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Chapter 4

Motivation and Values

CONSUMER

BEHAVIOR, 9eMichael R. Solomon


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Learning Objectives

When you finish this chapter, you shouldunderstand why:

Its important for marketers to recognizethat products can satisfy a range ofconsumer needs.

The way we evaluate and choose a productdepends upon our degree of involvementwith the product, the marketing message,and/or the purchase situation.


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Learning Objectives (continued)

Our deeply held cultural values dictate thetypes of products and services we seek out

or avoid.

Consumers vary in the importance theyattach to worldly possessions, and this

orientation in turn has an impact on their

priorities and behaviors.


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What is Motivation?

The willingness to do something,

conditioned by actions ability to

satisfy some need for the individual

Level of motivation varies both

between individuals and within

individuals at different times.


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Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

What is Motivation

Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort

towards goals, conditioned by the effort ability to satisfysome individual need.

Quality and intensity of the effort is important.


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I was saying

"I'm the greatest

long before

I believed it.

Intensity


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Direction


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It's not that I'm sosmart, it's just that I

stay with problems

longer.

Persistence


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Motivation Process

Unsatisfied

Need

Tension

Drives

Search

Behavior

Satisfied

Need

Reduction

of Tension


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The Motivation Process

The forces that drive people to buy and use products aregenerally straightforward, as when a person chooses what to

have of lunch.

Sometimes people are not even fully aware of the forces thatdrive them toward some products and away form others.

To understand motivation is to understand why consumers dowhat they do.

Why do some people to bungee jump off a bridge or parachutefrom highest buildings.


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The Motivation Process

Motivation refers to the processes thatcause people to behave as they do.

Once a need has been activated, astate of tension exists that drives the

consumer to attempt to reduce oreliminate the need.

The ad shows desired state andsuggests a solution (purchase of

equipment)

To understand motivation is to understand why consumers do what they do.


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Needs and Motivation

A need creates a state of tension that drives the consumer toattempt to reduce or eliminate it.

This need may be utilitarian (i.e., a desire to achieve some

functional or practical benefit, as when a person loads up ongreen vegetables for nutritional reasons); or

It may be hedonic (i.e., an experiential need, involving emotionalresponses or fantasies, as when Basit longs for a juicy steak).

The desired end state is the consumers goal.


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Marketers try to create products and services to provide the desiredbenefits and help the consumer to reduce this tension.

Whether the need is utilitarian or hedonic, the magnitude of the

tension it creates determines the urgency the consumer feels toreduce it.

We call this degree of arousal a drive.

We can satisfy a basic need in any number of ways, and the specificpath a person chooses is influenced both by his/her unique set of

experiences and by the values his or her culture instills.


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These personal and cultural factors combine to create a want, whichis one manifestation of a need.

For hunger can reduced by the intake of cheeseburger, cookies, rawfish, etc.

The specific route to drive (tension) reduction is culturally andindividually determined.

Once the goal is attained, tension is reduced and the motivation

recedes (for the time being).

Motivation can be described in terms of its strength or pull it exertson consumer and its direction or the particular way consumer tries toreduce motivational tension.


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Motivational Strength

The degree to which a person will expend energy toreach one goal as opposed to another reflects his or

her motivation to attain that goal.

Many theories have been advanced to explain whypeople behave the way they do.


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Drive theory focuses on biological needs thatproduce unpleasant states of arousal (e.g., your

stomach grumbles during a morning class).

The arousal, this tension causes, motivates us toreduce it.

Some researchers feel this need to reduce arousal isa basic mechanism that governs much of our

behavior.


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In a marketing context, tension refers to the unpleasantstate that exists if a persons consumption needs are not

fulfilled.

A person may be grumpy if he hasnt eaten, or hemay be dejected or angry if s/he cannot afford that

new car s/he wants.

This state activates goal-oriented behavior, whichattempts to reduce or eliminate this unpleasant state and

return to a balanced one we call homeostasis.


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However, drive theory explain why sometimespeople do things that increase a drive state rather

than decrease it.

