 1 pl   laudāvimus   monuimus   tēximus   audīvimus   dēdimus   haesimus2 pl   laudāvistis   monuistis   tēxistis   audīvistis   dēdistis   haesistis3 pl   laudāvērunt   monuērunt   tēxērunt   audīvērunt   dēderunt   haeserunt

10. Prepositions.

Most prepositions govern the accusative case, as do ad and apud found in these units, as well as ante 'before', contra 'against', inter 'among', per 'through', post 'after', trans 'across', and many others. In and sub 'under', however, govern the accusative case when indicating direction, and the ablative when indicating place.

Lesson 3

Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

In Book 6 of The Gallic War, Julius Caesar (100 - 44 B.C.) decided to describe the people of Gaul and of Germania. He has given us a brief anthropological account of their customs and activities. Only selections can be included here, but these indicate the differences between the two peoples.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The people of Gaul had obviously been influenced by the Greeks and Romans, while the people of Germania have resisted such influences. The account of the people of Germania consequently provides information on the conditions that applied in previous centuries, possibly even in late Indo-European times. On the other hand, the singling out of the classes of Druids and Knights, beside the common members of their society, shows a striking resemblance to the castes of Indian society, where the Brahmans or priests had the highest status, followed by the Kshatriyas or warriors. But in contrast with the two further Indian

castes of Vaishyas and Shudras those not in these two Gallic classes were lumped together, and regarded much like the Indian outcastes. It is questionable, then, whether there is a historic connection between the Gallic class system and the Indian caste system.

Quoniam ad hunc locum perventum est, non alienum esse videtur de Galliae Germaniaeque moribus et quo differant hae nationes inter sese proponere.

quoniam -- conjunction; <quoniam> since -- since ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to hunc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <hic, haec, hoc>

there, this -- this locum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <locus, loci> place -- place perventum -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive of <perveniō, pervenīre,

pervēnī, perventum> arrive, reach with est -- has been reached est -- auxiliary verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am with

perventum -- ... non -- adverb; <non> not -- not alienum -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <alienus, aliena, alienum> foreign,

unfitting -- unfitting esse -- verb; infinitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- be videtur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum>

see -- seem de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- about Galliae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <Gallia, Galliae> Gaul -- of Gaul Germaniaeque -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <Germania, Germaniae>

Germania + conjunction <-que> and -- and of Germania moribus -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <mos, moris> custom -- practices et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and quo -- interrogative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> who, what

-- how differant -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <differō, differre,

distulī, dīlātum> differ -- differ hae -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural feminine of <hic, haec, hoc> there,

this -- these nationes -- noun; nominative plural feminine of <natio, nationis> nation -- nations inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among sese -- reflexive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- one another proponere -- verb; infinitive of <prōpōnō, proponere, proposuī, propositum> point

out, set forth -- to point out

In omni Gallia eorum hominum, qui aliquo sunt numero atque honore, genera sunt duo.

in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in omni -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all of Gallia -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <Gallia, Galliae> Gaul -- Gaul eorum -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her,

this -- those hominum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <homo, hominis> man, human --

humans

qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- who

aliquo -- pronoun adjective; ablative singular masculine of <aliqui, aliqua, aliquod> some, any -- some

sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- are numero -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <numerus, numeri> class, number,

repute -- esteem atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and honore -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <honos, honoris> honor, distinction --

distinction genera -- noun; nominative plural neuter of <genus, generis> kind, class -- kinds sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- there are duo -- number; <duo, duae, duo> two -- two

Nam plebes paene servorum habetur loco, quae nihil audet per se, nullo adhibetur consilio.

nam -- conjunction; <nam> for -- for plebes -- noun; nominative plural feminine of <plebs, plebis> common people -- the

common people paene -- adverb; <paene> almost -- almost servorum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <servus, servi> slave -- of slaves habetur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <habeō, habēre, habuī,

habitum> have -- are regarded loco -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <locus, loci> place -- in the position of,

as quae -- relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who,

which, what, that -- who nihil -- noun; <nihil> nothing -- nothing audet -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <audeō, audēre, ausus sum> dare to do --

dares per -- preposition; <per> through, by -- by se -- reflexive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- themselves nullo -- adjective; ablative singular neuter of <nullus, nulla, nullum> no, none --

not ... any adhibetur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <adhibeō, adhibēre, adhibuī,

adhibitum> turn to, treat -- are ...taken as of consilio -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <consilium, consilii> counsel -- account

Plerique, cum aut aere alieno aut magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum premuntur, sese in servitutem dicant nobilibus.

plerique -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <plerusque, pleraeque, pleraque> most, the majority -- most of them

cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- since aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- either aere -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <aes, aeris> metal, copper, money -- by debt alieno -- adjective; ablative singular neuter of <alienus, aliena, alienum> foreign,

unfitting -- of another aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or

magnitudine -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <magnitudo, magnitudinis> size -- by the size

tributorum -- noun; genitive plural neuter of <tributum, tributi> specific payment, tribute -- of their payments

aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or iniuria -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <iniuria, injuriae> wrong, harsh

treatment -- harsh treatment potentiorum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of comparative of <potens, potentis>

powerful -- the more powerful premuntur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <premō, pemere, pressī,

pressum> press, oppress -- are oppressed sese -- reflexive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- themselves in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in servitutem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <servitus, servitutis> servitude,

slavery -- slavery dicant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum>

say, state, declare -- declare nobilibus -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <nobilis, nobilis, nobile> famous,

noble -- to the nobles

In hos eadem omnia sunt iura, quae dominis in servos.

in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- over hos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there,

this -- those eadem -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <idem, eadem, idem>

the same -- the same omnia -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- are iura -- noun; nominative plural neuter of <ius, iuris> right -- rights quae -- relative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which,

what, that -- which dominis -- noun; dative plural masculine of <dominus, domini> lord, master --

masters (have) in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- over servos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <servus, servi> slave -- slaves

Sed de his duobus generibus alterum est druidum, alterum equitum.

sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- in fact de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- of his -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative plural neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this --

these duobus -- number; ablative plural neuter of <duo, duae, duo> two -- two generibus -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <genus, generis> kind, class -- classes alterum -- pronoun adjective; nominative singular neuter of <alter, altera, alterum>

the one, the other -- the one est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- consists of druidum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <druides, druidum> Druids -- Druids

alterum -- pronoun adjective; nominative singular neuter of <alter, altera, alterum> the one, the other -- the other

equitum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <eques, equitis> horseman, knight -- knights

Illi rebus divinis intersunt, sacrificia publica ac privata procurant, religiones interpretantur.

illi -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- these

rebus -- noun; dative plural feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matters divinis -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <divinus, divina, divinum> divine,

sacred -- sacred intersunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <intersum, interesse, interfuī> lie

between, concern -- are concerned with sacrificia -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <sacrificium, sacrifici> sacrifice --

sacrifices publica -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <publicus, publica, publicum> public

-- public ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and privata -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <privatus, privata, privatum> private,

individual -- private procurant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <prōcūrō, prōcūrāre, prōcūrāvi,

prōcūrātum> take care of -- they take care of religiones -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <religio, religionis> religious

practice -- religious matters interpretantur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <interpretor,

interpretāri, interpretātus sum> interpret -- they interpret

Ad hos magnus adulescentium numerus disciplinae causa concurrit, magnoque hi sunt apud eos honore.

ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to hos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there,

this -- these magnus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <magnus, magna, magnum>

great, large -- large adulescentium -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <adulescens, adulescentis>

young people -- the young people numerus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <numerus, numeri> class, number,

repute -- number disciplinae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <disciplina, disciplinae>

discipline, education -- instruction causa -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <causa, causae> cause, reason -- for the

sake of concurrit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <concurrō, concurrere, concurrī,

concursum> assemble, come together -- come together magnoque -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <magnus, magna, magnum>

great, large + conjunction <-que> and -- and ... great hi -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there,

this -- these

sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- are apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- among eos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her,

this -- them honore -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <honos, honoris> honor, distinction --

in ... honor

Nam fere de omnibus controversiis publicis privatisque constituunt, et, si quid admissum facinus, si caedes facta, si de heriditate de finibus controversia est, idem decernunt, praemia poenasque constituunt.

nam -- conjunction; <nam> for -- for fere -- adverb; <fere> almost -- almost de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning omnibus -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all controversiis -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <controversia, controversiae>

controversy -- controversies publicis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum>

public -- public privatisque -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <privatus, privata, privatum>

private, individual + conjunction <-que> and -- and private constituunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cōnstituō, cōnstituere, cōnstituī,

cōnstitūtum> decide -- they decide et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if quid -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> someone,

anything -- any admissum -- verb; nominative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of <admittō,

admittere, admīsī, admīssum> let, go, commit -- has been committed facinus -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <facinus, facinoris> crime -- crime si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if caedes -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <caedes, caedis> murder -- murder facta -- verb; nominative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of <faciō,

facere, fēcī, factum> do, make -- has been done si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning heriditate -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <heriditas, heriditatis> heredity,

inheritance -- inheritance de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning finibus -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <finis, finis> border, limit --

boundaries controversia -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <controversia, controversiae>

controversy -- controversy est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- there is idem -- pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <idem, eadem, idem> the same -- all

the same decernunt -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <dēcernō, decernere, decrēvī,

decrētum> decide -- they decide praemia -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <praemium, praemii> reward -- rewards

poenasque -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <poena, poenae> punishment, penalty + conjunction <-que> and -- and penalties

constituunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cōnstituō, cōnstituere, cōnstituī, cōnstitūtum> decide -- they decide

Si qui aut privatus aut populus eorum decreto non stetit, sacrificiis interdicunt.

si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if qui -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <qui, qua(e), quod> some,

any -- any (one) aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or privatus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <privatus, privata, privatum>

private, individual -- private aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or populus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <populus, populi> people --

public eorum -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her,

this -- their decreto -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <decretum, decreti> decision -- by ...

decree non -- adverb; <non> not -- not stetit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <stō, stāre, stēti, statum> stand, abide --

does ... abide sacrificiis -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <sacrificium, sacrifici> sacrifice --

from the sacrifices interdicunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <interdīcō, interdicere, interdīxi,

interdictum> prohibit -- they ban (him)

Haec poena apud eos est gravissima.

haec -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this

poena -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <poena, poenae> punishment, penalty -- punishment

apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- among eos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her,

this -- them est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- is gravissima -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of superlative of <gravis,

gravis, grave> grave, serious -- severest

Magnum ibi numerum versuum ediscere dicuntur.

magnum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large -- large

ibi -- adverb; <ibi> there, then -- there numerum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <numerus, numeri> class, number,

repute -- number versuum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <versus, versus> verse -- of verses

ediscere -- verb; infinitive of <ēdiscō, ēdiscere, ēdidici, -> learn, memorize -- (they) memorize

dicuntur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum> say, state, declare -- they say, it is said

Itaque annos nonnulli vicenos in disciplina permanent.

itaque -- adverb; <itaque> and also -- also annos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <annus, anni> year -- years nonnulli -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <nonnullus, nonulla,

nonullum> some -- some vicenos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <vicenus, viceni> twenty --

twenty in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in disciplina -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <disciplina, disciplinae> discipline,

education -- training permanent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <permaneō, permanēre, permansī,

permansum> stay, continue -- remain

Neque fas esse existimant ea litteris mandare, cum in reliquis fere rebus, publicis privatisque rationibus Graecis litteris utantur.

neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- nor fas -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <fas, -> right -- right esse -- verb; infinitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- to be existimant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <existimō, existimāre, existimāvī,

existimātum> judge, consider -- do they consider ea -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this --

these things litteris -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <littera, litterae> letter -- to letters, to

writing mandare -- verb; infinitive of <mando, mandāre, mandāvī, mandātum> commit -- to

commit cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- because in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in reliquis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <reliquus, reliqua, reliquum>

remaining, rest -- remaining fere -- adverb; <fere> almost -- almost rebus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matters publicis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum>

public -- public privatisque -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <privatus, privata, privatum>

private, individual + conjunction <-que> and -- and private rationibus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <ratio, rationis> account, affair -- in .

. .affairs Graecis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <Graecus, Graeca, Graecum> Greek

-- Greek litteris -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <littera, litterae> letter -- letters

utantur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum> use -- they use

Lesson TextQuoniam ad hunc locum perventum est, non alienum esse videtur de Galliae Germaniaeque moribus et quo differant hae nationes inter sese proponere. In omni Gallia eorum hominum, qui aliquo sunt numero atque honore, genera sunt duo. Nam plebes paene servorum habetur loco, quae nihil audet per se, nullo adhibetur consilio. Plerique, cum aut aere alieno aut magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum premuntur, sese in servitutem dicant nobilibus. In hos eadem omnia sunt iura, quae dominis in servos. Sed de his duobus generibus alterum est druidum, alterum equitum. Illi rebus divinis intersunt, sacrificia publica ac privata procurant, religiones interpretantur. Ad hos magnus adulescentium numerus disciplinae causa concurrit, magnoque hi sunt apud eos honore. Nam fere de omnibus controversiis publicis privatisque constituunt, et, si quid admissum facinus, si caedes facta, si de heriditate de finibus controversia est, idem decernunt, praemia poenasque constituunt. Si qui aut privatus aut populus eorum decreto non stetit, sacrificiis interdicunt. Haec poena apud eos est gravissima. Magnum ibi numerum versuum ediscere dicuntur. Itaque annos nonnulli vicenos in disciplina permanent. Neque fas esse existimant ea litteris mandare, cum in reliquis fere rebus, publicis privatisque rationibus Graecis litteris utantur.

TranslationSince I have come to this point, it does not seem inappropriate to set forth the customs of Gaul and of Germania, and how these nations differ among each other. . . . In all Gaul there are two classes of humans who are of definite account and honor. But the common people are regarded almost at the level of slaves, who dare to do nothing by themselves and are taken as of no account. And most, since they are either oppressed by debt or by a great amount of tribute or by crimes of the more powerful, commit themselves in slavery to the nobles. They have indeed among these all the rights as masters over slaves. Of these two classes the one consists of Druids, the other of Knights. The former are concerned with divine worship; they handle public and private sacrifices, and they interpret religious matters. A great number of the youth gather around them for the sake of education, and they are held among these in great honor. For they make decisions about almost all public and private controversies, and if any crime has been committed, if a murder has been done, if there is controversy about boundaries, they decide the same, they determine rewards and punishments. If any one, either private or public, does not abide by their decree, they ban him from sacrifices. This punishment is the most serious among them. ... It is said that they memorize a great number of verses (in the Druidic schools). And for that reason some remain twenty years in training. Nor do they think it proper to commit these to writing, while in almost all other things, in public and private matters, they use Greek letters.

Grammar

11. Deponents.

Deponents are verbs that are passive in form but have active meaning. The meaning is typically one of state rather than vigorous action; the passive developed out of a stative conjugation in early Indo-European, and deponents reflect this meaning rather than that of a pure passive. In this unit, the deponents interpretor 'interpret' and utor 'use' are found. The previous units included precor 'ask' and profiscor 'set out'. None of these meanings indicates

action as do verbs like concurrō 'run together' or constituō 'place'. Deponents are labeled as such in dictionaries.

12. The Passive.

As in the English verb system, the passive indicates that the subject of the verb is affected by rather than performing some action. In English the passive consists of compound forms, such as "they were invited by the organizers," in contrast with "the organizers invited them."

The inflectional system of the passive is parallel to that of the active. Examples of the present indicative passive are given here for the verbs illustrating the four conjugations in Unit 1. Since the imperfect is treated in section 14, the third singular and third plural imperfect is given here for the passive.

Present Indicative Passive1 sg   laudor   moneor   tegor   audior2 sg   laudāris   monēris   tegeris   audiēris3 sg   laudātur   monētur   tegitur   audītur 1 pl   laudāmur   monēmur   tegimur   audīmur2 pl   laudāminī   monēmini   tegimini   audīminī3 pl   laudantur   monentur   teguntur   audiuntur

Imperfect Indicative Passive in the third persons3 sg   laudābātur   monēbātur   tegēbātur   audiēbātur3 pl   laudābantur   monēbantur   tegēbantur   audiēbantur

The perfect conjugation forms are made with the past participle accompanied by forms of the verb sum. They are accordingly easy to note and translate. Third singular forms are given here for the perfect and pluperfect of the four conjugations.

Perfect3 sg   laudātus est   monitus est   tectus est   audītus est

Pluperfect3 sg   laudātus erat   monitus erat   tectus erat   audītus erat

13. The Fourth and Fifth Declensions of Nouns.

The fourth and fifth declensions include relatively few nouns. The nominative in the fourth ending in -us, like the second declension; but the u-vowel is basically long, which is the ending also for neuters in the declension, e.g. cornu. The nominative in the fifth declension ends in -es; the declension includes few nouns, among them however the frequent dies 'day' and res 'thing'.

    Fourth Declension       Fifth declensionNom sg   tribus 'tribe'   cornu 'horn'   diēs 'day'   rēs 'thing'Gen sg   tribūs   cornūs   dieī   reīDat sg   tribuī   cornu   dieī   reī

Acc sg   tribum   cornu   diem   remAbl sg   tribū   cornū   diē   rē

 Nom pl   tribūs   cornua   diēs   rēsGen pl   tribuum   cornuum   diērum   rērumDat pl   tribubus   cornibus   diēbus   rēbusAcc pl   tribūs   cornua   diēs   rēsAbl pl   tribubus   cornibus   diēbus   rēbus

14. The Imperfect, Indicative, and Subjunctive.

The imperfect is made with a ba-suffix in the indicative, and an re-suffix in the subjunctive. Since the endings are identical throughout the four conjugations, examples from only the first and third will be given here.

    First Conjugation   Third Conjugation    Indicative   Subjunctive       Indicative   Subjunctive1 sg   laudābam   laudārem   tegēbam   tegerem2 sg   laudābās   laudārēs   tegēbās   tegerēs3 sg   laudābat   laudāret   tegēbat   tegeret 1 pl   laudābāmus   laudārēmus   tegēbāmus   tegerēmus2 pl   laudābātis   laudārētis   tegēbātis   tegerētis3 pl   laudābant   laudārent   tegēbant   tegerent

15. Conjunctions.

As in English, conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. They are straightforward lexical items, and the common ones are readily memorized. Lists of various kinds of the common coordinating conjunctions are given here.

Coordinating conjunctions: et, -que, atque, 'and', ac, neque 'and not' Disjunctive conjunctions: aut, vel, -ve 'or' Adversative conjunctions: at, autem, sed, tamen 'but, nevertheless' Of the conjunctions introducing clauses, two have occurred: postquam 'after' and cum

'when, since, because'.