For example people may delay gratification. If youknow you are going out for a lavish dinner, you

might decide to forego a snack earlier in the day

even though you are hungry at that time.


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Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is largelypulled by expectations of achieving desirable

outcomespositive incentivesrather than pushed from

within.

We choose one product over another because weexpect this choice to have more positive

consequences for us.


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Discussion

If a car of tourists drives into an unfamiliar town atmeal time and stops at McDonalds instead of an

equally attractive and price-competitive JOES Eats,

which of the two theories (expectancy or drive)

would probably be at work?

How would JOES combat this?


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Motivational Direction

Motives have direction as well as strength.

They are goal oriented in that they drive us to satisfy a specificneed.

Most goals can be reached by a number of routes, and theobjective of a company is to convince consumers that thealternative it offers provides the best chance to attain the goal.

If you need a mobile phone to help you reach your goal ofbeing accepted by others, can choose among Nokia, Samsung,LG.. and other alternatives, each of which promises to delivercertain benefits.


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What Do We Need? Variety of Needs

Biogenic Needs

Psychogenic Needs

We are born with a need for certainelements necessary to maintain lifesuch as food, water, air, and shelter.These are biogenic needs.

We acquirepsychogenic needs as webecome members of a specificculture. These include the needs forstatus, power, and affiliation.

Psychogenic needs reflect thepriorities of a culture, and their effecton behavior will vary fromenvironment to environment.


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What Do We Need?

Hedonic needs are subjective andexperiential; here we might look to aproduct to meet our needs forexcitement, self-confidence, or

fantasy perhaps to escape themundane or routine aspects of life.

Utilitarian Needs

Hedonic Needs

When we focus on a utilitarian need,we emphasize the objective, tangibleattributes of products, such as milesper gallon in a car; the amount of fat,calories, and protein in acheeseburger; or the durability of a

pair of blue jeans.


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Motivational Conflicts

A goal has valence, which means that it can be positive or negative.

We direct our behavior toward goals we value positively; we are motivated toapproach the goal and to seek out products that will help us to reach it.

However; were also motivated to avoid a negative outcome rather than achieve a

positive outcome.

Consumer will structure their purchases to reduce the chances of attaining this endresult.

Example: many of us stay away from products that they associate with socialdisapproval.

Deodorants, and mouthwash frequently rely on consumers negative motivation bydepicting the onerous social consequences of underarm odor or bad breath.


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Types of Motivational Conflicts

Because purchase decision involves more than one source ofmotivation; consumers often find themselves in situation in whichdifferent motives, both positive and negative, conflict with oneanother.

A person has an approachapproach conflict when s/he must choose

between two desirable alternatives, such as choosing between twofavorite brands of automobiles/mobile sets/schools

The theory of cognitive dissonance is based on the premise thatpeople have a need for order and consistency in their lives and that astate of dissonance (tension) exists when beliefs or behaviors conflictwith one another.

We resolve the conflict that arises when we choose between twoalternatives through a process ofcognitive dissonance reduction,where we look for a way to reduce this inconsistency (or dissonance)and thus we eliminate unpleasant tension.


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Dissonance occurs when a consumer must choose between twoproducts, both of which possess good and bad qualities.

When s/he chooses one product and not the other, the person getsthe bad qualities of the product he buys and loses out on the goodqualities of the one he didnt buy.

This loss creates an unpleasant, dissonant state he wants to reduce.

We tend to convince ourselves, after the fact, that the choice we madewas the smart one as we find additional reasons to support thealternative we did chooseperhaps when we discover flaws with theoption we did not choose (sometimes we call this rationalization).

A marketer can resolve approach-approach conflict by bundlingseveral benefits together. For example sugar-free sweets


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Discussion

How could a marketer use the theory of cognitive

dissonance to their advantage? What do you think ofMillers classic Tastes Great, Less Filling

campaign?


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Approach-avoidance conflictmany products or services wedesire have negative consequences attached to them.

We may feel guilty or showy when buying a status laden product

such as fur coat. Some solutions to these problems include theproliferation of fake furs which eliminate the guilt about harming the

animals to make a fashion statement and success of diet foods.

Many marketers try to overcome guilt by convincing consumer that

they are deserving of luxuries (e.g., when the model for LOrealcosmetics exclaims, Because Im worth it)


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Avoidance-avoidance conflicta choice between twoundesirable alternatives such as having to spend more

on an older car or buy a newer more expensive car.

Marketers deal with such conflicts with messages thatstress the unforeseen benefits of choosing one option

(e.g., by emphasizing special credit plans to ease the

pain of car payments).


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Figure 4.1 Types of Motivational Conflicts

Two desirable alternatives

Cognitive dissonance

Positive & negative aspects

of desired product

Guilt of desire occurs

Facing a choice with two

undesirable alternatives


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How Do Our Needs Influence What We Buy?

Those needs especially relevant for consumerbehavior include the need for achievement, the

need for affiliation, the need for power, and the need

for uniqueness.


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Specific Needs and Buying Behavior

NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT

Value personal accomplishment

Place a premium on products

that signify success (luxury

brands, technology products)

NEED FOR AFFILIATION

Want to be with other people

Focus on products that are

used in groups (alcoholic

beverages, sports bars)

NEED FOR POWER

Control ones environment

Focus on products that allowthem to have mastery over

surroundings (muscle cars,

loud boom-boxes)

NEED FOR UNIQUENESS

Assert ones individual identity

Enjoy products that focus ontheir unique character

(perfumes, clothing)


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How Do Our Needs Influence What We Buy?

Maslows hierarchy of needs implies that the orderof development is fixed. This hierarchy is most

closely associated with product benefits that people

might be looking for. Lower order needs must besatisfied before climbing the needs ladder.


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Levels of Needs in the Maslow Hierarchy


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Unfortunately, this state is difficult to achieve; mostof us have to be satisfied with occasional glimpses,

or peak experiences.

Another problem with taking Maslows hierarchy tooliterally is that it is culture-bound.

Many Asian cultures value the welfare of thegroup (belongingness needs) more highly thanneeds of the individual (esteem needs)


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Discussion

Tell us about a product you could buy that could fit

into all five levels of Maslows hierarchy of needs;


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For example, one study found that gardening couldsatisfy needs at every level of the hierarchy:

PhysiologicalI like to work in the soil.

SafetyI feel safe in the garden.

SocialI can share my produce with others.

EsteemI can create something of beauty.

Self-actualizationMy garden gives me a senseof peace.


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Consumer Involvement

Customers can get pretty attached to a products:

All in One restaurant tattoo on consumers head

Luckymagazine for women who obsess over shopping

A man tried to marry his car when his fiance dumped him

Consumers motivation to attain a goal increases his/herdesire to acquire the products or services s/he believes will

satisfy that goal.

Not everyone is motivated to the same extent.


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Involvement is defined as a persons perceived relevance of theobject based on their inherent needs, values, and interests.

The word object refers to a product, an advertisement, orapurchase situation.

Consumers can find involvement in these objects.

Because involvement is a motivational construct, differentantecedents can trigger it.

Figure 4.3 shows that different factors may create involvement.These factors can be something about the person, something aboutthe object, or something about the situation.


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Figure 4.3 Conceptualizing Involvement


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Involvement can be viewed as motivation to process information.

There is perceived linkage between a consumers needs, goals orvalues and product knowledge, the consumer will be motivated topay attention to product information.

When relevant knowledge is activated in memory, a motivationalstate is created that drives behavior (e.g. shopping)

As involvement with the product increases, the consumer pays moreattention to ads related to the product, exerts more cognitive effort tounderstand these ads and focuses more attention on the productrelated information in them.


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Levels of Involvement:

From Inertia to Passion

Consumers involvement with the product determines the kind ofinformation that will be processed.

It can range from simple to elaborate

A persons degree of involvement is a continuum that ranges fromabsolute lack of interest in a marketing stimulus at one end to

obsession at the other end.

Inertia is consumption at the low end of involvement; decisionsmade out of habit (lack of motivation)


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Levels of Involvement:

From Inertia to Passion

When consumers are truly involved with something, theyenter a flow state.