Lesson 4Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

Members of the second class in Indian society are designated Kshatriyas, or the powerful; in contrast, they are referred to as Equites, horsemen or knights, in Celtic society. The term may well have been introduced from Roman society, where it was used to designate the members of the equestrian order that occupied the position between the Senate and the Plebs or common people. Here only sections of Caesar's description can be included.Reading and Textual Analysis

In giving further information about this class, Caesar discusses the religious practices of the Gauls, their gods, and family relationships. Of further interest is the tradition that they are all

descended from Dis, a term related to the word deus 'god', but referring to an underworld deity. As a result, they refer to periods of time by nights rather than days; we have a result of this in our word fortnight, a shortening of fourteen nights for two weeks. Here, the military and administrative practices are excerpted.

Alterum genus est equitum.

* alterum -- pronoun adjective; nominative singular neuter of <alter, altera, alterum> the one, the other -- the other * genus -- noun; nominative singular neuter <genus, generis> kind, class -- class * est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- is (that of the) * equitum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <eques, equitis> horseman, knight -- knights

Hi, cum est usus atque aliquod bellum incidit (quod fere ante Caesaris adventum quotannis accidere solebat, uti aut ipsi iniurias inferrent aut illatas propulsarent), omnes in bello versantur.

* hi -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- these * cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when * est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- there is * usus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <usus, usus> use, practice -- occasion * atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and especially * aliquod -- pronoun adjective; nominative singular neuter of <aliqui, aliqua, aliquod> some, any -- some * bellum -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <bellum, belli> war -- war * incidit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <incidō, incidere, incidī,-> fall in, occur -- occurs * quod -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which * fere -- adverb; <fere> almost -- almost * ante -- preposition; <ante> before -- before * Caesaris -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <Caesar, Caesaris> Caesar -- Caesar's * adventum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <adventus, adventus> arrival, coming -- coming * quotannis -- adverb; <quotannis> yearly -- every year * accidere -- verb; infinitive of <accidō, accidere, accidī, -> fall to, come, happen -- happen * solebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <sōleō, solēre, solitum> be accustomed -- was accustomed to * uti -- conjunction; <uti> that, so that -- as * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- either * ipsi -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ipse, ipsa, ipsum> self -- they themselves * iniurias -- noun; accusative plural feminine <iniuria, injuriae> wrong, harsh treatment -- attacks * inferrent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <inferō, inferre, intulī, inlātum> introduce, produce -- would produce * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or

* illatas -- verb; accusative plural feminine of perfect participle passive of <inferō, inferre, intulī, inlātum> introduce, produce -- produced * propulsarent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <prōpulsō, propulsāre, propulsātus, -> ward off, repulse -- would repulse * omnes -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all * in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in * bello -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <bellum, belli> war -- war * versantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <versō, versāre, versāvī, versātum> turn often; pass. be involved -- are engaged

Atque eorum ut quisque est venere copiisque amplissimus, ita plurimos circum se ambactos clientesque habet.

* atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and indeed * eorum -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- of them * ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- as * quisque -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisque, quaeque, quodque> everyone -- each * est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- is * venere -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <venus, veneris> grace, esteem -- esteem * copiisque -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <copia, copiae> abundance, wealth + conjunction <-que> and -- and wealth * amplissimus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine superlative of <amplius> great, distinguished -- most distinguished * ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- accordingly * plurimos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of superlative of <multus, multa, multum> many -- the most * circum -- preposition; <circum> around -- around * se -- reflexive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- himself * ambactos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <ambactus, ambacti> dependent -- subordinates * clientesque -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <cliens, clientis> retainer + conjunction <-que> and -- and retainers * habet -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- he has

Hanc unam gratiam potentiamque noverunt.

* hanc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- This * unam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <unus, una, unum> one, alone -- the one * gratiam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <gratia, gratiae> esteem, regard -- esteem * potentiamque -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <potentia, potentiae> power + conjunction <-que> and -- and power * noverunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <nōscō, nōscere, nōvī, nōtum> be acquainted with, get to know -- have come to know

Natio est omnis Gallorum admodum dedita religionibus.

* natio -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <natio, nationis> nation -- nation * est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- is * omnis -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- the entire * Gallorum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <Galli, Gallorum> the Gauls -- of the Gauls * admodum -- adverb; <admodum> completely -- completely * dedita -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <deditus, dedita, deditum> devoted, addicted -- devoted to * religionibus -- noun; dative plural feminine of <religio, religionis> religious practice -- religious practices

Atque ob eam causam, qui sunt adfecti gravioribus morbis quique in proeliis periculisque versantur, aut pro victimis homines immolant aut se immolaturos vovent, administrisque ad ea sacrificia druidibus utuntur. [Section omitted at this point.]

* atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and indeed * ob -- preposition; <ob> because of -- for * eam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- this * causam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <causa, causae> cause, reason -- reason * qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- those who * sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- are * adfecti -- verb; nominative plural masculine of perfect participle passive of <adficiō, adficere, adfēcī, adfectum> afflict -- afflicted * gravioribus -- adjective; ablative plural masculine of comparative of <gravis, gravis, grave> grave, serious -- with more serious * morbis -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <morbus, morbi> illness -- illnesses * quique -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that + conjunction <-que> and -- and those who * in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in * proeliis -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <proelium, proelii> battle -- battles * periculisque -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <periculum, periculi> danger + conjunction <-que> and -- and in dangers * versantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <versō, versāre, versāvī, versātum> turn often; pass. be involved -- are involved * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- either * pro -- preposition; <pro> for, before -- as * victimis -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <victima, victimae> sacrifice -- sacrifices * homines -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <homo, hominis> man, human -- people * immolant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <immolō, immolāre, immolāvī, immolātum> sacrifice, immolate -- sacrifice * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or * se -- reflexive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- they themselves * immolaturos -- verb; accusative plural masculine of future participle of <immolō, immolāre, immolāvī, immolātum> sacrifice, immolate -- will be sacrificed

* vovent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <voveo, vovēre, vōvī, vōtum> vow -- they vow * administrisque -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <administer, administri> administrator + conjunction <-que> and -- and ...as administrators * ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- for * ea -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- those * sacrificia -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <sacrificium, sacrifici> sacrifice -- sacrifices * druidibus -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <druides, druidum> Druids -- Druids * utuntur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum> use -- they use

Quae civitates commodius suam rem publicam administrare existimantur, habent legibus sanctum, si quis quid de re publica a finitimis rumore aut fama accepterit, uti ad magistratum deferat neve cum quo alio communicet.

* quae -- relative pronoun; nominative plural feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- the ... that * civitates -- noun; nominative plural feminine of <civitas, civitatis> state -- states * commodius -- adjective; comparative accusative singular neuter of <commodus, commoda, commodum> used adverbially = complete, advantageous -- more advantageously * suam -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- their * rem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- affairs * publicam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- public * administrare -- verb; infinitive of <administrō, administrāre, administrāvī, administrātum> administer, conduct -- to conduct * existimantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <existimō, existimāre, existimāvī, existimātum> judge, consider -- are considered * habent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- have * legibus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <lex, legis> law -- by law * sanctum -- verb; accusative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of <sanciō, sancīre, sānxī, sānctum> enact -- prescribed * si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if * quis -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quis, quis, quid> someone, anything -- anyone * quid -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> someone, anything -- anything * de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning * re -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- affair * publica -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- public * a -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from * finitimis -- adjective used as substantive; ablative plural masculine of <finitimus, finitima, finitimum> bordering, neighbor -- neighbors * rumore -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <rumor, rumoris> murmur, rumor -- by rumor * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or * fama -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <fama, famae> report, talk -- report

* accepterit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive of <acceptō, acceptāre, acceptāvī, acceptātum> receive -- might learn * uti -- conjunction; <uti> that, so that -- that * ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to * magistratum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <magistratus, magistratus> magistrate -- a magistrate * deferat -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <dēferō, deferre, detulī, delātum> report -- should report * neve -- conjunction; <neve> and not, nor -- and not * cum -- preposition; <cum> with -- with * quo -- indefinite pronoun; ablative singular masculine of <quis, quis, quid> someone, anything -- anyone * alio -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- else * communicet -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <commūnicō, commūnicāre, commūnicāvī, commūnicātum> communicate -- share

Quod saepe homines temerarios atque imperitos falsis rumoribus terreri et ad facinus impelli et de summis rebus consilium capere cognitum est.

* quod -- conjunction; <quod> that, because -- because * saepe -- adverb; <saepe> often -- often * homines -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <homo, hominis> man, human -- people * temerarios -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <temerarius, temeraria, temerarium> rash, indiscreet -- indiscreet * atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and also * imperitos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <imperitus, imperita, imperitum> inexperienced -- inexperienced * falsis -- adjective; ablative plural masculine of <falsus, falsa, falsum> false -- by false * rumoribus -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <rumor, rumoris> murmur, rumor -- rumors * terreri -- verb; passive infinitive of <terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus> terrify, frighten -- are frightened * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to * facinus -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <facinus, facinoris> crime -- crime * impelli -- verb; passive infinitive of <impellō, impellere, impulī, impulsum> drive, move -- be driven * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning * summis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <summus, summa, summum> highest with rebus -- the general (welfare) * rebus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- welfare (see above) * consilium -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <consilium, consilii> counsel with capere -- to form plans, make decisions * capere -- verb; infinitive of <capiō, capere, cēpī, captum> take, seize -- to make * cognitum -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <cognitus, cognita, cognitum> known -- known * est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- it is

Magistratus quae visa sunt occultant quaeque esse ex usu iudicaverunt multitudini produnt.

* magistratus -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <magistratus, magistratus> magistrate -- The magistrates * quae -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- what * visa -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle perfect passive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see -- seem proper * sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- be * occultant -- 3rd person plural present of <occultō, occultāre, occultāvī, occultātum> conceal -- conceal * quaeque -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that + conjunction <-que> and -- and what * esse -- verb; infinitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- be * ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- of * usu -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <usus, usus> use, practice -- benefit * iudicaverunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvī, iūdicātum> decide -- decide * multitudini -- noun; dative singular feminine of <multitudo, multitudinis> multitude -- to the common people * produnt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <prōdō, prodere, prodīdī, proditum> put forth, make known -- make known

De re publica nisi per concilium loqui non conceditur.

* de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning * re -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- affairs * publica -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- public * nisi -- conjunction; <nisi> if not, unless -- unless * per -- preposition; <per> through, by -- by means of * concilium -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <concilium, concilii> council, assembly -- an assembly * loqui -- deponent verb; infinitive of <loquor, loquī, locutus sum> speak -- speak * non -- adverb; <non> not -- not * conceditur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <concēdō, concedere, concessī, concessum> grant, allow -- it is allowed

Lesson Text

Alterum genus est equitum. Hi, cum est usus atque aliquod bellum incidit (quod fere ante Caesaris adventum quotannis accidere solebat, uti aut ipsi iniurias inferrent aut illatas propulsarent), omnes in bello versantur. Atque eorum ut quisque est venere copiisque amplissimus, ita plurimos circum se ambactos clientesque habet. Hanc unam gratiam potentiamque noverunt. Natio est omnis Gallorum admodum dedita religionibus. Atque ob eam causam, qui sunt adfecti gravioribus morbis quique in proeliis periculisque versantur, aut pro victimis homines immolant aut se immolaturos vovent, administrisque ad ea sacrificia druidibus utuntur. [Section omitted at this point.] Quae civitates commodius suam rem publicam administrare existimantur, habent legibus sanctum, si quis quid de re publica a finitimis rumore aut fama accepterit, uti ad magistratum deferat neve cum quo alio communicet. Quod saepe homines temerarios atque imperitos falsis rumoribus terreri et ad

facinus impelli et de summis rebus consilium capere cognitum est. Magistratus quae visa sunt occultant quaeque esse ex usu iudicaverunt multitudini produnt. De re publica nisi per concilium loqui non conceditur.

Translation

The knights are the other class. When there is an occasion and especially when a war arises (which would happen almost yearly before Caesar's arrival, so that either they themselves would carry out attacks or would repulse such), these are all engaged in war. And as each is most distinguished in esteem and by wealth, he accordingly has the most subordinates and retainers about him. They have recognized this as the single basis of esteem and power.

The entire nation of the Gauls is greatly devoted to religious affairs. And for that reason those who are afflicted with more serious illnesses and those who are involved in battles and dangers either sacrifice people as victims or they vow that they themselves will be sacrificed; and they make use of Druids as administrators for those sacrifices. [Section omitted at this point.]

The states that are considered to administer their public affairs more advantageously have it prescribed by law that, if anyone might learn anything about public affairs from neighbors by rumor or report, he should report it to a magistrate and not communicate with anyone else. For it is known that indiscreet and inexperienced men are often frightened by false rumors, and are driven to crime or to make decisions concerning the general welfare. Magistrates conceal what seems best, and they decide what is of use and provide it for the common people. It is not allowed to speak about public matters except by means of an assembly.

Grammar16. Relative Clauses.

Relative clauses are introduced primarily by the relative pronouns, quī 'who', quae 'who', quod 'what', and their inflected forms. A number of examples have occurred in the texts here, such as (bellum) quod in the first sentence of this lesson. The forms are as follows: Singular Plural Masc Fem Neut Masc Fem NeutNom quī quae quod | quī quae quaeGen cūius cūius cūius | quōrum quārum quōrumDat cuī cuī cuī | quibus quibus quibus

Acc quem quam quod | quos quās quaeAbl quō quā quō | quibus quibus quibus

Another relative pronoun is quisquis 'whoever'. It is inflected like the interrogative pronoun quis 'who', which will be introduced in Lesson 5.17. Adjectives and their Comparison.

Adjectives are inflected like nouns. Many of them are inflected in accordance with the first and second declensions, such as magnus, magna, magnum 'great'. Others are inflected in accordance with the third declension, such as acer, acris, acre 'sharp'. The declension of any adjective is noted in dictionaries.

As in English there are three degrees of comparison: Positive, Comparative and Superlative. The Comparative is made by adding -ior, the Superlative by adding -issimus. An example is clarus, clarior, clarissimus 'clear, clearer, clearest'. Many of the most common adjectives are irregular, such as their counterparts in English, like bonus, melior, optimus 'good, better, best'. Another example is magnus, maior, maximus 'great, greater, greatest'. These too are noted in dictionaries.18. More Nouns in the Third Declension.

As noted earlier, nouns in the third declension end in consonants, so that there may be changes in form of the stem, especially in the nominative. Examples are given here for some of the sub-classes with the words pēs 'foot', pater 'father', sermo 'speech', finis 'end', nox 'night'.SingularNom pēs pater sermo finis noxGen pedis patris sermonis finis noctisDat pedī patrī sermonī finī noctīAcc pedem patrem sermonem finem noctemAbl pede patre sermone fine nocte

PluralNom pedēs patrēs sermonēs finēs noctēsGen pedum patrum sermonum finium noctiumDat pedibus patribus sermonibus finibus noctibusAcc pedēs patrēs sermonēs finēs noctēsAbl pedibus patribus sermonibus finibus noctibus

19. Verb Forms of sum.

As in English, forms of the verb esse 'to be' are irregular. They are also common, used as auxiliaries as well as straightforwardly. Accordingly they should be noted. The indicative active forms are listed below. Present Past Future Perfect Pluperfect Future Perfect1 sg sum eram erō fuī fueram fuerō2 sg es erās eris fuistī fuerās fueris3 sg est erat erit fuit fuerat fuerit1 pl sumus erāmus erimus fuimus fuerāmus fuerimus2 pl estis erātis eritis fuistis fuerātis fueritis

3 pl sunt erant erunt fuērunt fuerant fuerint

20. Adverbs.

Adverbs must be noted as independent lexical items. Those that are based on adjectives in the first and second declensions end in -e, such as male 'badly' from malus 'bad', bene 'well' from bonus 'good'. Those based on adjectives of the third declension end in -ter, such as graviter 'heavily' from gravis 'heavy'.

Like adjectives, they may have comparative and superlative forms. Those with forms from regular inflections have endings in -ius for the comparative and -e for the superlative, for example alte 'highly', altius 'more highly' and altissime 'most highly'. But some of the most frequent have irregular forms, such as bene, melius, optime 'well, better, best', multum, magis, maxime 'much, more, most'. These must be noted in dictionaries.

Lesson 5

Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

After describing the civilization of the Gauls, Caesar has a brief but highly interesting section on the Germani. We may almost conclude from it that they had maintained the way of life we assume for the late Indo-European period. Their gods are those of the culture of the steppes. They are basically hunter-gatherers. Warfare makes up their principal activity. And in contrast with the Gauls they have no specific classes; this is in keeping with Meillet's conclusion that the Indo-Europeans were basically democratic, and also individualistic.

Reading and Textual Analysis

Caesar goes on to describe the large forests to the east, and some of the animals, such as the elk and the ure-oxen, noting how the Germans hunt them by having them fall in pits. The most interesting part of his account is that given here.

Germani multum ab hac consuetudine differunt.

Germani -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine of <Germanus, Germana, Germanum> Germani -- The Germani

multum -- adverb; <multum> greatly -- greatly ab -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from hac -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular feminine of <hic, haec, hoc> there,

this -- this consuetudine -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <consuetudo, consuetudinis>

custom, way of life -- way of life differunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <differō, differre, distulī, dīlātum>

differ -- differ

Nam neque druides habent, qui rebus divinis praesint, neque sacrificiis student.

nam -- conjunction; <nam> for -- for neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- neither druides -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <druides, druidum> Druids -- Druids habent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have --

do they have qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who,

which, what, that -- who rebus -- noun; dative plural feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matters divinis -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <divinus, divina, divinum> divine,

sacred -- divine praesint -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <praesum, praesse,

praefuī> have charge of, preside over -- preside over neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- nor sacrificiis -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <sacrificium, sacrifici> sacrifice --

sacrifices student -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <studeō, studēre, studuī> give attention,

be devoted -- they are devoted to

Deorum numero eos solos ducunt, quos cernunt et quorum aperte opibus iuvantur, Solem et Vulcanum et Lunam, reliquos ne fama quidem acceperunt.

deorum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <deus, dei> god -- of the gods numero -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <numerus, numeri> class, number,

repute -- among the number eos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her,

this -- those solos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <solus, sola, solum> alone -- only ducunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <dūcō, ducere, dūxī, ductum> lead,

consider -- they consider quos -- relative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who,

which, what, that -- whom cernunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cernō, cernere, crēvī, certum> discern,

see -- they see et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and quorum -- relative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who,

which, what, that -- whose aperte -- adverb; <aperte> openly -- openly opibus -- noun; dative plural feminine of <ops, opis> assistance, wealth, resources --

assistance iuvantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtum>

assist, help -- they are helped Solem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Sol, Solis> sun -- the sun et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and Vulcanum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Vulcanus, Vulcani> Vulcan, the

fire-god -- fire et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and Lunam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <Luna, Lunae> Luna, the moon-god --

the moon

reliquos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <reliquus, reliqua, reliquum> remaining, rest -- the rest

ne -- adverb; <ne> not -- not fama -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <fama, famae> report, talk -- by report quidem -- adverb; <quidem> in fact, even -- even acceperunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <accipiō, accipere, accēpī,

acceptum> receive -- they have learned

Vita omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit.

vita -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <vita, vitae> life -- life omnis -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all --

(Their) whole in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in venationibus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <venatio, venationis> hunting --

hunting atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and also in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in studiis -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <studium, studii> application, study --

application rei -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- to ...affairs militaris -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <militaris, militaris, militare>

military -- military consistit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <cōnsistō, cōnsistere, cōnstitī,

cōnstitum> stand still, consist in -- consists

Ab parvulis labori ac duritiae student.

ab -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from parvulis -- adjective used as substantive; ablative plural masculine of <parvulus,

parvula, parvulum> childhood -- childhood labori -- noun; dative singular masculine of <labor, laboris> labor, effort -- exertion ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and duritiae -- noun; dative singular feminine of <duritia, duritiae> hardship -- hardship student -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <studeō, studēre, studuī> give attention,

be devoted -- they are devoted to

Qui diutissime impuberes permanserunt, maximam inter suos ferunt laudem.

qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- (those) who

diutissime -- adverb; superlative of <diu> long -- longest impuberes -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <impubes, impuberis>

youthful, chaste -- as virgins permanserunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <permaneō, permanēre, permansī,

permansum> stay, continue -- have stayed maximam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine superlative of <magnus, magna,

magnum> great, large -- greatest inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among

suos -- possessive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- their fellows

ferunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum> bear, carry -- maintain

laudem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <laus, laudis> praise -- praise

Hoc ali staturam, ali vires nervosque confirmari putant.

hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- by this

ali -- indefinite pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- on the one hand

staturam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <statura, staturae> stature, height -- height

ali -- indefinite pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- on the other hand

vires -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <vis, vis> power, strength -- strength nervosque -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <nervus, nervi> muscle +

conjunction <-que> and -- and muscles confirmari -- verb; infinitive passive of <cōnfīrmō, cōnfīrmāre, cōnfīrmāvī,

cōnfīrmātum> make firm, strengthen -- are strengthened putant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <putō, putāre, putāvī, putātum> think --

think

Intra annum vero vicesimum feminae notitiam habuisse in turpissimis habent rebus.

intra -- preposition; <intra> within, during -- before annum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <annus, anni> year -- year vero -- adverb; <vero> truly, but -- truly vicesimum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <vicesimus, vicesima,

vicesimum> twentieth -- twentieth feminae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <femina, feminae> woman -- of a

woman notitiam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <notitia, notitiae> familiarity,

carnal knowledge -- carnal knowledge habuisse -- verb; perfect infinitive of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- to

have had in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- among turpissimis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine superlative of <turpis, turpis,

turpe> shameful, disgraceful -- disgraceful habent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have --

consider rebus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- things

Cuius rei nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in fluminibus perluntur et pellibus aut parvis renonum tegimentis utuntur magna corporis parte nuda.

cuius -- relative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- of which

rei -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matter nulla -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <nullus, nulla, nullum> no, none

-- no est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- there is occultatio -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <occultatio, occultationis>

secrecy -- secrecy quod -- conjunction; <quod> that, because -- because et -- conjunction; <et> and -- both promiscue -- adverb; <promiscue> promiscuous -- promiscuously in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in fluminibus -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <flumen, fluminis> river -- the rivers perluntur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <perluō, perluere, perluī,

perlūtum> wash, bathe -- they bathe et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and pellibus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <pellis, pellis> skin, hide -- hides aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or parvis -- adjective; ablative plural neuter of <parvus, parva, parvum> small -- small renonum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <reno, renonis> deer-skin -- of deer-

skins tegimentis -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <tegumen, teguminis> clothing,

covering -- clothing utuntur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum> use --

they wear magna -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great,

large -- with a large corporis -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <corpus, corporis> body -- of the body parte -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <pars, partis> part -- part nuda -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <nudus, nuda, nudum> bare, naked --

bare

Agriculturae non student, maiorque pars eorum victus in lacte, caseo, carne consistit.

agriculturae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <agricultura, agriculturae> agriculture -- agriculture

non -- adverb; <non> not -- not student -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <studeō, studēre, studuī> give attention,

be devoted -- they are devoted to maiorque -- adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of <magnus, magna,

magnum> great, large + conjunction <-que> and -- and the greater pars -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <pars, partis> part -- part eorum -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her,

this -- of their victus -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <victus, victus> sustenance, food --

food in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in lacte -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <lac, lactis> milk -- milk caseo -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <caseus, casei> cheese -- cheese carne -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <caro, carnis> meat -- (and) meat

consistit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <cōnsistō, cōnsistere, cōnstitī, cōnstitum> stand still, consist in -- consists of

Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios.

neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- nor quisquam -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisquis, quaeque,

quicquid> whoever, whatever -- anyone agri -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <ager, agri> land -- of land modum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <modus, modi> kind -- amount certum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <certus, certa, certum> certain --

fixed aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or fines -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <finis, finis> border, limit --

boundaries habet -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have --

has proprios -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <proprius, propria, proprium>

proper, own -- (his) own

Sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierunt, quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt.

sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but magistratus -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <magistratus, magistratus>

magistrate -- magistrates ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and principes -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <princeps, principis> chief --

chiefs in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in annos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <annus, anni> year -- years singulos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <singulus, singula, singulum>

single, individual -- separate gentibus -- noun; dative plural feminine of <gens, gentis> race, clan -- to tribes cognationibusque -- noun; dative plural feminine of <cognatio, cognationis> blood-

relations, kindred + conjunction <-que> and -- and to clans hominum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <homo, hominis> man, human -- of

persons qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who,

which, what, that -- who una -- adverb; <una> at the same place, together -- together coierunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <coeo, coīre, coivī, coitum> come

together, be assembled -- have assembled quantum -- adverb; <quantum> as much -- as much et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and quo -- interrogative pronoun; ablative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> which,

what -- whatever loco -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <locus, loci> place -- place

visum -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see with est -- seems best

est -- auxiliary verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am with visum -- ...

agri -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <ager, agri> land -- land attribuunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <attribuō, attribuere, attribuī,

attribūtum> assign -- assign atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and anno -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <annus, anni> year -- year post -- adverb; <post> after -- after alio -- adverb; <alio> somewhere else -- to another place transire -- verb; present infinitive of <trānseō, transīre, transīvī, transitum> go over

-- to go cogunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cōgō, cōgere, coēgi, cōactum> collect,

compel -- they compel

Eius rei multas adferunt causas:

eius -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- for this

rei -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matter multas -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <multus, multa, multum> many --

many adferunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <adferō, adferre, attulī, adlātum> bring,

convey -- state causas -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <causa, causae> cause, reason --

reasons

ne adsidua consuetudine capti studium belli gerendi agricultura commutent;

ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- so that not adsidua -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <adsiduus, adsidua, adsiduum>

constant, continued -- by continued consuetudine -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <consuetudo, consuetudinis>

custom, way of life -- custom capti -- verb; perfect participle passive of <capiō, capere, cēpī, captum> take, seize --

induced studium -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <studium, studii> application, study --

pursuit belli -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <bellum, belli> war -- war gerendi -- verb; gerund(ive) genitive singular neuter of <gerō, gerere, gessī, gestum>

bear, carry out, wear -- of carrying out agricultura -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <agricultura, agriculturae>

agriculture -- for agriculture commutent -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <commūtō, commūtāre,

commūtāvi, commūtātum> change, exchange -- exchange

ne latos fines parare studeant, potentioresque humiliores possessionibus expellant;

ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- so that not latos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <latus, lata, latum> broad --

extensive fines -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <finis, finis> border, limit -- lands parare -- verb; present infinitive of <parō, parāre, parāvī, parātum> prepare, obtain --

to obtain studeant -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <studeō, studēre, studuī>

give attention, be devoted -- they might become devoted to potentioresque -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine

comparative of <potens, potentis> powerful + conjunction <-que> and -- and the more powerful

humiliores -- adjective; accusative plural masculine comparative of <humilis, humilis, humile> low, small -- the lower

possessionibus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <possessio, possessionis> possession -- from their possessions

expellant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <expellō, expellere, expulī, expulsum> drive out -- drive

ne accuratius ad frigora atque aestus vitandos aedificent;

ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- so that not accuratius -- adverb; comparative of <accurate> carefully -- more carefully ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- for frigora -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <frigus, frigoris> cold -- cold atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and also aestus -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <aestus, aestus> heat -- heat vitandos -- verb; verbal adjective of <vitō, vitāre, vitāvī, vitātus> avoid, evade --

avoiding aedificent -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <aedificō, aedificāre,

aedificāvī, aedificātum> build -- they might build

ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupiditas, qua ex re factiones dissensionesque nascuntur.

ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- so that not qua -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <qui, qua(e), quod> some,

any -- some oriatur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <orior, orīrī,

ortus sum> arise -- might arise pecuniae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <pecunia, pecuniae> money -- for

money cupiditas -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <cupiditas, cupiditatis> desire --

desire qua -- relative pronoun; ablative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which,

what, that -- which ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from re -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matter factiones -- noun; nominative plural feminine of <factio, factionis> faction --

factions

dissensionesque -- noun; nominative plural feminine of <dissensio, dissensionis> dissension + conjunction <-que> and -- and dissensions

nascuntur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <nāscor, nāscī, nātus sum> be produced, arise -- would arise

ut animi aequitate plebem contineant, cum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari videat.

ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- so that animi -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <animus, animi> soul, mind -- of spirit aequitate -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <aequitas, aequitatis> uniformity,

calmness -- in calmness plebem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <plebs, plebis> common people --

the common people contineant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <contineō, continēre,

continuī, contentum> connect, maintain -- they might maintain cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when suas -- possessive pronoun; accusative plural feminine of <suus, sua, suum> own --

his own quisque -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisque, quaeque,

quodque> everyone -- someone opes -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <ops, opis> assistance, wealth, resources

-- means cum -- preposition; <cum> with -- with potentissimis -- adjective; dative plural masculine superlative of <potens, potentis>

powerful -- the most powerful aequari -- deponent verb; passive infinitive of <aequō, aequāre, aequāvī, aequātus>

to make equal, smoothe -- be equal to videat -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī,

vīsum> see -- see

Lesson TextGermani multum ab hac consuetudine differunt. Nam neque druides habent, qui rebus divinis praesint, neque sacrificiis student. Deorum numero eos solos ducunt, quos cernunt et quorum aperte opibus iuvantur, Solem et Vulcanum et Lunam, reliquos ne fama quidem acceperunt. Vita omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit. Ab parvulis labori ac duritiae student. Qui diutissime impuberes permanserunt, maximam inter suos ferunt laudem. Hoc ali staturam, ali vires nervosque confirmari putant. Intra annum vero vicesimum feminae notitiam habuisse in turpissimis habent rebus. Cuius rei nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in fluminibus perluntur et pellibus aut parvis renonum tegimentis utuntur magna corporis parte nuda. Agriculturae non student, maiorque pars eorum victus in lacte, caseo, carne consistit. Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios. Sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierunt, quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt. Eius rei multas adferunt causas: ne adsidua consuetudine capti studium belli gerendi agricultura commutent; ne latos fines parare studeant, potentioresque humiliores possessionibus expellant; ne accuratius ad frigora atque aestus vitandos aedificent; ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupiditas, qua ex re factiones dissensionesque nascuntur. ut animi aequitate plebem contineant, cum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari videat.

TranslationThe Germani differ a great deal from this way of life. They have no Druids who preside over their divine affairs; nor are they devoted to sacrifices. They consider in the number of their gods only those whom they see and by whose assistance they are openly helped, the Sun and the Fire-god and the Moon; they have not even heard of the rest by report. Their whole life consists of hunting and of the pursuit of military affairs. From youth they are devoted to work and hardship. Those who remain celibate longest enjoy the greatest praise among their fellows. Some think that height, others that strength and sinews are strengthened by this. They truly consider it among the most disgraceful matters to have had intercourse with a woman before their twentieth year. There is no secrecy in the matter for they bathe promiscuously in the rivers and they wear skins or small coverings of deer skins with a large part of their body nude.They do not practice agriculture; the greater part of their food consists of milk, cheese, and meat. Nor does anyone have a definite amount of land or fixed boundaries. But the magistrates and chiefs every year assign to the tribes and to related people who have grouped together, as much land and in whatever place seems best. And in the next year they compel them to move. They adduce many reasons for this matter: so that they would not change their zeal for warfare to agriculture, tempted by continuous association; so that they would not desire to acquire broad territories, and the more powerful might expel the weaker; so that they would not build more carefully against cold and heat; so that a desire for money would not arise, from which factions and dissentions might be produced; so that they might keep the common people in calmness of spirit, with each seeing his own means as equal to those of the most powerful.

Grammar

21. Personal and Reflexive Pronouns.

As we have noted, and as is clear from the texts in the first five lessons, few particles are used in Latin. On the other hand, pronouns are used to indicate relationships between words, clauses and sentences. The pronouns concerned are chiefly those labeled descriptive and relative, since historical texts use few personal pronouns, in part because the item in question is provided by the verb form. Nonetheless it is necessary to be aware of them, and accordingly they are given here.

The first and second pronouns are also used as reflexives. The third person pronoun is reflexive, and is used for all three genders in the plural as well as the singular. The dative accordingly may mean 'to himself, to herself, to itself, to themselves.'

    1st Person   2nd Person   3rd Person    Singular   Plural   Singular   Plural    Nom   ego 'I'   nōs 'we'   tū 'thou'   vōs 'you'    Gen   meī   nostrum, nostrī   tui   vestrum, vestrī   suīDat   mihi   nōbis   tibī   vōbis   sibīAcc   mē   nōs   tē   vōs   sē, sēsēAbl   mē   nōbis   tē   vōbis   sē, sēsē

The adjectival forms of these pronouns, known as possessives, are inflected in all cases and genders. They are: meus, mea, meum 'my', tuus, tua, tuum 'thy', suus, sua, suum 'his, her, its, their', noster, nostra, nostrum 'our', vester, vestra, vestrum 'your'.

22. Descriptive Pronouns.

These pronouns, which are also referred to as determinative or determiners or even demonstrative, are among the most frequent. They may be translated with forms of 'this' or with personal pronouns like 'he' or with other elements like 'the same'. The genitive and dative forms are the same for all three genders, except for the genitive plural where the feminine has -a- rather than -o-.

    is 'he, she, this'    Singular   Plural    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   NeutNom   is   ea   id   iī   eae   eaGen   ēius   ēius   ēius   eōrum   eārum   eōrumDat   eī   eī   eī   iīs   iīs   iīsAcc   eum   eam   id   eōs   eās   eaAbl   eō   eā   eō   iīs   iīs   iīs

     idem 'the same'Nom   īdem   eadem   idem   idem   eaedem   eademGen   ēiusdem   ēiusdem   ēiusdem   eōrumdem   eārumdem   eōrumdemDat   eīdem   eīdem   eīdem   īsdem   īsdem   īsdemAcc   eundem   eandem   idem   eōsdem   eāsdem   eademAbl   eōdem   eādem   eōdem   īsdem   īsdem   īsdem

     hic 'this'Nom   hic   haec   hoc   hī   hae   haecGen   hūius   hūius   hūius   hōrum   hārum   hōrumDat   huīc   huīc   huīc   hīs   hīs   hīsAcc   hunc   hanc   hoc   hōs   hās   haecAbl   hōc   hāc   hōc   hīs   hīs   hīs

     ille 'that, such'Nom   ille   illa   illud   illī   illae   illaGen   illīus   illīus   illīus   illōrum   illārum   illōrumDat   illī   illī   illī   illīs   illīs   illīsAcc   illum   illam   illud   illōs   illās   illaAbl   illō   illā   illō   illīs   illīs   illīs

23. The Intensive Pronoun ipse 'self'.

    Singular   Plural    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   NeutNom   ipse   ipsa   ipsum   ipsī   ipsae   ipsa

Gen   ipsīus   ipsīus   ipsīus   ipsōrum   ipsārum   ipsōrumDat   ipsī   ipsī   ipsī   ipsīs   ipsīs   ipsīsAcc   ipsum   ipsam   ipsum   ipsōs   ipsās   ipsaAbl   ipsō   ipsā   ipsō   ipsīs   ipsīs   ipsīs

24. The Relative Pronoun quī 'who'.

    Singular   Plural    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   NeutNom   quī   quae   quod   quī   quae   quaeGen   cūius   cūius   cūius   quōrum   quārum   quōrumDat   cuī   cuī   cuī   quibus   quibus   quibusAcc   quem   quam   quod   quōs   quās   quaeAbl   quō   quā   quō   quibus   quibus   quibus

Indefinite relatives are quicumque 'whoever' and quisquis 'whoever', quidquid 'whatever'. The first element of quicumque may be declined like the simple relative pronoun. The elements of quisquis may be declined like the interrogative pronoun, as demonstrated by the form quidquid; but other forms rarely occur.

25. The Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns.

The interrogative pronoun when used as a noun is quis 'who?'; when used as an adjective it is qui, as in qui homo 'Which man?'; it is inflected like the relative pronoun.

    Singular   Plural    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   NeutNom   quis   quis   quid   quī   quae   quaeGen   cūius   cūius   cūius   quōrum   quārum   quōrumDat   cuī   cuī   cuī   quibus   quibus   quibusAcc   quem   quem   quid   quōs   quās   quaeAbl   quō   quā   quō   quibus   quibus   quibus

Quis is also used as indefinite pronoun, noun, and adjective. When used as an adjective, the nominative forms are qui, quae and quod; when used as a noun, the neuter is quid.