Flow is an optimal experience with several qualities such

as: a sense of playfulness, a feeling of being in control, concentration and highly focused attention,

a mental enjoyment of the activity for its own sake,and a distorted sense of time.


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Strategies to Increase Involvement

Consumers differ in their level of involvement with the product or amessage.

To increase involvement, marketers can boost a persons motivation toprocess relevant information.

Appeal to consumers hedonic needs

Use novel stimuli (unusual ads)

Use prominent stimuli (larger more colorful ads)

Include celebrity endorsers

Provide value customers appreciate Let customers make messages

Build a bond with consumers by maintaining an ongoingrelationship with them.


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Cult Products


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Product Involvement

Product involvement is the consumerslevel of interest in a product


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Discussion

Interview each other about a particularcelebrity.

Describe your level of involvement with the

product and devise some marketingopportunities to reach this group.


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Purchase Situation Involvement

Purchase situation involvement:differences that occur when buying the

same object for different contexts.

Example: wedding gift For boss: purchase expensive vase to

show that you want to impress boss

For cousin you dont like: purchaseinexpensive vase to show youreindifferent


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Table 4.1 Measuring Involvement

To me (object to be judged) is:1. important _:_:_:_:_:_:_ unimportant

2. boring _:_:_:_:_:_:_ interesting

3. relevant _:_:_:_:_:_:_ irrelevant

4. exciting _:_:_:_:_:_:_ unexciting

5. means nothing _:_:_:_:_:_:_ means a lot

6. appealing _:_:_:_:_:_:_ unappealing

7. fascinating _:_:_:_:_:_:_ mundane

8. worthless _:_:_:_:_:_:_ valuable

9. involving _:_:_:_:_:_:_ uninvolving

10. not needed _:_:_:_:_:_:_ needed


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Consumer Values

Value: a belief that some condition ispreferable to its opposite

Example: looking younger is preferableto looking older

Products/services = help in attaining value-related goal

We seek others that share our values/

beliefs Thus, we tend to be exposed toinformation that supports our beliefs


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Core Values

Core values: valuesshared within a culture

Enculturation: learning the

beliefs and values of onesown culture

Acculturation: learning thevalue system and

behaviors of anotherculture


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Discussion

What do you think are the three to five corevalues that best describe Americans today?

How are these core values relevant to the

following product categories: Cars?

Clothing?

Higher education?


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Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions

Power distance

Individualism

Masculinity

Uncertainty avoidance

Long-term orientation


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Table 4.2 Terminal and Instrumental Values

Instrumental Value Terminal Value

Ambitious A comfortable life

Capable A sense of

accomplishment

Self-controlled Wisdom


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List of Values (LOV)

Identifies nine consumer segments based onvalues they endorse; and

Relates each value to differences in

consumption behaviors. Example: those who endorse sense of

belonging read Readers Digestand TV

Guide drink and entertain more, and prefer

group activities


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Means-End Chain Model

Very specific product attributes are linkedat levels of increasing abstraction to

terminal values

Alternative means to attain valued endstates

Laddering technique uncovers consumersassociations between specific attributes

and general consequences

Fi 4 4 Hi hi l V l M


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Figure 4.4 Hierarchical Value Maps

for Vegetable Oil in Three Countries


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Conscientious Consumerism

Conscientious consumerism is a focus onpersonal health merging with a growing

interest in global health

LOHAS (lifestyles of health andsustainability): Consumers who:

Worry about the environment

Want products to be produced in asustainable way

Spend money to advance what they see astheir personal development and potential


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Figure 4.5 Carbon Footprint Breakdown


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Materialism

Materialism: the importance people attachto worldly possessions

The good life...He who dies with the

most toys, wins Materialists: value possessions for their

own status and appearance

Non-materialists: value possessions thatconnect them to other people or providethem with pleasure in using them


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Chapter Summary

Products address a wide range of consumerneeds.

How we evaluate a product depends on our

involvement with that product, the marketingmessage, and the purchase situation.

Our cultural values dictate the products weseek out and avoid.

Consumers vary in how importantpossessions are to them.

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