Lesson 6Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

About a hundred and fifty years after Caesar wrote his Gallic War, the historian Tacitus produced a treatise on the Germani. We know less about Cornelius Tacitus than we do about Julius Caesar. He was apparently born around 55 A.D. and died around 120 A.D. He enjoyed a fine career in various government positions. Among his works, in addition to a history of his time known as Historiae and his Annales on the period from the death of Augustus Caesar in 14 A.D. to 68 A.D., is a work entitled De Moribus et Populis Germaniae 'Concerning the

customs and peoples of Germania', or more simply Germania. While some authors in Classical times, among them Herodotus, Livy and Caesar, included brief accounts of other peoples in their writings, Tacitus' Germania is the only anthropological account of a people that we have from the period.Reading and Textual Analysis

In his description of the public and private life of the German peoples, Tacitus gives us a much more comprehensive picture than did Caesar. On the other hand, their way of life seems much the same as it was in Caesar's day. At one point Tacitus does indicate that they have taken on some customs from outside, as in the brief statement iam et pecuniam accipere docuimus 'we have brought them also to accept money', but, as the excerpt given here shows, their habitations and clothing remained much the same.

Nullas Germanorum populis urbes habitari satis notum est, ne pati quidem inter se iunctas sedes.

* nullas -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <nullus, nulla, nullum> no, none -- no * Germanorum -- adjective used as substantive; genitive plural masculine of <Germanus, Germana, Germanum> Germani -- of the Germani * populis -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <populus, populi> people -- by the peoples * urbes -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <urbs, urbis> city -- cities * habitari -- verb; passive infinitive of <habitō, habitāre, habitāvī, habitātum> inhabit -- are inhabited * satis -- adverb; <satis> adequately, sufficiently -- quite * notum -- verb; nominative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of <nōscō, nōscere, nōvī, nōtum> be acquainted with, get to know -- known * est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- it is * ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- that ... not * pati -- deponent verb; infinitive passive of <patior, patī, passus sum> suffer, endure -- they permit * quidem -- adverb; <quidem> in fact, even -- even * inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among * se -- reflexive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- themselves * iunctas -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <iunctus, iuncta, iunctum> joined, united -- connected * sedes -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <sedes, sedis> seat, habitation -- habitations

Colunt discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit.

* colunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <colō, colere, coluī, cultum> dwell in, cultivate -- They live * discreti -- verb; nominative plural masculine perfect participle passive of <discernō, discernere, discrēvī, discrētum> separate, divide -- separately * ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- as well as * diversi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <diversus, diversa, diversum> contrary, diverse -- diversely * ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- where * fons -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <fons, fontis> spring -- a spring * ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- where

* campus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <campus, campi> plain, open field -- an open field * ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- where * nemus -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <nemus, nemoris> grove -- a grove * placuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <placeō, placēre, placuī, placitum> please -- as they please

Vicos locant non in nostrum morem conexis et cohaerentibus aedificiis.

* vicos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <vicus, vici> village -- villages * locant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <locō, locāre, locāvī, locātus> place, arrange -- they arrange * non -- adverb; <non> not -- not * in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in accordance with * nostrum -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <noster, nostra, nostrum> our -- our * morem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <mos, moris> custom -- custom * conexis -- adjective; ablative plural neuter of <conexus, conexa, conexum> adjoining -- adjoining * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * cohaerentibus -- ablative plural neuter of <cohaerens, cohaerentis> continuous, adjoining -- continuous * aedificiis -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <aedificium, aedificii> building -- buildings

Suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, sive adversus casus ignis remedium sive inscientia aedificandi.

* suam -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- his * quisque -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisque, quaeque, quodque> everyone -- everyone * domum -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <domus, domi> house -- house * spatio -- noun; dative singular neuter of <spatium, spatii> space -- space * circumdat -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <circumdō, circumdare, circumdedī, circumdātum> surround -- surrounds * sive -- conjunction; <sive> or if, whether ... or -- whether * adversus -- adverb; <adversus> opposite to, against -- against * casus -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <casus, casus> fall, misfortune, chance -- hazard * ignis -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <ignis, ignis> fire -- of fire * remedium -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <remedium, remedii> remedy, assistance -- as a remedy * sive -- conjunction; <sive> or if, whether ... or -- or * inscientia -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <inscientia, inscientiae> ignorance -- through ignorance * aedificandi -- verb; genitive of gerund(ive) of <aedificō, aedificāre, aedificāvī, aedificātum> build -- of construction

Ne caementorum quidem apud illos aut tegularum usus.

* ne -- adverb; <ne> not -- not * caementorum -- noun; genitive plural neuter of <caementum, caementi> quarry-stone -- of quarry-stones * quidem -- adverb; <quidem> in fact, even -- even * apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- among * illos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- them * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or * tegularum -- noun; genitive plural feminine of <tegula, tegulae> tile -- of tiles * usus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <usus, usus> use, practice -- use

Materia ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speciem aut delectationem.

* materia -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <materia, materiae> material -- material * ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- for * omnia -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural neuter of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- everything * utuntur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum> use -- they use * informi -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <informis, informis, informe> unshapely, hideous -- unshapely * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * citra -- preposition; <citra> on this side of, without -- without * speciem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <species, speciei> appearance -- pleasing appearance * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or * delectationem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <delectatio, delectationis> pleasure, delight -- beauty

Quaedam loca diligentius illinunt terra ita pura ac splendente, ut picturam ac liniamenta colorum imitetur.

* quaedam -- indefinite pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <quidam, quaedam, quoddam> a certain, some -- some * loca -- noun; nominative plural neuter of <locus, loci> place -- places * diligentius -- adverb; comparative of <diligenter> industriously -- very industriously * illinunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <illinō, illere, illēvī, illitum> spread over -- they spread, smear * terra -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <terra, terrae> earth, land -- with earth * ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- so * pura -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <purus, pura, purum> pure -- pure * ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and also * splendente -- verb; ablative singular feminine of present participle of <splendeo, splendere, -, -> shine, be bright -- shiny * ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- that * picturam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <pictura, picturae> painting -- a painting * ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and also * liniamenta -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <liniamentum, liniamenti> line, designs -- designs

* colorum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <color, coloris> color -- of colors * imitetur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive present of <imitor, imitāre, imitātum> imitate, resemble -- they resemble

Solent et subterraneos specus aperire eosque multo insuper fimo onerant suffugium hiemis et receptaculum frugibus.

* solent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sōleō, solēre, solitum> be accustomed -- They are accustomed * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- also * subterraneos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <subterraneus, subterranei> underground -- underground * specus -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <specus, specus> cave, pit -- pits * aperire -- verb; infinitive of <aperiō, aperīre, aperuī, apertum> open -- to open * eosque -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this + conjunction <-que> and -- and them * multo -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <multus, multa, multum> many -- with much * insuper -- adverb; <insuper> above, on top -- on top * fimo -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <fimus, fimi> dung -- dung * onerant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <onerō, onerāre, onerāvī, onerātum> load, burden -- they cover * suffugium -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <suffugium, suffugii> refuge, shelter -- as a shelter * hiemis -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <hiems, hiemis> winter -- from the winter * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * receptaculum -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <receptaculum, receptaculi> receptacle, storage place -- storage place * frugibus -- noun; dative plural feminine of <frux, frugis> fruit, produce -- for fruit

Quia rigorem frigorum eius modi loci molliunt, et si quando hostis advenit, aperta populatur.

* quia -- conjunction; <quia> because -- because * rigorem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <rigor, rigoris> rigor -- rigor * frigorum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <frigus, frigoris> cold -- of the cold * eius -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- of that * modi -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <modus, modi> kind -- kind * loci -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <locus, loci> place -- places * molliunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <molliō, mollīre, mollīvī, mollītum> moderate, soften -- moderate * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if * quando -- adverb; <quando> ever, at some time -- at some time * hostis -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <hostis, hostis> enemy -- an enemy * advenit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <adveniō, advenīre, advenī, adventum> arrive, appear -- arrived * aperta -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <apertus, aperta, apertum> open -- the open things

* populatur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <populor, populāri, populatus sum> devastate, plunder -- he would plunder

Abdita autem et defossa aut ignorantur aut eo ipso fallunt, quod quaerenda sunt.

* abdita -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of <abditus, abdita, abditum> hidden place -- the hidden places * autem -- conjunction; <autem> but -- but * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * defossa -- participle used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of <dēfodiō, defossere, defōdī, defossum> dig deep, hide -- the caves * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- either * ignorantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <īgnōrō, īgnōrāre, īgnōrāvi, īgnōrātum> ignore, be unknown -- remain unknown * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or * eo ipso -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this + pronoun <ipse, ipsa, ipsum> self -- by that very reason * fallunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <fallō, fallere, fefellī, falsum> deceive, elude -- they elude * quod -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- what * quaerenda -- verbal adjective; nominative plural neuter of <quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītum> look for, search -- to be sought * sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- they are

Tegumen omnibus sagum fibula aut, si desit, spina consertum.

* tegumen -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <tegumen, teguminis> clothing, covering -- The covering * omnibus -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- for all * sagum -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <sagum, sagi> rough mantle -- (is) a rough mantle * fibula -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <fibula, fibulae> brooch -- with a brooch * aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or * si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if * desit -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <desum, deesse, defuī> be lacking -- is unavailable * spina -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <spina, spinae> thorn -- a thorn * consertum -- verb; nominative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of <cōnserō, cōnserere, cōnseruī, cōnsertum> connect -- held together

Cetera intecti totos dies iuxta focum atque ignem agunt.

* cetera -- adverb; <cetera> otherwise -- Otherwise * intecti -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <intectus, intecta, intectum> uncovered -- naked * totos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <totus, tota, totum> entire -- entire * dies -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <dies, diei> day -- days * iuxta -- preposition; <iuxta> near -- near

* focum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <focus, foci> fire-place, hearth -- the hearth * atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and * ignem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <ignis, ignis> fire -- the fire * agunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <agō, agere, ēgī, āctum> move, conduct -- they spend

Locupletissimi reste distinguuntur, non fluitante, sicut Sarmatae ac Parthi, sed stricta et singulos artus exprimente.

* locupletissimi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of superlative of <locuples, locupletis> rich in lands, wealthy -- The wealthy * reste -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <restis, restis> undergarment -- by an undergarment * distinguuntur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <dīstinguō, dīstinguere, dīstinxī, dīstinctum> divide, distinguish -- are distinguished * non -- adverb; <non> not -- not * fluitante -- verb; ablative singular feminine of present participle of <fluitō, fluitāre, fluitāvī, -> flow -- flowing * sicut -- adverb; <sicut> as, like -- like * Sarmatae -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <Sarmatae, Sarmatarum> Sarmatians -- the Sarmatians * ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and * Parthi -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <Parthi, Parthorum> Parthians -- Parthians * sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but * stricta -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <strictus, stricta, strictum> drawn together, tight -- tight * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * singulos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <singulus, singula, singulum> single, individual -- the individual * artus -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <artus, artus> joints, limbs -- limbs * exprimente -- verb; ablative singular feminine of present participle of <exprimō, exprimere, expressī, expressum> express -- revealing

Gerunt et ferarum pelles, proximi ripae neglegenter, ulteriores exquisitius, ut quibus nullus per commercia cultus.

* gerunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <gerō, gerere, gessī, gestum> bear, carry out, wear -- They wear * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- also * ferarum -- noun; genitive plural feminine of <fera, ferae> wild beast -- of wild animals * pelles -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <pellis, pellis> skin, hide -- hides * proximi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <proximus, proxima, proximum> next to -- (those) next to * ripae -- noun; dative singular feminine of <ripa, ripae> river-bank -- the river (= Rhine and Danube) * neglegenter -- adverb; <neglegenter> carelessly -- with no discrimination * ulteriores -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine of <ulterior, ulterioris> farther, remote -- those more remote

* exquisitius -- adverb; comparative of <exquisitus, exquisita, exquisitum> exquisitely -- more exquisitely * ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- seeing that * quibus -- relative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- for them * nullus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <nullus, nulla, nullum> no, none -- (there is) no * per -- preposition; <per> through, by -- through * commercia -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <commercium, commerci> commerce -- through commerce * cultus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <cultus, cultus> care, culture -- refinement

Eligunt feras et detracta velamina spargunt maculis pellibusque beluarum, quas exterior Oceanus atque ignotum mare gignit.

* eligunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ēligō, ēlegere, elēgī, elēctum> choose, select -- they select * feras -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <fera, ferae> wild beast -- (the hides of) wild beasts * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * detracta -- verb; perfect participle passive of <dētrahō, detrahere, dētraxī, detractum> take off, remove -- removed * velamina -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <velamen, velaminis> cover, clothing -- clothing * spargunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <spargō, spargere, sparsī, sparsum> strew, sprinkle -- they distribute * maculis -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <macula, maculae> spot -- with spots * pellibusque -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <pellis, pellis> skin, hide + conjunction <-que> and -- and with hides * beluarum -- noun; genitive plural feminine of <belua, beluae> wild animal, monster -- of wild animals * quas -- relative pronoun; accusative plural feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which * exterior -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <exterior, exterioris> outer -- the outer * Oceanus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <Oceanus, Oceani> ocean -- ocean * atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and * ignotum -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <ignotus, ignota, ignotum> unknown -- an unknown * mare -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <mare, maris> sea -- sea * gignit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <gīgnō, genere, genuī, genitum> generate, produce -- produces

Nec alius feminis quam viris habitus, nisi quod feminae saepius lineis amictibus velantur eosque purpura variant.

* nec -- adverb; <nec> neither ... nor -- not * alius -- adjective pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- different

* feminis -- noun; dative plural feminine of <femina, feminae> woman -- for the women * quam -- adverb; <quam> than -- than * viris -- noun; dative plural masculine of <vir, viri> man -- for the men * habitus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <habitus, habitus> clothing, dress -- clothing * nisi -- conjunction; <nisi> if not, unless -- except * quod -- conjunction; <quod> that, because -- that * feminae -- noun; nominative plural feminine of <femina, feminae> woman -- the women * saepius -- adverb; comparative of <saepe> often -- more often * lineis -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <lineus, linea, lineum> flaxen -- by flaxen * amictibus -- noun; dative plural masculine of <amictus, amictus> outer garment -- outer garments * velantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <vēlō, velāre, velāvī, velātum> cover -- are covered * eosque -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this + conjunction <-que> and -- and those * purpura -- ablative singular feminine of <purpura, purpurae> purple, purple cloth -- with purple cloth * variant -- verb, 3rd person plural present of <variō, variāre, variāvī, variātum> variegate -- they variegate

Partemque vestitus superioris in manicas non extendunt; nudae brachia ac lacertos; sed et proxima pars pectoris patet.

* partemque -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <pars, partis> part + conjunction <-que> and -- And ...part * vestitus -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <vestitus, vestitus> clothing -- of their ... clothing * superioris -- adjective; genitive singular masculine comparative of <superus, supera, superum> higher, gods -- upper * in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- into * manicas -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <manicae, manicarum> long sleeves -- sleeves * non -- adverb; <non> not -- not * extendunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <extendō, extendere, extendī, extēnsum> extend -- they extend * nudae -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <nudus, nuda, nudum> bare, naked -- (are) bare * brachia -- noun; nominative plural neuter of <brachium, brachi> lower arm -- (their) lower arms * ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and * lacertos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <lacertus, lacerti> upper arm -- (their) upper arms * sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but, in fact * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- also * proxima -- adjective; nominative singular feminine superlative of <prope> near -- nearest * pars -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <pars, partis> part -- part * pectoris -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <pectus, pectoris> breast -- of their breast * patet -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <pateō, patēre, patuī, -> lie open, be exposed -- lies open

Lesson Text

Nullas Germanorum populis urbes habitari satis notum est, ne pati quidem inter se iunctas sedes. Colunt discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit. Vicos locant non in nostrum morem conexis et cohaerentibus aedificiis. Suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, sive adversus casus ignis remedium sive inscientia aedificandi. Ne caementorum quidem apud illos aut tegularum usus. Materia ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speciem aut delectationem. Quaedam loca diligentius illinunt terra ita pura ac splendente, ut picturam ac liniamenta colorum imitetur. Solent et subterraneos specus aperire eosque multo insuper fimo onerant suffugium hiemis et receptaculum frugibus. Quia rigorem frigorum eius modi loci molliunt, et si quando hostis advenit, aperta populatur. Abdita autem et defossa aut ignorantur aut eo ipso fallunt, quod quaerenda sunt. Tegumen omnibus sagum fibula aut, si desit, spina consertum. Cetera intecti totos dies iuxta focum atque ignem agunt. Locupletissimi reste distinguuntur, non fluitante, sicut Sarmatae ac Parthi, sed stricta et singulos artus exprimente. Gerunt et ferarum pelles, proximi ripae neglegenter, ulteriores exquisitius, ut quibus nullus per commercia cultus. Eligunt feras et detracta velamina spargunt maculis pellibusque beluarum, quas exterior Oceanus atque ignotum mare gignit. Nec alius feminis quam viris habitus, nisi quod feminae saepius lineis amictibus velantur eosque purpura variant. Partemque vestitus superioris in manicas non extendunt; nudae brachia ac lacertos; sed et proxima pars pectoris patet.

Translation

It is well known that cities are not inhabited by the peoples of the Germani, indeed that connected habitations are not permitted among them. They live separately and independently, where a spring, an open field or a wood has pleased them. They do not arrange their villages according to our custom, with adjoining and continuous buildings. Each surrounds his house with an open space, whether as a remedy against the occurrence of fire, or because of ignorance of construction. There is not even use of quarry-stones or tiles among them. For all things they use unshapely materials, without pleasant appearance or beauty. Some places they smear so carefully with such pure and shiny earth that they resemble a painting and designs of colors. And they also dig underground pits and cover them with much dung on top, for a shelter from the winter and a storage place for fruits. Because those places moderate the rigorous cold; and when an enemy appears, he would plunder only the open things. For the hidden places and the caves remain unknown or they elude them because they would have to be sought out.

The clothing for all is a rough mantle held together with a brooch or if that is lacking by a thorn. Otherwise they are unclothed; they spend entire days in this way near the hearth and fire. Only the richest are distinguished by an undergarment, not flowing, like those of the Sarmatians and Parthians, but tight and revealing all the limbs. They also wear hides of wild animals, those along the river not discriminating among them, but those more remote also more exquisitely. Because there is no culture through commerce there! They select the hides and spread the removed coverings with spots and hides of wild animals that the outer ocean and an unknown sea produce.

The clothing of the women does not differ from that of the men, except that they often are covered with flaxen outer garments and those they variegate with purple cloth. And they do

not extend part of their upper clothing to their arms. Their lower and upper arms are bare. In fact, the nearest part of their breast also lies open.

Grammar26. The importance of verb forms.

As we have noted, verbs are highly important for understanding and translating Latin. They often include the subject of a sentence. They also vary in form, so that they indicate the writer's intention, whether factual, hypothetical, or the like.

Besides active and passive voices and indicative and subjunctive moods, verbs in general have two systems, those based on the present tense and representing time of action, those based on the perfect tense and representing aspect as well as time of action. The twofold set may be determined from the lists of principal parts of verbs, as we may illustrate with an example of the patterns found in dictionaries:

dōnō 'I give', dōnāvī 'I have given', dōnātum 'given', dōnāre 'to give'.

From the first and last of these principal parts, one determines the forms of the present system; from the second one determines the forms of the perfect system. The third form is the perfect participle passive, which is used in making some of the passive forms, and it is often used as an adjective.

There are four conjugations, based on differing stems. The verbs of the first conjugation have stems ending in long -ā-, such as dōnō, donāre 'give'; those of the second conjugation have stems ending in long -ē-, such as habeō, habēre 'have'; those of the third conjugation have stems ending in short -e-, such as tegō, tegere 'cover'; those of the fourth conjugation have stems ending in long -ī-, such as audiō, audīre 'hear'. To provide an overview of the numerous forms for any verb, we will give all forms of a verb of the first conjugation, because they are the most regular. We assume that with these lists you will be able to recognize any verb form, not that you will memorize them unless you so choose. Many of the forms are unlikely to occur in the narrative texts included here, such as the imperatives; these may however occur in poetry, especially drama. But they are most likely to occur in everyday conversation.27. The Present Tense forms of the first conjugation verb dōnō, and the first singular forms of the three other conjugations.1st conjugation Active Voice Passive Voice Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive1 sg dōnō dōnem dōnor dōner2 sg dōnās dōnēs dōnāris dōnēris3 sg dōnat dōnet dōnātur dōnētur1 pl dōnāmus dōnēmus dōnāmur dōnēmur2 pl dōnātis dōnētis dōnāminī dōnēminī3 pl dōnant dōnent dōnantur dōnentur 2nd conjugation1 sg habeō habeam habeor habear 3rd conjugation1 sg tegō tegam tegor tegar

4th conjugation1 sg audiō audiam audior audiar28. The Imperfect Tense forms of the first conjugation verb dōnō, and the first singular forms of the three other conjugations.1st conjugation Active Voice Passive Voice Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive1 sg dōnābam dōnārem dōnābar dōnārer2 sg dōnābās dōnārēs dōnābāris dōnārētis3 sg dōnābat dōnāret dōnābātur dōnārētur1 pl dōnābāmus dōnārēmus dōnābāmur dōnārēmus2 pl dōnābātis dōnārētis dōnābāminī dōnārēmini3 pl dōnābant dōnārent dōnābantur dōnārentur 2nd conjugation1 sg habēbam habērem habēbar habērer 3rd conjugation1 sg tegēbam tegerem tegēbar tegerer 4th conjugation1 sg audiēbam audīrem audiēbar audīrer29. The Forms of the Future. Note that there is no subjunctive.1st conjugation Active Voice Passive Voice1 sg dōnābō dōnābor2 sg dōnābis dōnāberis3 sg dōnābit dōnābitur1 pl dōnābimus dōnābimur2 pl dōnābitis dōnābiminī3 pl dōnābunt dōnābuntur 2nd conjugation1 sg habēbō habēbor 3rd conjugation1 sg tegam tegar 4th conjugation1 sg audiam audiar30. The forms of the Imperative, the Present Infinitive, and the Present and Future Participles.Imperative1st conjugation Active Voice Passive Voice2 sg pres dōnā dōnāre2 pl pres dōnāte dōnāminī2 sg fut dōnātō dōnātor2 pl fut dōnātōte dōnantor

2nd conjugation2 sg pres habē habēre2 pl pres habēte habēminī2 sg fut habētō habētor2 pl fut habētōte habentor 3rd conjugation2 sg pres tege tegere2 pl pres tegite tegiminī2 sg fut tegitō tegitor2 pl fut tegitōte teguntor 4th conjugation2 sg pres audī audīre2 pl pres audīte audīminī2 sg fut audītō audītor2 pl fut audītōte audiuntor Infinitive1st conjugationpres dōnāre dōnāri 2nd conjugationpres habēre habērī 3rd conjugationpres tegere tegī 4th conjugationpres audīre audīrī Participle1st conjugationpres dōnāns fut dōnātūrus 2nd conjugationpres habēns fut habitūrus 3rd conjugationpres tegēns fut tēctūrus 4th conjugationpres audiēns fut audītūrus

Lesson 7

Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

Ennius, 239-169 BC, was born in southern Italy, at Rudiae, twenty miles from Brundisium. Besides Latin he spoke Greek and Oscan. Having joined the Roman army, he was brought to Rome and settled there for the rest of his life. He supported himself by teaching Greek, as well as through his writing. He had contacts with other literary figures of his day, though it is unclear whether Plautus was among them. Among his works were tragedies, poems and most important, the Annals, which, like the Homeric poems, is composed in dactylic hexameters. Beginning with its background at Troy, the Annals covered the history of Rome until shortly before the time of the death of Ennius.

Reading and Textual Analysis

This selection is taken from the Annals of Ennius. The text was "edited and translated" by E. H. Warmington in his four volumes of Remains of Old Latin I, page 30 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961, Loeb Classical Library No.294). It is of interest for its account of the naming of Rome, the contest between the two brothers, Romulus and Remus, and the account of the augury, as well as for an example of archaic Latin. Warmington has modified the spelling, so that it is in keeping with the conventions of classical Latin. There are, then, few differences in this text from the written language several centuries later. The Annals have come down to us in fragments, which Warmington has assembled; among these, this selection is relatively lengthy.

Curantes magna cum cura tum cupientes Regni dant operam simul auspicio augurioque; ..........in monte..........

curantes -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <cūrō, cūrāre, cūrāvī, cūrātum> care -- caring

magna -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large -- great

cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- with cura -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <cura, curae> care -- care tum -- adverb; <tum> then -- then cupientes -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <cupiō,

cupere, cupīvī, cupītum> desire -- desiring regni -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <regnum, regni> kingship, supreme power

-- supreme power dant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- they give operam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <opera, operae> work, service,

attention -- attention simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- simultaneously auspicio -- noun; dative singular neuter of <auspicium, auspicii> divination by the

flight of birds -- to the omen from the birds augurioque -- noun; dative singular masculine of <augurium, augurii> interpretation

of omens, augury + conjunction <-que> and -- and to their interpretation in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- on

monte -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <mons, montis> mountain -- a mountain

Remus auspicio se devovet atque secundam solus avem servat. At Romulus pulcher in alto quaerit Aventino, servat genus altivolentum.

Remus -- nominative singular masculine of <Remus, Remi> Remus -- Remus auspicio -- noun; dative singular neuter of <auspicium, auspicii> divination by the

flight of birds -- to the omen from the birds se -- reflexive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- himself devovet -- verb; 3rd person singular present, of <dēvoveō, dēvovēre, dēvōvī,

dēvōtum> devote -- devotes atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and secundam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <secundus, secunda,

secundum> second, favorable -- favorable solus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <solus, sola, solum> alone -- by

himself avem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <avis, avis> bird -- bird servat -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <servō, servāre, servāvī, servātum>

guard, keep, watch -- watches at -- adverb; <at> and -- but Romulus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <Romulus, Romuli> Romulus --

Romulus pulcher -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum>

beautiful, excellent -- handsome in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- on alto -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <altus, alta, altum> high, deep -- high quaerit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī,

quaesītum> look for, search -- searches Aventino -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <Aventinus, Aventini> Aventine --

Aventine servat -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <servō, servāre, servāvī, servātum>

guard, keep, watch -- watches genus -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <genus, generis> kind, class -- class altivolentum -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <altivolans, altivolantis> high

flying -- high flying

Certabant urbem Romam Remoramve vocarent.

certabant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <certō, certāre, certāvī, certātum> fight, contend -- they were contending

urbem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <urbs, urbis> city -- the city Romam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <Roma, Romae> Rome -- Rome Remoramve -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <Remora, Remorae> Remora +

conjunction <-ve> or -- or Remora vocarent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <vocō, vocāre, vocāvī,

vocātum> call -- (whether) they would call

Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator:

omnibus -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- among all

cura -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <cura, curae> care -- (there was) concern

viris -- noun; dative plural masculine of <vir, viri> man -- the men uter -- pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <uter, utra, utrum> which of two --

which of the two esset -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am --

would be induperator -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <induperator, induperatoris>

commander in chief, emperor -- commander

exspectant, veluti consul quom mittere signum volt, omnes avidi spectant ad carceris oras quam mox emittat pictis e faucibus currus.

exspectant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <exspectō, exspectāre, exspectāvī, exspectātum> wait for -- they wait

veluti -- adverb; <veluti> as, like -- as consul -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <consul, consulis> consul -- the

consul quom -- conjunction; <quom> when -- when mittere -- verb; infinitive of <mittō, mittere, mīsī, missum> send, give -- to give signum -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <signum, signi> sign -- the signal volt -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine --

decides omnes -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all avidi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <avidus, avida, avidum> eager --

eagerly spectant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <spectō, spectāre, spectāvī, spectātum>

look, gaze -- gaze ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- at carceris -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <carcer, carceris> prison, starting-

place in a race-course -- of the starting-place oras -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <ora, orae> mouth, boundary, coast -- the

front quam -- relative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who,

which, what, that -- which mox -- adverb; <mox> soon -- soon emittat -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <ēmittō, ēmittere, ēmīsī,

ēmīssum> send out -- he will send pictis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <pictus, picta, pictum> painted --

painted e -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from faucibus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <fauces, faucis> throat, entrance --

the...entrance

currus -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <currus, currus> chariot -- the chariots

sic exspectabat populus atque ora tenebat, rebus utri magni victoria sit data regni.

sic -- adverb; <sic> so, thus -- so exspectabat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <exspectō, exspectāre,

exspectāvī, exspectātum> wait for -- waited populus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <populus, populi> people -- the

people atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and ora -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <ora, orae> mouth, boundary, coast -- their

tongues tenebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <teneō, tenēre, tenuī, -> hold,

control, understand -- held rebus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- by the event utri -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <uter, utra, utrum> which of two -- to

which magni -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large --

of great victoria -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <victoria, victoriae> victory -- the

victory sit -- auxiliary verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive passive of <sum, esse,

fuī> I am with data -- might be data -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive passive of <dō, dare, dedī,

dātum> give -- given regni -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <regnum, regni> kingship, supreme power

-- authority

Interea sol albus recessit in infera noctis.

interea -- adverb; <interea> in the meantime -- In the meantime sol -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <sol, solis> sun -- the... sun albus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <albus, alba, album> white --

white recessit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <recēdō, rēcedere, rēcessī, rēcessum>

retire, withdraw -- had withdrawn in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- to infera -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <inferus, inferi> lower part -- depths noctis -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <nox, noctis> night -- of night

Exin candida se radiis dedit icta foras lux.

exin -- adverb; <exin> after that, then -- then candida -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <candidus, candida, candidum>

clear -- clear se -- reflexive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- itself radiis -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <radius, radii> rod, beam -- with beams

dedit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- gave icta -- defective verb; nominative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of

<īcere, īcī, ictum> strike -- struck foras -- adverb; <foras> forth, out -- out lux -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <lux, lucis> light -- light

et simul ex alto longe pulcherruma praepes laeva volavit avis, simul aureus exoritur sol.

et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- at the same time ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from alto -- adjective used as substantive; ablative singular neuter of <altus, alta, altum>

high, deep -- heaven longe -- adverb; <longe> by far -- by far pulcherruma -- adjective; nominative singular feminine superlative of <pulcher,

pulchra, pulchrum> beautiful, excellent -- the most excellent praepes -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <praepes, praepetis> of good

omen, favorable -- favorable laeva -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <laevus, laeva, laevum> left -- left volavit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <volō, volāre, volāvī, volātum> fly --

flew avis -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <avis, avis> bird -- bird simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- at the same time aureus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <aureus, aurea, aureum> golden

-- the golden exoritur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <exorior, exorīrī, exortus

sum> arise, appear -- arose sol -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <sol, solis> sun -- sun

Cedunt de caelo ter quattuor corpora sancta avium, praepetibus sese pulchrisque locis dant.

cedunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cēdō, cedere, cessī, cessum> go from, depart -- come down

de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- from caelo -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <caelum, caeli> sky, heavens -- the sky ter -- number; <ter> three -- three quattuor -- number; <quattuor> four -- four corpora -- noun; nominative plural neuter of <corpus, corporis> body -- bodies sancta -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <sanctus, sancta, sanctum> holy --

holy avium -- noun; genitive plural feminine of <avis, avis> bird -- of birds praepetibus -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <praepes, praepetis> of good

omen, favorable -- to propitious sese -- reflexive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- themselves pulchrisque -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum>

beautiful, excellent + conjunction <-que> and -- and beautiful locis -- noun; dative plural masculine of <locus, loci> place -- places

dant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- arrange

Conspicit inde sibi data Romulus esse propritim auspicio regni stabilita scamna solumque.

conspicit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <cōnspiciō, conspicere, conspēxī, conspectum> perceive -- perceives

inde -- adverb; <inde> from that -- From that sibi -- reflexive pronoun; dative of <sui> self -- to him data -- verb; nominative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of <dō, dare, dedī,

dātum> give -- were given Romulus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <Romulus, Romuli> Romulus --

Romulus esse -- verb; infinitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- to be propritim -- adverb; <propritim> as one's own -- as his own auspicio -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <auspicium, auspicii> divination by the

flight of birds -- by the auspices regni -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <regnum, regni> kingship, supreme power

-- of supreme power stabilita -- verb; accusative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of <stabiliō,

stabilīre, stabilīvī, stabilītus> establish, confirm -- confirmed scamna -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <scamnum, scamni> bench, seat -- the

throne solumque -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <solum, soli> foundation +

conjunction <-que> and -- and the land

Lesson TextCurantes magna cum cura tum cupientes Regni dant operam simul auspicio augurioque; ..........in monte.......... Remus auspicio se devovet atque secundam solus avem servat. At Romulus pulcher in alto quaerit Aventino, servat genus altivolentum. Certabant urbem Romam Remoramve vocarent. Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator: exspectant, veluti consul quom mittere signum volt, omnes avidi spectant ad carceris oras quam mox emittat pictis e faucibus currus. sic exspectabat populus atque ora tenebat, rebus utri magni victoria sit data regni. Interea sol albus recessit in infera noctis. Exin candida se radiis dedit icta foras lux. et simul ex alto longe pulcherruma praepes laeva volavit avis, simul aureus exoritur sol. Cedunt de caelo ter quattuor corpora sancta avium, praepetibus sese pulchrisque locis dant. Conspicit inde sibi data Romulus esse propritim auspicio regni stabilita scamna solumque.

TranslationThen with very great care and desiring the supreme power, they turn their attention at the same time to watching and to divination by the flight of birds ... on a hill. Remus devotes himself to the auspices and by himself looks for a favorable bird. But handsome Romulus searches on high Aventine, and looks for the high-flying kind. They contested whether they would call the city Rome or Remora. There is anxiety among all the men to see which of the two would be supreme chief. They are expectant, as when the consul will give the signal, and all look eagerly at the boundaries of the area to see how soon he will send out the chariots from the painted jaws. So the people wait and hold their tongues, looking forward to see to which of the two the victory for the great power would be given by the events. In the meantime the white sun has gone down to the depths of night. Then the clear light thrust out with its rays; and at the same time from far on high a most beautiful prophet of a bird flew at the left, at the same time as the gold sun rose. Three or four holy birds fly down from the heavens, and establish themselves on places that are auspicious and beautiful. From that Romulus sees that the established seat and throne of supreme power have been given to him as his own.

Grammar

31. The Perfect System.

The perfect system is comparable in tenses and moods to the present system. Its basic meaning is a state as a result of completed action. In many ways the difference is comparable to that in English. The past or imperfect simply indicates a situation or an action in past time; the perfect however has the additional connotation of completed action. We can say: "I went to town yesterday" but not "I have gone to town yesterday". The specification provided by the adverb "yesterday" does not permit a verbal form that indicates a state. At times, then, the Latin perfect may be translated with a present tense form.

32. The Perfect Tense forms of the first conjugation verb dono and the first singular forms of the three other conjugations.

1st conjugation    Active Voice   Passive Voice    Indicative   Subjunctive   Indicative   Subjunctive1 sg   dōnāvī   dōnāverim   dōnātus sum   dōnātus sim2 sg   dōnāvistī   dōnāveris   dōnātus es   dōnātus sīs3 sg   dōnāvit   dōnāverit   dōnātus est   dōnātus sit1 pl   dōnāvimus   dōnāverīmus   dōnātī sumus   dōnātī sīmus2 pl   dōnāvistis   dōnaverītis   dōnātī estis   dōnātī sītis3 pl   dōnāvērunt   dōnāverint   dōnātī sunt   dōnātī sint 

2nd conjugation1 sg   habuī   habuerim   habitus sum   habitus sim 

3rd conjugation1 sg   tēxī   tēxerim   tēctus sum   tēctus sim 

4th conjugation1 sg   audīvī   audīverim   audītus sum   audītus sim

33. The Pluperfect Tense forms of the first conjugation verb dōnō, and the first singular forms of the three other conjugations.

1st conjugation    Active Voice   Passive Voice    Indicative   Subjunctive   Indicative   Subjunctive1 sg   dōnāveram   dōnāvissem   dōnātus eram   dōnātus essem2 sg   dōnāverās   dōnāvissēs   dōnātus erās   dōnātus essēs3 sg   dōnāverat   dōnāvisset   dōnātus erat   dōnātus esset1 pl   dōnāverāmus   dōnāvissēmus   dōnātī erāmus   dōnātī essēmus2 pl   dōnāverātis   dōnāvissētis   dōnātī erātis   dōnātī essētis3 pl   dōnāverant   dōnāvissent   dōnātī erant   dōnātī essent 

2nd conjugation1 sg   habueram   habuissem   habitus eram   habitus essem 

3rd conjugation1 sg   tēxeram   tēxissem   tēctus eram   tēctus essem 

4th conjugation1 sg   audīveram   audīvissem   audītus eram   audītus essem

N.B. The full form for the 4th conjugation, Active voice, Indicative mood, Pluperfect tense is exemplified above by audiveram; however, according to Leumann et al., Vol. I., p. 598, the -v- has often been omitted since the time of Plautus. Therefore, Pluperfect forms such as audieram may be observed in later texts, like the one in our Lesson 10.

34. The Future Perfect Tense forms of the first conjugation verb dono, and the first singular forms of the three other conjugations.

1st conjugation    Active Voice   Passive Voice1 sg   dōnāverō   dōnātus erō2 sg   dōnāveris   dōnātus eris3 sg   dōnāverit   dōnātus erit1 pl   dōnāverimus   dōnātī erimus2 pl   dōnāveritis   dōnātī eritis3 pl   dōnāverint   dōnātī erunt 

2nd conjugation1 sg   habuerō   habitus erō 

3rd conjugation1 sg   tēxerō   tēctus erō

 4th conjugation

1 sg   audīverō   audītus erō

35. The forms of the Perfect Infinitive and Participle, with a brief statement on irregular conjugations.

    Infinitive   Participle  1st conjugationperf   dōnāvisse   dōnātus   2nd conjugationperf   habuisse   habitus   3rd conjugationperf   tēxisse   tēctus   4th conjugationperf   audīvisse   audītus

These forms have been given to provide an overview of the conjugations. A few statements provide information on additional patterns.

As we have noted, deponent verbs have the forms of the passive. Some common verbs have irregular forms. These are given in dictionaries; as

examples, a few are given here with their principal parts. o dō, dedī, datum, dare 'give'o eō, iī, itum, īre 'go'o ferō, tulī, lātum ferre 'bear'o fiō, factus, fierī 'become'o possum, potuī, posse 'be able'o volō, voluī, velle 'wish'

The inflections are best determined from grammars.

Lesson 8Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

St. Augustine -- Aurelius Augustinus -- was born in North Africa at Tagaste in Numidia on November 13, 354 A.D. He was trained to be a rhetorician. While his mother was a Christian, he did not adopt Christianity until 387. In 395 he became Bishop of Hippo, and lived there until his death. With Ambrose, Jerome, and Gregory the Great he is considered one of the four great Fathers of the Church. Among his other notable works are De Doctrina Christiana and the City of God.Reading and Textual Analysis

This section is a part of Book I, Section 8 of the Confessions. In Book I, St. Augustine describes his childhood. This section is remarkable for its account of his learning to talk. Few authors reach back into their infancy as St. Augustine does. Somewhat earlier in Book I, he

notes that as an infant he was unable to communicate effectively. He would toss about his limbs and utter sounds that corresponded to his wishes, but others were unable to understand him. The selection may also illustrate how he depicted his personal feelings throughout his autobiography, an ability for which he has been greatly admired. The language is comparable with that of the great period of Classical Latin, though written four centuries later. This selection provides an example of conversational Latin, in contrast with the language of the previous texts.

Non enim eram infans, qui non farer, sed iam puer loquens eram.

* non -- adverb; <non> not -- not * enim -- conjunction; <enim> for, indeed -- for * eram -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- was * infans -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <infans, infantis> infant -- an infant * qui -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- that * non -- adverb; <non> not -- not * farer -- deponent verb; 1st person singular imperfect subjunctive of <for, fārī, fātus sum> talk -- could talk * sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but * iam -- adverb; <iam> already -- already * puer -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <puer, pueri> boy -- boy * loquens -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <loquor, loquī, locutus sum> speak -- speaking * eram -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- I was

Et memini hoc, et unde loqui didiceram, post adverti.

* et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * memini -- defective verb; 1st person singular perfect of <memini> remember -- I remember * hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * unde -- adverb; <unde> from whence -- how * loqui -- deponent verb; infinitive of <loquor, loquī, locutus sum> speak -- to speak * didiceram -- verb; 1st person singular pluperfect of <discō, discere, didicī, -> learn -- I learned * post -- adverb; <post> after -- afterwards * adverti -- verb; 1st person singular perfect of <advertō, advertere, advertī, adversum> turn to, note -- I noted

Non enim docebant me maiores homines, praebentes mihi verba certo aliquo ordine doctrinae sicut paulo post litteras.

* non -- adverb; <non> not -- not * enim -- conjunction; <enim> for, indeed -- for * docebant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <doceō, docēre, docuī, doctum> teach -- did...teach * me -- pronoun; accusative singular of <ego> I -- me

* maiores -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of comparative of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large -- older * homines -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <homo, hominis> man, human -- people * praebentes -- verb; nominative plural masculine present participle of <praebeō, praebēre, praebuī, praebitus> offer, provide -- by providing * mihi -- pronoun; dative singular of <ego> I -- me * verba -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <verbum, verbi> word -- words * certo -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <certus, certa, certum> certain -- in a certain * aliquo -- pronoun adjective; ablative singular masculine of <aliqui, aliqua, aliquod> some, any -- given * ordine -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <ordo, ordinis> order -- order * doctrinae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <doctrina, doctrinae> teaching -- of teaching * sicut -- adverb; <sicut> as, like -- as * paulo -- adverb; <paulo> little -- a little * post -- adverb; <post> after -- later * litteras -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <littera, litterae> letter -- (they did) the letters

Sed ego ipse mente, quem dedisti mihi, deus meus, cum gemitibus et vocibus variis et variis membrorum motibus edere vellem sensa cordis mei, ut voluntati pareretur.

* sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but * ego -- pronoun; nominative singular of <ego> I -- I * ipse -- pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ipse, ipsa, ipsum> self -- myself * mente -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <mens, mentis> mind -- with the mind * quem -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- that * dedisti -- verb; 2nd person singular perfect of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- thou hast given * mihi -- pronoun; dative singular of <ego> I -- me * deus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <deus, dei> god -- God * meus -- pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <meus, mea, meum> my -- my * cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- with * gemitibus -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <gemitus, gemitus> sign, groan -- groans * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * vocibus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <vox, vocis> voice -- voices * variis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <varius, varia, varium> various -- various * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * variis -- adjective; ablative plural masculine of <varius, varia, varium> various -- with various * membrorum -- noun; genitive plural neuter of <membrum, membri> member -- of my members * motibus -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <motus, motus> movement -- movements * edere -- verb; infinitive of <ēdō, ēdere, ēdidī, ēditum> give out -- to express * vellem -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect subjunctive of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- I might wish * sensa -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <sensa, sensorum> ideas -- the ideas * cordis -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <cor, cordis> heart -- heart

* mei -- pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <meus, mea, meum> my -- of my * ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- that * voluntati -- noun; dative singular feminine of <voluntas, voluntatis> will, desire -- my desire * pareretur -- verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive imperfect passive of <pāreō, parēre, pāruī, -> comply -- were in accordance with

Nec valerem quae volebam omnia nec quibus volebam omnibus.

* nec -- adverb; <nec> neither ... nor -- neither * valerem -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect subjunctive of <valeō, valēre, valuī, -> be able -- I was not able (to express) * quae -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- that * volebam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- I wanted * omnia -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all the things * nec -- adverb; <nec> neither ... nor -- nor * quibus -- relative pronoun; ablative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- with (the expressions) * volebam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- I wished * omnibus -- adjective; ablative plural neuter of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all

Pensabam memoria.

* pensabam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <pēnsō, pēnsāre, pēnsāvī, pēnsātus> weigh, ponder -- I pondered * memoria -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <memoria, memoriae> memory, remembrance -- in remembrance

Cum ipsi appellabant rem aliquam et cum secundum eam vocem corpus ad aliquid movebant, videbam et tenebam hoc ab eis vocari rem illam, quod sonabant, cum eam vellent ostendere.

* cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when * ipsi -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ipse, ipsa, ipsum> self -- they * appellabant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātum> call -- designated * rem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- thing * aliquam -- pronoun adjective; accusative singular feminine of <aliqui, aliqua, aliquod> some, any -- any * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when * secundum -- preposition; <secundum> following -- after * eam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- that * vocem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <vox, vocis> voice -- sound * corpus -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <corpus, corporis> body -- (their) body * ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to

* aliquid -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <aliquis, aliquis, aliquid> anyone -- something * movebant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <moveō, movēre, mōvi, mōtus> move -- they moved * videbam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see -- I observed * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * tenebam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <teneō, tenēre, tenuī, -> hold, control, understand -- I understood * hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this * ab -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- by * eis -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- them * vocari -- verb; passive infinitive of <vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātum> call -- named * rem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- thing * illam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- that * quod -- conjunction; <quod> that, because -- in that * sonabant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <sonō, sonāre, sonuī, sonitus> pronounce -- they pronounced (it) * cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when * eam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- it * vellent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- they wanted * ostendere -- verb; infinitive of <ostendō, ostendere, ostendī, ostentum> show, point out -- to point out

Hoc autem eos velle, ex motu corporis aperiebatur, tamquam verbis naturalibus omnium gentium.

* hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this * autem -- conjunction; <autem> but -- but * eos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- they * velle -- verb; infinitive of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- (they) wished (to indicate) * ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from * motu -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <motus, motus> movement -- the movement * corporis -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <corpus, corporis> body -- of their body * aperiebatur -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect passive of <aperiō, aperīre, aperuī, apertum> open -- it was disclosed * tamquam -- adverb; <tamquam> just as, as if -- as if it were * verbis -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <verbum, verbi> word -- by the ... words * naturalibus -- adjective; ablative plural neuter of <naturalis, naturalis, naturale> natural -- natural * omnium -- adjective; genitive plural feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- of all * gentium -- noun; genitive plural feminine of <gens, gentis> race, clan -- peoples

Quae fiunt vultu et nutu oculorum ceterorumque membrorum actu et sonitu vocis indicante affectionem animi in petendis, habendis, reiciendis fugiendisve rebus.

* quae -- relative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which * fiunt -- defective verb; 3rd person plural present of <fio, fierī> be made -- are made * vultu -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <vultus, vultus> expression, face -- by facial expression * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * nutu -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <nutus, nutus> nod, expression -- by the cast * oculorum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <oculus, oculi> eye -- of the eyes * ceterorumque -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <ceteri, ceterae, cetera> other + conjunction <-que> and -- and of other * membrorum -- noun; genitive plural neuter of <membrum, membri> member -- members * actu -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <actus, actus> gesture, expression -- by the action * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * sonitu -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <sonitus, sonitus> sound -- by the sound * vocis -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <vox, vocis> voice -- of the voice * indicante -- verb; ablative singular masculine of present participle of <indicō, indicāre, indicāvī, indicātum> indicate -- indicating * affectionem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <affectio, affectionis> affection -- the feelings * animi -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <animus, animi> soul, mind -- of the mind * in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in * petendis -- verbal adjective; ablative plural feminine of <petō, petere, petīvī, petītum> seek -- seeking * habendis -- verb; ablative plural feminine of present participle of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- possessing * reiciendis -- verb; ablative plural feminine of present participle of <rēiciō, rēicere, rējēcī, rējectum> push back, reject -- rejecting * fugiendisve -- verb; ablative plural feminine of present participle of <fugiō, fūgī> flee, avoid + conjunction <-ve> or -- avoiding * rebus -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- things

Ita verba in variis sententiis locis suis posita et crebro audita quarum rerum signa essent paulatim colligebam.

* ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- in this way * verba -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <verbum, verbi> word -- words * in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in * variis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <varius, varia, varium> various -- various * sententiis -- noun; dative plural feminine of <sententia, sententiae> sentence -- sentences * locis -- noun; dative plural masculine of <locus, loci> place -- places * suis -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- in their proper * posita -- verb; accusative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of <pōnō, ponere, posuī, positum> place, situate -- put * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * crebro -- adverb; <crebro> frequently, often -- often

* audita -- verb; accusative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of <audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum> hear -- heard * quarum -- relative pronoun; genitive plural feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- of which * rerum -- noun; genitive plural feminine of <res, rei> thing, matter -- things * signa -- noun; nominative plural neuter of <signum, signi> sign -- signs * essent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- they were * paulatim -- adverb; <paulatim> gradually -- gradually * colligebam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <colligō, collēgī, colligere, collēctum> collect -- I collected

Edomito in eis signis ore, per haec enuntiabam.

* edomito -- verb; ablative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of <ēdomō, edomāre, edomuī, ēdomitum> conquer, subdue -- conquered * in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- to * eis -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- those * signis -- noun; dative plural neuter of <signum, signi> sign -- signs * ore -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <os, oris> mouth -- mouth * per -- preposition; <per> through, by -- by means of * haec -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- them * enuntiabam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <ēnūntiō, ēnūtiāre, ēnuntiāvī, ēnuntiātum> speak, express -- I expressed myself

Sic cum his, inter quos eram, voluntatum enuntiandarum signa communicavi.

* sic -- adverb; <sic> so, thus -- So * cum -- preposition; <cum> with -- with * his -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- those * inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among * quos -- relative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- whom * eram -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- I was * voluntatum -- noun; genitive plural feminine of <voluntas, voluntatis> will, desire -- of the desires * enuntiandarum -- verbal adjective; genitive plural feminine of <ēnūntiō, ēnūtiāre, ēnuntiāvī, ēnuntiātum> speak, express -- to be expressed (by me) * signa -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <signum, signi> sign -- signs * communicavi -- verb; 1st person singular perfect of <commūnicō, commūnicāre, commūnicāvī, commūnicātum> communicate -- I communicated

Lesson Text

Non enim eram infans, qui non farer, sed iam puer loquens eram. Et memini hoc, et unde loqui didiceram, post adverti. Non enim docebant me maiores homines, praebentes mihi verba certo aliquo ordine doctrinae sicut paulo post litteras. Sed ego ipse mente, quem dedisti mihi, deus meus, cum gemitibus et vocibus variis et variis membrorum motibus edere vellem sensa

cordis mei, ut voluntati pareretur. Nec valerem quae volebam omnia nec quibus volebam omnibus. Pensabam memoria. Cum ipsi appellabant rem aliquam et cum secundum eam vocem corpus ad aliquid movebant, videbam et tenebam hoc ab eis vocari rem illam, quod sonabant, cum eam vellent ostendere. Hoc autem eos velle, ex motu corporis aperiebatur, tamquam verbis naturalibus omnium gentium. Quae fiunt vultu et nutu oculorum ceterorumque membrorum actu et sonitu vocis indicante affectionem animi in petendis, habendis, reiciendis fugiendisve rebus. Ita verba in variis sententiis locis suis posita et crebro audita quarum rerum signa essent paulatim colligebam. Edomito in eis signis ore, per haec enuntiabam. Sic cum his, inter quos eram, voluntatum enuntiandarum signa communicavi.

Translation

For I was no longer an infant that could not speak, but was already a speaking boy. And I remember this well and later noted how I first learned to speak. The older people did not teach me by providing words to me in a certain given order of instruction, as they did the letters later. But by the mind that Thou, my God, gave me, I on my own with grunts, varieties of voices and various motions of my body tried to express the ideas of my heart, that were in accordance with my desires. But I neither could express everything I wanted to, nor with all the expressions I wanted. Then I pondered when remembering. When they designated a thing, and when after that they moved their body toward something, I observed it and understood that this was the thing named by them in that they pronounced it when they wanted to point it out. And that they meant this or that thing was discovered by me through the motion of their body, as by the natural words (language) of all peoples. These are made by facial expression and by the cast of the eyes, by the acts of other members, and by the sound of the voice indicating the feelings of the mind, whether in desiring, enjoying, rejecting or avoiding anything. And in this way I gradually collected the words in various sentences that were put in their proper places and often heard for the things of which they were the signs. And when my mouth was conquered for these signs, I expressed my wishes by means of them. In this way, I communicated with those with whom I was, the signs of the desires I wished to express.

Grammar36. The Declension of Substantives.

In earlier lessons, beginning with Grammar Selection 3, we have given examples of the declension of nouns. As we noted in the grammar selections on verbs, recognition of inflected forms is especially important for understanding Latin, since it includes few particles and much of the information for interpreting sentences is found in inflections. By way of summary, as well as information on the inflection of adjectives, an overall picture of substantival inflection will be given here. Since adjectives are inflected in general like nouns, though most of them in two or three genders, they may serve to provide examples of the inflection of substantives in general.37. Substantives with Inflections of the First and Second Declensions.

A large number of adjectives are listed in dictionaries with endings in -us, e.g. magnus 'large'. These have their inflected forms in the masculine and neuter genders according to the second declension, in the feminine gender according to the first. The paradigm of magnus provides an example. Singular Plural Masc Fem Neut Masc Fem Neut

Nom magnus magna magnum magnī magnae magna

Gen magnī magnae magnī magnōrum magnārum magnōrum

Dat magnō magnae magnō magnīs magnīs magnīs

Acc magnum magnam magnum magnōs magnās magna

Abl magnō magnā magnō magnīs magnīs magnīs

Most second declension nouns with stems ending in -ro- reduce the ending to -r, rather than -rus. Among them are common nouns like puer 'boy' and vir 'man'. Apart from these forms in the nominative, they have the regular inflections, e.g. genitives puerī and virī, etc. In the same way, parallel adjectives are listed in dictionaries with endings in -er, e.g. dexter 'right', genitive dexterī; ruber 'red', by contrast, has the genitive rubrī.

Pronominal adjectives ending in -us have their genitive and dative singulars inflected like pronouns, that is with -īus and -ī in the three genitives singular, e.g. solus 'alone', gen.sg. solīus, gen.sg. solī. Other examples are: totus 'whole', alīus 'other', nullus 'none', totus 'whole', unus 'one'. Similarly, those ending in -er, such as uter 'which of two', gen. utrīus, dat. utrī, as well as alter 'the other' and neuter 'neither'.38. Substantives with Inflections of the Third Declension.

Like nouns of the third declension, adjectives in this declension have stems ending in consonants rather than in -a and -u- < -o-. Accordingly the nominative may differ in form of stem from the other cases, e.g. acer 'sharp' but oblique cases with stem acr-; some adjectives are regular, on the other hand, e.g. celer 'swift', celer-. The stems may be determined from dictionary entries.

Moreover, many adjectives of the third declension are inflected in only two genders, e.g. masc. gravis, nt. grave 'heavy'. The comparatives have bases ending in -r, which is replaced by -s in the neuter nom. and acc., e.g. melior, nt. melius, gen. melioris 'better'.

Some adjectives of the declension are inflected only in one gender; among these the present particles, such as donans, gen. donantis 'giving'. After their stem has been determined, the inflections of these two groups are like those of the adjectives inflected in the three genders. Singular Plural Masc Fem Neut Masc Fem NeutNom acer acris acre acrēs acrēs acriaGen acris acris acris acrium acrium acriumDat acrī acrī acrī acribus acribus acribusAcc acrem acrem acre acrīs acrīs acriaAbl acrī acrī acrī acribus acribus acribus

By way of summary, and review of examples in previous grammar sections, examples are given here of third declension nouns in the nominative and genitive singular with stems ending in various consonants.

* Stems ending in obstruents:

masc. princeps, principis 'chief'; miles, militis 'soldier'; pēs, pedis 'foot'; rex, regis 'king; neut. caput, capitis 'head'; cor, cordis 'heart'. * Stems ending in resonants: masc. pater, patris 'father'; victor, victoris 'victor'; consul, consulis 'consul; neut. ebur, eboris 'ivory'; tuber, tuberis 'swelling'. * Stems ending in nasals: masc. sermo, sermonis 'speech'; fem. virgo, virginis 'virgin'; neut. nomen, nominis 'name'. * Stems ending in -s, most of which are neuters: genus, generis 'race'; corpus, corporis 'body'; masc. flōs, flōris 'flower'; fem. tellus, telluris 'earth'. * Stems ending in -i, most of which are masculine or feminine: The nominative ends in -is, like the genitive, e.g. finis 'end, gen. finis; and the genitive plural ends in -ium, e.g. finium. Neuters may have no ending, e.g. animal 'animal, animalis, gen.pl. animalium. Similarly, adjectives of the third declension have their genitive plural ending in -ium, as in the paradigm of acer above.

The third declension also includes irregular nouns. Among these are vīs 'force, acc.sg. vim, nom.pl. vīres; bōs 'cow' gen.sg. bovis, nom.pl. boves; Iuppiter 'Jupiter', gen.sg. Iovis.

The inflection of nouns in the fourth and fifth declensions has been given in Grammar Selection 13. These declensions have no adjectives.

The chief purpose for a reading knowledge of noting the declensions is to determine the form given in dictionaries. It is given with additional forms that illustrate the rest of the declined forms.39. Comparison of Adjectives.

As in English, there are three degrees of comparison: Positive, Comparative and Superlative. Adjectives are listed in dictionaries in their Positive form, e.g. gravis 'heavy'. The Comparative has two endings, in accordance with such adjectives in the third declension, e.g. masc. and fem. gravior, neut. gravius 'heavier'. The superlative is made with the -issimus ending, and inflected in accordance with adjectives in the first and second declensions.

In Classical Latin the construction of the Comparative with a Standard has that indicated by quam 'than', e.g. gravior quam aquā 'heavier than water'. The Standard is often in the ablative case, which in the first declension has a long -a ending. In older Latin, and occasionally in Classical Latin, the Standard is placed before the Comparative form and has the ablative case, e.g. aquā gravior.40. Formation of Adverbs.

Many adverbs are listed in dictionaries, and accordingly defined there. When adverbs are made from adjectives that are inflected according to the first and second declensions, they have an -e ending, e.g. alte 'highly'. Other endings are -(i)ter, as in graviter 'heavily', -tim as in privatim 'privatively', -um as in multum 'much'. Some adverbs have changes in the stem, such as bene 'well' beside bonus 'good'.

Comparative and Superlative forms may be illustrated by those of alte, i.e. altius 'more highly', altissime 'most highly'. As in English, these forms may be irregular for common adverbs, e.g. bene, melius, optime 'good, better, best'; male, peius, pessime 'bad, worse, worst; multum, plus, plurimum 'much, more, most'.

Lesson 9

Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

Einhard, author of the biography of Charlemagne, was closely involved with the church. Born about 770 and died on 14 March 840, he was singled out for his capabilities by his abbot, Baugulf, and sent to the school in the palace of Charlemagne. The head of the school was Alcuin, who was also an adviser to Charlemagne. In this way Einhard became a member of the court, and upon the entry of Alcuin to a monastery he became his successor in the school. He remained close to Charlemagne until his death in 814, and then continued as adviser to the following rulers until he, too, entered a monastery around 820. While his Vita Karoli Magni is his most highly regarded work, other writings of his have survived, among them many letters.

Reading and Textual Analysis

This selection is from the second part of Einhard's brief biography, which deals with the personal qualities of the emperor. In the first part he described Charlemagne's military and diplomatic undertakings. These were highly successful, leading to the expansion and establishment of the Frankish state. While the first part is of interest for the history of the period, the second provides interesting information about Charlemagne's capabilities and more general activities, such as his support of the indigenous language. Among other contributions, he devised Frankish names for the months, such as Uuintarmanoth for January, Ostarmanoth for April, and so on. He also identified twelve winds in place of the earlier four, and gave them names as well. The work ends with a lengthy account of his will.

Erat eloquentia copiosus et exuberans poteratque quicquid vellet apertissime exprimere.

erat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- He was eloquentia -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <eloquentia, eloquentiae>

eloquence -- in eloquence copiosus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <copiosus, copiosa,

copiosum> rich -- outstanding et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and exuberans -- defective verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of

<exūberō, exūberāre, -, -> be abundant -- superb poteratque -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <possum, posse, potuī> be able

+ conjunction <-que> and -- and could quicquid -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <quisquis, quaeque,

quicquid> whoever, whatever -- whatever vellet -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <volō, velle, voluī> wish,

determine -- he wished apertissime -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of superlative of <apertus,

aperta, apertum> open -- very clearly exprimere -- verb; infinitive of <exprimō, exprimere, expressī, expressum> express --

express

Nec patrio tantum sermone contentus, etiam peregrinis linguis ediscendis operam impendit.

nec -- adverb; <nec> neither ... nor -- And not patrio -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <patrius, patria, patrium> paternal

-- with ...native tantum -- adverb; <tantum> only -- only sermone -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <sermo, sermonis> language --

language contentus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <contentus, contenta,

contentum> content -- satisfied etiam -- adverb; <etiam> also, even -- also peregrinis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <peregrinus, peregrini> foreign --

foreign linguis -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <lingua, linguae> tongue, language --

languages ediscendis -- ablative plural feminine of gerund(ive) of <ēdiscō, ēdiscere, ēdidici, ->

learn, memorize -- in learning operam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <opera, operae> work, service,

attention -- effort impendit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <impendō, impendere, impendī,

impēnsum> expend, devote -- expended

In quibus Latinam ita didicit, ut aeque illa ac patria lingua orare sit solitus, Graecam vero melius intellegere quam pronuntiare poterat.

in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- Among quibus -- relative pronoun; dative plural feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which,

what, that -- which Latinam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <Latinus, Latina, Latinum>

Latin -- Latin ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- so (well) didicit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <discō, discere, didicī, -> learn --

knew ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- so that aeque -- adverb; <aeque> equally -- to the same extent illa -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular feminine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she,

that -- it ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and patria -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <patrius, patria, patrium> paternal --

(his) native lingua -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <lingua, linguae> tongue, language --

language orare -- verb; infinitive of <ōrō, ōrāre, ōrāvī, ōrātum> speak -- to speak sit -- verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- he was solitus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <solitus, solita, solitum>

accustomed -- accustomed Graecam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <Graecus, Graeca, Graecum>

Greek -- Greek vero -- adverb; <vero> truly, but -- but

melius -- adverb; <melius> better -- better intellegere -- verb; infinitive of <intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctum>

understand -- understand quam -- conjunction; <quam> than -- than pronuntiare -- verb; infinitive of <pronuntiō, pronuntiāre, pronuntiāvī,

pronuntiātum> pronounce -- speak poterat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <possum, posse, potuī> be able --

he could

Adeo quidem facundus erat, ut etiam dicaculus appareret.

adeo -- adverb; <adeo> so, so much -- so quidem -- adverb; <quidem> in fact, even -- in fact facundus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <facundus, facunda,

facundum> fluent, eloquent -- eloquent erat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- He was ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- that etiam -- adverb; <etiam> also, even -- rather dicaculus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <dicaculus, dicacula,

dicaculum> effusive -- effusive appareret -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <appāreō, apparēre,

apparuī, -> be visible, seem -- seemed

Artes liberales studiosissime coluit, earumque doctores plurimum veneratus magnis adficiebat honoribus.

artes -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <ars, artis> skill, art -- arts liberales -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <liberalis, liberalis, liberale>

liberal -- (the) liberal studiosissime -- adverb; superlative of <studiosus, studiosa, studiosum> eager,

studious -- very studiously coluit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <colō, colere, coluī, cultum> dwell in,

cultivate -- He cultivated earumque -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her,

this + conjunction <-que> and -- and ... of them doctores -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <doctor, doctoris> teacher -- the

instructors plurimum -- adverb; <plurimum> very much, especially -- especially veneratus -- deponent verb; perfect participle passive of <veneror, venerārī,

venerātus sum> honor, venerate -- venerating magnis -- adjective; ablative plural masculine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great,

large -- with great adficiebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <adficiō, adficere, adfēcī,

adfectum> afflict -- he treated honoribus -- noun; ablative plural masculine of <honos, honoris> honor, distinction

-- honors

In discenda grammatica Petrum Pisanum diaconem senem audivit.

in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- For the purpose of discenda -- verbal adjective; ablative singular feminine of <discō, discere, didicī, ->

learn -- learning grammatica -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <grammatica, grammaticae>

grammar -- grammar Petrum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Petrus, Petri> Peter -- Peter Pisanum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <Pisanus, Pisana, Pisanum>

Pisan -- of Pisa diaconem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <diaco, diaconis> deacon --

deacon senem -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <senex, senis> aged -- the aged audivit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum> hear

-- he was taught by

In ceteris disciplinis Albinum cognomento Alcoinum, item diaconem, de Brittania Saxonici generis hominem, virum undecumque doctissimum praeceptorem habuit, apud quem et rethoricae et dialecticae, praecipue tamen astronomiae ediscendae plurimum et temporis et laboris impertivit.

in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- In ceteris -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <ceteri, ceterae, cetera> other -- the

other disciplinis -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <disciplina, disciplinae> discipline,

education -- disciplines Albinum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Albinus, Albini> Albinus --

Albinus cognomento -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <cognomentum, cognomenti>

surname -- with the surname Alcoinum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <Alcuinus, Alcuini> Alcuin --

Alcuin item -- adverb; <item> also -- also diaconem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <diaco, diaconis> deacon -- a

deacon de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- from Brittania -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <Brittania, Brittaniae> Britain --

Britain Saxonici -- adjective; genitive singular neuter of <Saxonicus, Saxonici> Saxon -- of

Saxon generis -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <genus, generis> kind, class -- race hominem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <homo, hominis> man, human -- a

human virum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <vir, viri> man -- man undecumque -- adverb; <undecumque> from every side -- in all respects doctissimum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine superlative of <doctus,

docta, doctum> learned -- the most learned praeceptorem -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <praeceptor, praeceptoris>

teacher -- as teacher habuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have --

he had

apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- with quem -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who,

which, what, that -- whom et -- conjunction; <et> and -- both rethoricae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <rhetorica, rhetoricae> rhetoric --

rhetoric et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and dialecticae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <dialectica, dialecticae> logic --

logic praecipue -- adverb; <praecipue> chiefly -- chiefly tamen -- conjunction; <tamen> nevertheless, but -- however astronomiae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <astronomia, astronomiae>

astronomy -- astronomy ediscendae -- verb; genitive singular feminine gerund(ive) of <ēdiscō, ēdiscere,

ēdidici, -> learn, memorize -- for learning plurimum -- adjective used as substantive; accusative singular neuter superlative of

<multus, multa, multum> many -- a great deal et -- conjunction; <et> and -- both temporis -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <tempus, temporis> time -- of time et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and laboris -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <labor, laboris> labor, effort -- of

effort impertivit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <impertiō, impertīre, impertīvī,

impertītus> devote -- devoted

Discebat artem computandi et intentione sagaci siderum cursum curiosissime rimabatur.

discebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <discō, discere, didicī, -> learn -- He learned

artem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <ars, artis> skill, art -- the art computandi -- verb; genitive of gerund(ive) of <computō, computāre, computāvī,

computātum> compute -- of computing et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and intentione -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <intentio, intentionis> effort --

effort sagaci -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <sagax, sagacis> keen, sagacious --

with ... keen siderum -- noun; genitive plural neuter of <sidus, sideris> constellation, heavenly

body -- of the heavenly bodies cursum -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <cursus, cursus> course -- the course curiosissime -- adverb; superlative of <curiosus, curiosa, curiosum> diligent -- most

diligently rimabatur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <rimor, rimāri, rimātus

sum> search, explore -- he explored

Temptabat et scribere tabulasque et codicellos ad hoc in lecto sub cervicalibus circumferre solebat, ut, cum vacuum tempus esset, manum litteris effigiendis adsuesceret.

temptabat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātum> attempt -- He tried

et -- conjunction; <et> and -- also scribere -- verb; infinitive of <scrībō, scribere, scrīpsī, scriptum> write -- to write tabulasque -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <tabula, tabulae> tablet +

conjunction <-que> and -- and ...tablets et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and codicellos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <codicelli, codicellorum>

notebook -- notebooks ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- for hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this

-- this (purpose) in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- (to have) in lecto -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <lectus, lecti> bed -- bed sub -- preposition; <sub> under -- under cervicalibus -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <cervical, cervicalis> pillow -- the

pillows circumferre -- verb; infinitive of <circumferō, circumferre, circumtūlī,

circumlātum> carry around -- to carry around solebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <sōleō, solēre, solitum> be

accustomed -- he was accustomed ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- so that cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when vacuum -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <vacuus, vacua, vacuum> empty,

free -- free tempus -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <tempus, temporis> time -- time esset -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am --

there might be manum -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <manus, manus> hand -- (his) hand litteris -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <littera, litterae> letter -- letters effigiendis -- verb; ablative plural feminine of gerund(ive) of <effingō, effingere,

effinxī, effīctum> form -- at forming adsuesceret -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <adsuēscō,

adsuescere, adsuescēvī, adsuescētum> accustom -- he tried

Sed parum successit labor praeposterus ac sero inchoatus.

sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but parum -- adverb; <parum> too little -- very little successit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <succēdō, succedere, successī,

sucessum> enter, succeed -- had ... success labor -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <labor, laboris> labor, effort -- (his)

effort praeposterus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <praeposterus,

praepostera, praeposterum> unseasonable -- at the wrong time ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and sero -- adverb; <sero> too late -- too late inchoatus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <incohatus, incohata,

incohatum> begun -- begun

Lesson TextErat eloquentia copiosus et exuberans poteratque quicquid vellet apertissime exprimere. Nec patrio tantum sermone contentus, etiam peregrinis linguis ediscendis operam impendit. In quibus Latinam ita didicit, ut aeque illa ac patria lingua orare sit solitus, Graecam vero melius intellegere quam pronuntiare poterat. Adeo quidem facundus erat, ut etiam dicaculus appareret. Artes liberales studiosissime coluit, earumque doctores plurimum veneratus magnis adficiebat honoribus. In discenda grammatica Petrum Pisanum diaconem senem audivit. In ceteris disciplinis Albinum cognomento Alcoinum, item diaconem, de Brittania Saxonici generis hominem, virum undecumque doctissimum praeceptorem habuit, apud quem et rethoricae et dialecticae, praecipue tamen astronomiae ediscendae plurimum et temporis et laboris impertivit. Discebat artem computandi et intentione sagaci siderum cursum curiosissime rimabatur. Temptabat et scribere tabulasque et codicellos ad hoc in lecto sub cervicalibus circumferre solebat, ut, cum vacuum tempus esset, manum litteris effigiendis adsuesceret. Sed parum successit labor praeposterus ac sero inchoatus.

TranslationHe was outstanding in eloquence and could express excellently whatever he wished. And not satisfied with just his paternal language, he also expended effort in learning foreign languages. Among these he knew Latin so well that he could speak it with the same control as his native language. But Greek he could understand better than speak. He was in fact so eloquent in speech that at times he seemed effusive. He cultivated the liberal arts very studiously, and in the instruction of these he treated his teachers with great honor. In learning grammar he was taught by the aged deacon, Peter the Pisan. In the other disciplines he had as teacher Albinus, with the surname Alcuin, also a deacon, a Saxon from Britain, a very learned man in all respects. With him he devoted effort and time to learn rhetoric and logic, but chiefly astronomy. He learned the art of computing and with keen effort he explored the course of the heavenly bodies. He also tried to write, and was accustomed to carry about tablets and notebooks to have under his pillow for this purpose, so that when there might be time he could apply his hand to writing letters. But he had very little success since his work was at the wrong time and begun too late.

Grammar

41. Simple Sentences.

In the basic word order of Latin the verb stands last in the sentence, as was noted in Grammar section 1. A fuller example than that given there is:

Aenēas ā nomine uxoris Lavinium appellat.Aeneas calls it Lavinia from the name of his wife.

If, as here, a subject is included, it typically stands initially. Adverbial expressions and objects follow it. The same order is found in coordinate sentences, as in this sentence from Lesson 5:

Agriculturae nōn student, maiorque pars eōrum victus in lacte, caseō, carne consistit.They do not practice agriculture, and the major part of their food consists of milk, cheese and meat.

We have also noted that the extensive inflection of nouns and verbs enables authors to modify the basic order, as for indicating emphasis on specific words; the final placement of laudem in the next example provides an illustration.

42. Complex Sentences.

As modifiers of a basic sentence, relative clauses may precede them, as in the following example from Lesson 5:

Quī diutissime impuberēs permanserunt, maximum inter suōs ferunt laudem.Those who remain chaste longest have the greatest praise among them.

When modifying specific nouns, on the other hand, relative clauses may follow, e.g.

Nam neque druidēs habent, quī rebus divinīs praesint.For they do not have Druids who preside over religious matters.

Subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctions also may follow the basic clause, e.g.

Cūius reī nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in fluminibus perluntur.Nothing of this matter is hidden, because they bathe promiscuously in rivers.

43. The Use of Infinitives.

Infinitives may stand as complements to verbs, as in English, as in this example from lesson 6:

Solent et subterraneōs specūs aperire.They are also accustomed to open up underground caves.

In such uses, they may correspond to subordinate clauses, as in this example from Lesson 8:

Hoc autem eos velle, ex motu corporis aperiabatur.But that they wished this was apparent from the motion of their body.

A favorite construction in Latin is made by using accusatives as subjects of infinitives, in the so-called accusative with infinitive construction, e.g. Lesson 5:

Hōc alī staturam, alī vires nervōsque confirmārī putant.Some think that height, others that sinews are strengthened by this.

44. Uses of Participles.

Participles are used as substantives, chiefly as adjectives. Since the perfect passive forms consist of the perfect participle passive with forms of esse 'be', such participles may be used alone, in view of the fact that forms of esse are often elided, as in this example from Lesson 1:

Inde foedus ictum inter ducēs.Then a treaty was struck by the leaders.

Participles are also used frequently with nouns as abbreviations of subordinate clauses in the ablative absolute construction, as in the following examples from Lesson 1:

crematā patriātheir fatherland had been burneddextrā datā(right hand given) He gave him his right hand.

45. Lengthy Sentences.

Sentences may be long and complex, especially in the writings of the historians. Caesar writes more succinctly. For understanding the complex sentences, one must simply identify individual clauses and interpret them in turn, as in the following example from Lesson 1:

Postquam audierit multitudinem Trōiānōs esse, ducem Aeneam, filium Anchisae et Veneris, crematā patriā domō profugōs sedem condendaeque urbī locum quaerere.

After the initial clause, Postquam audierit, there is a construction of the accusative with infinitive: multitudinem Trōiānōs esse. This is followed by a clause in which the verb is lacking, and that in turn by an appositive clause: ducem Aeneam, filium ... The next two words make up an ablative absolute construction: crematā patriā. These are followed by two clauses in which the verbs are participles. And finally there is another infinitive clause introduced by the verb audierit.

As edited in Lesson 1, this is treated here as a complete sentence; but strictly speaking it is actually a subordinate clause introduced by postquam, that stands before the basic clause: fidem ... sanxisse 'he enacted a pledge'. That in turn includes a number of subordinate clauses or their variants. Once again, the key to understanding such complex sentences is provided by the inflections.

Lesson 10Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

The great epic poet, Virgil -- Virgilius Maro -- was born on October 15, 70 B.C. in Cisalpine Gaul, where his father reputedly had a small estate. He received an excellent education, after which he returned to the estate and began his writings. Besides the Aeneid, these include the Eclogues and the Georgica. He later became an intimate of the court of the Emperor, Caesar Augustus, and thanks to his patronage was able to enjoy a life of leisure. Among other friends, he was highly respected by Horace. He died on September 22, 19 B.C. in Brundisium, in the company of the Emperor on their return to Italy from Athens.

The Aeneid was the last of his great works. With its glorification of the founders of Rome, it reflects his attachment to the Roman court. Written in hexameters, it is patterned after the Homeric epics. These begin with a word characterizing them -- the Iliad with the word for wrath, the Odyssey with the word for man. Virgil innovated by giving two words as indicating the central content of the epic -- arms and the man. Milton followed him in this respect, beginning Paradise Lost with the line: Of man's first disobedience and the fruit of that forbidden tree... The Aeneid was widely read throughout the Middle Ages and later. In earlier times, every educated person could recite its beginning verses. There are numerous translations into verse and prose -- among those into verse, one by John Dryden published in

1697, and another by William Morris published in 1875. There are also numerous editions and commentaries.Reading and Textual Analysis

The Aeneid builds on the tradition of the founding of Rome as depicted by Livy in the texts of the first two lessons of LATOL, especially the first. Ascribing the early era to one of the Trojan heroes, it provides a similar function as that of the Homeric epics for the Greeks in proposing a long and illustrious history of the Romans. The first six books with their climax in the stay of Aeneas with Dido and then his departure from her foreshadow the conflict between Rome and Carthage. The sixth book includes the visit of Aeneas to Hades, where he sees Dido, but she disdains him after her suicide. The book is said to have greatly influenced Dante in his production of The Divine Comedy. The second six books deal with the landing in Latium and the conquest of Italy by Aeneas, which was accomplished in twenty days. But as with Livy, the gap between the arrival of Aeneas in Italy, presumably in the twelfth century, and the actual founding of Rome by Romulus, presumably in the eighth, is passed over. Aeneas himself was killed in a battle; his body was not found, and by one tradition it was assumed that he was carried up to heaven.

Arma virumque cano, Trojae qui primus ab orisItaliam fato profugus Laviniaque venitLitora -- multum ille et terris jactatus et altoVi superum, saevae memorem Junonis ob iram,Multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbemInferretque deos Latio -- genus unde LatinumAlbanique patres atque altae moenia Romae.

* arma -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <arma, armorum> arms -- arms * virumque -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <vir, viri> man + conjunction <-que> and -- and a man * cano -- verb; 1st person singular present of <canō, canere, cecinī, cantum> sing -- I sing about * Trojae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <Troja, Trojae> Troy -- of Troy * qui -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- who * primus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <primus, prima, primum> first -- as the first * ab -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from * oris -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <ora, orae> mouth, boundary, coast -- the coasts * Italiam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <Italia, Italiae> Italy -- to Italy * fato -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <fatum, fati> utterance, fate -- by fate * profugus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <profugus, profuga, profugum> fugitive -- in flight * Laviniaque -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Lavinius, Lavinia, Lavinium> Lavinian + conjunction <-que> and -- and to the Lavinian * venit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventum> come -- came * litora -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <litus, litoris> shore -- shores * multum -- adverb; <multum> greatly -- very much * ille -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- he * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- both

* terris -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <terra, terrae> earth, land -- on land * jactatus -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect passive participle of <jactō, jactāre, jactāvī, jactātum> throw -- tossed about * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * alto -- adjective used as substantive; ablative singular neuter of <altus, alta, altum> high, deep -- on sea * vi -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <vis, vis> power, strength -- by the power * superum -- noun; genitive masculine plural of <superus, supera, superum> higher, gods -- of the gods * saevae -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <saevus, saeva, saevum> fierce, cruel -- of fierce * memorem -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <memor, memoris> mindful, remembering -- relentless * Junonis -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <Juno, Junonis> Juno -- of Juno * ob -- preposition; <ob> because of -- because of * iram -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <ira, irae> anger -- anger * multa -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <multus, multa, multum> many -- many things * quoque -- adverb; <quoque> also -- also * et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and * bello -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <bellum, belli> war -- in battle * passus -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of <patior, patī, passus sum> suffer, endure -- he suffered * dum -- conjunction; <dum> while -- while * conderet -- verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive imperfect of <condō, condere, condidī, conditum> found -- he founded * urbem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <urbs, urbis> city -- the city * inferretque -- verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive imperfect of <inferō, inferre, intulī, inlātum> introduce, produce + conjunction <-que> and -- and brought in * deos -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <deus, dei> god -- the gods * Latio -- noun; dative singular neuter of <Latium, Latii> Latium -- to Latium * genus -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <genus, generis> kind, class -- the race * unde -- adverb; <unde> from whence -- from which place * Latinum -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Latinus, Latina, Latinum> Latin -- Latin * Albanique -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <Albanus, Albana, Albanum> Alban + conjunction <-que> and -- and the Alban * patres -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <pater, patris> father -- fathers * atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and * altae -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <altus, alta, altum> high, deep -- of lofty * moenia -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <moenia, moenium> walls -- the walls * Romae -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <Roma, Romae> Rome -- Rome

Musa, mihi causas memora, quo numine laesoQuidve dolens regina deum tot volvere casusInsignem pietate virum, tot adire laboresImpulerit. Tantaene animis caelestibus irae?

* Musa -- noun; vocative singular feminine of <Musa, Musae> Muse -- Oh Muse, * mihi -- pronoun; dative singular of <ego> I -- me

* causas -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <causa, causae> cause, reason -- the reasons * memora -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <memorō, memorāre, memorāvī, memorātus> relate, tell -- tell * quo -- interrogative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <qui, quae, quod> which, what -- for what * numine -- noun; ablative singular neuter of <numen, numinis> authority -- authority * laeso -- verb; perfect participle passive of <laedō, laedere, laesī, laesum> strike, offend -- offended * quidve -- interrogative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> who, what + conjunction <-ve> or -- or ... what * dolens -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <doleō, dolēre, doluī, dolitum> suffer, be angry -- angry * regina -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <regina, reginae> queen -- queen * deum -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <deus, dei> god -- of the gods * tot -- adjective number; <tot> so much, so many -- so many * volvere -- verb; infinitive of <volvō, volvere, volvī, volūtum> pass through, undergo -- to undergo * casus -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <casus, casus> fall, misfortune, chance -- misfortunes * insignem -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <insignis, insignis, insigne> distinguished -- distinguished * pietate -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <pietas, pietatis> piety -- for piety * virum -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <vir, viri> man -- a man * tot -- adjective number; <tot> so much, so many -- so many * adire -- verb; infinitive of <adeō, adīre, adiī, adītum> approach, encounter -- to encounter * labores -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <labor, laboris> labor, effort -- hardships * impulerit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <impellō, impellere, impulī, impulsum> drive, move -- drove * tantaene -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <tantus, tanta, tantum> such + interrogative adverb <-ne> ... -- Are such * animis -- noun; dative plural masculine of <animus, animi> soul, mind -- minds * caelestibus -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <caelestis, caelestis, caeleste> celestial -- in the celestial * irae -- noun; nominative plural feminine of <ira, irae> anger -- angers

Urbs antiqua fuit (Tyrii tenuere coloni)Karthago, Italiam contra Tiberinaque longeOstia, dives opum studiisque asperrima belli.

* urbs -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <urbs, urbis> city -- city * antiqua -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <antiquus, antiqua, antiquum> ancient -- an ancient * fuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- There was * Tyrii -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <Tyrius, Tyria, Tyrium> Tyrian -- Tyrian * tenuere -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <teneō, tenēre, tenuī, -> hold, control, understand -- controlled * coloni -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <colonus, coloni> farmer, settler -- settlers * Karthago -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <Karthago, Karthaginis> Carthage -- Carthage

* Italiam -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <Italia, Italiae> Italy -- Italy * contra -- preposition; <contra> opposite, facing -- opposite * Tiberinaque -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Tiberinus, Tiberina, Tiberinum> of Tiber + conjunction <-que> and -- and the Tiberine * longe -- adverb; <longe> by far -- and far from * ostia -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <ostium, ostii> mouth, entrance -- the mouths * dives -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <dives, divitis> rich -- rich in * opum -- noun; genitive plural feminine of <ops, opis> assistance, wealth, resources -- wealth * studiisque -- noun; ablative plural neuter of <studium, studii> application, study + conjunction <-que> and -- and the ... pursuits * asperrima -- adjective; nominative singular feminine superlative of <asper, aspera, asperum> rough, harsh -- harshest * belli -- noun; genitive singular neuter of <bellum, belli> war -- of war

quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus unamposthabita coluisse Samo: hic illius arma,hic currus fuit; hoc regnum dea gentibus esse,si qua fata sinant, iam tum tenditque fovetque.

* quam -- relative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- It * Juno -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <Juno, Junonis> Juno -- Juno * fertur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum> bear, carry -- is said * terris -- noun; ablative plural feminine of <terra, terrae> earth, land -- lands * magis -- adverb; <magis> more -- more than * omnibus -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all * unam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <unus, una, unum> one, alone -- alone * posthabita -- verb; ablative singular feminine of perfect passive participle of <posthabeō, posthabēre, posthabuī, posthabitum> place after, esteem less -- was esteemed less * coluisse -- verb; infinitive perfect of <colō, colere, coluī, cultum> dwell in, cultivate -- to have cherished * Samo -- noun; ablative singular feminine of <Samos, Sami> Samus -- even Samus * hic -- adverb; <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- there were * illius -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- her * arma -- noun; nominative plural neuter of <arma, armorum> arms -- arms * hic -- adverb; <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- there * currus -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <currus, currus> chariot -- her chariot * fuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- was * hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this * regnum -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <regnum, regni> kingship, supreme power -- the leading kingdom * dea -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <dea, deae> goddess -- the goddess * gentibus -- noun; dative plural feminine of <gens, gentis> race, clan -- among the peoples * esse -- verb; infinitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- to be * si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if

* qua -- indefinite pronoun; ablative singular feminine of <quis, quis, quid> someone, anything -- by some way * fata -- noun; nominative plural neuter of <fatum, fati> utterance, fate -- the fates * sinant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <sinō, sinere, sīvī> permit, allow -- would permit it * iam -- adverb; <iam> already -- already * tum -- adverb; <tum> then -- then * tenditque -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <tendō, tenere, tenuī, tentum> stretch, pursue + conjunction <-que> and -- she both pursued * fovetque -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <foveō, fovēre, fōvī, fōtum> warm, favor + conjunction <-que> and -- and favored it

Progeniem sed enim Troiano a sanguine duciaudierat Tyrias olim quae verteret arces.

* progeniem -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <progenies, -> offspring, race -- a race * sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but * enim -- conjunction; <enim> for, indeed -- indeed * Troiano -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <Troianus, Troiana, Troianum> Trojan -- Trojan * a -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from * sanguine -- noun; ablative singular masculine of <sanguis, sanguinis> blood -- blood * duci -- verb; infinitive passive of <dūcō, ducere, dūxī, ductum> lead, consider -- would be drawn * audierat -- verb; 3rd person singular pluperfect of <audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum> hear -- she had heard * Tyrias -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <Tyrius, Tyria, Tyrium> Tyrian -- Tyrian * olim -- adverb; <olim> some day -- some * quae -- relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which * verteret -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <vertō, vertere, vertī, versum> turn, overturn -- would overturn * arces -- noun; accusative plural feminine of <arx, arcis> citadel, fortress -- citadels

Lesson Text

Arma virumque cano, Trojae qui primus ab oris Italiam fato profugus Laviniaque venit Litora -- multum ille et terris jactatus et alto Vi superum, saevae memorem Junonis ob iram, Multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem Inferretque deos Latio -- genus unde Latinum Albanique patres atque altae moenia Romae. Musa, mihi causas memora, quo numine laeso Quidve dolens regina deum tot volvere casus Insignem pietate virum, tot adire labores Impulerit. Tantaene animis caelestibus irae? Urbs antiqua fuit (Tyrii tenuere coloni)

Karthago, Italiam contra Tiberinaque longe Ostia, dives opum studiisque asperrima belli. quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus unam posthabita coluisse Samo: hic illius arma, hic currus fuit; hoc regnum dea gentibus esse, si qua fata sinant, iam tum tenditque fovetque. Progeniem sed enim Troiano a sanguine duci audierat Tyrias olim quae verteret arces.

Translation

I sing of arms and the man, who as first (among the Romans) came from the coasts of Troy to the Lavinian shores in flight driven by fate. Tossed about on lands and the sea by the might of the gods, he suffered many things also in battle through the relentless anger of fierce Juno as he brought the gods to Latium, whence the Latin race and the Alban fathers and also the walls of lofty Rome.

Remind me of the causes, oh Muse, offended for what authority, or angry at what the queen of the gods caused a man outstanding in piety to undergo so many troubles, to suffer so many labors. Are there such angers in the celestial minds?

There was an ancient city (Tyrian colonists maintained it), Carthage, a long way opposite Italy and the mouths of the Tiber, rich in wealth and very fierce in the pursuits of war, which alone Juno is said to have cherished more than all others, even esteeming Samos less. Here were her arms, her chariot. This was the ruling power among the races for the goddess, and as the fates permitted, she favored and supported it. But she had heard that a race from Trojan blood would at some time overturn the Tyrian citadels.

References46. Texts.

As a result of the long and detailed attention, the texts of the Latin authors have been fixed. For example, the texts of the first two lessons are identical in the publication by Mauritius Mueller (Leipzig: Teubner, 1892) and that of the Loeb Classical Library published in 1919 and reprinted numerous times to 1998. And the text of Einhard's biography of Charlemagne was fixed after numerous other editions in that of O. Holder-Egger (Hannover, 1911), which has subsequently been reprinted.

Unless a text with extensive commentary is desired, readers of the Latin texts will do well to use the editions of the Loeb Classical Library, which have the added advantage of including translations. These are readily available from the Harvard University Press (Cambridge, Mass. and London, England). The texts that have been widely read in schools and universities, such as those of Caesar and Virgil, are readily available. They have been published with introductions and commentaries, often also with glossaries. References may be found in catalogues of libraries and publishers.47. Grammars.

In much the same way, the grammars of Latin are based on long attention. The fullest grammar is that of Manu Leumann, Joh. Bapt. Hofmann and Anton Szantyr, Lateinische Grammatik. I. Laut-und Formenlehre (Munich: Beck, 1977), II. Syntax und Stilistik (Munich:

Beck, 1965). For ready reference, most readers will find useful a shorter grammar, such as A Latin Grammar of 1903, by William Gardner Hale and Carl Darling Buck (Tuscaloosa: Alabama University Press, 1966).

For a historical treatment, see the Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, by Carl Darling Buck (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933). A successor is the New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, by Andrew L. Sihler (Oxford: University Press, 1995); it is written like a novel -- no references, no bibliography.48. Dictionaries.

Dictionaries of various extent are also readily available. A Latin Dictionary, by Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short (Oxford University Press, 1956) is extensive. The companion Elementary Latin Dictionary by Lewis (Oxford University Press, 1969) is also comprehensive, and less costly.49. Specialized handbooks.

As catalogues in libraries and in lists of the concerned publishers indicate, one may readily find handbooks dealing with all aspects of Roman culture and history. Among examples, the Oxford University Press (2001 Evans Road, Cary, NC 27513) has published The Oxford History of the Roman World, eds. John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, Oswyn Murray (2001), The Oxford Illustrated History of the Roman World by the same editors (2001), Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome, by Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins (1998), Slaves and Masters in the Roman Empire, by K.R.Bradley (1987), Rome, by M. Rostovtzeff (1960), among many other more specialized works. References works like A Smaller Classical Dictionary, ed. E.H.Blakeney (New ork: Dutton, 1928) provide compact entries on persons, places and things in the Roman and Greek world.

One should not overlook the essays in encyclopedias, such as those in the celebrated 13th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica. These deal with various aspects of culture and history.50. The Legacy of the Roman World.

The Roman world has exerted massive influence on the western world, as its linguistic effects and institutions indicate. An example is Salus Mundi 'welfare or prosperity of the world', the name of the foundation that sponsored the present work. Among many other examples, we may cite Cursor Mundi, the name of an English epic poem of the 13th century that sketches the history of the world according to the Old and New Testaments. Its unidentified author explains the title with the lines:

Cursur of werld man aght it call For almast it overrennes all.

(Cf. Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 7, p. 650. London: The Encyclopedia Britannica Co., 1926, 13th ed.) Another expression, E pluribus unum -- one out of many -- was selected as characterizing the United States. And Summa cum laude -- with the highest praise -- indicates academic excellence.

James Bradstreet Greenough and George Lyman Kittredge state in their work Words and their Ways in English Speech (New York: Macmillan, 1902) p. 93: "The influence of Latin is not confined to the technical vocabulary. It is felt in almost every sentence that we utter. It pervades the whole system of English speech." A sentence like the first in this section

provides ample support for the statement. They also point to the Roman numerals and the symbol &c for Latin et cetera. Moreover, they cite doublets, like reason, ration and ratio, the first of which was taken from the Old French reflex of the Latin word, the second somewhat later from French in military use, and the last directly from Latin in mathematical use.

The institutions are of lesser concern here, but as the linguistic importations indicate, they as well as our clerical, military and educational terms are heavily based on those developed in the Roman world. Such effects indicate excellent reasons for reading Latin texts, as promoted by this series of online lessons.