language words_word classes

7/30/2019 Language Words_word Classes

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Definition:

Thepart of speech(orword class) that is used to name or identify a person, place, thing,

quality, or action. Adjective:nominal.

Most nouns have both asingularandpluralform, can be preceded by anarticleand/or one or

moreadjectives, and can serve as theheadof anoun phrase.

A noun or noun phrase can function as asubject,direct object,indirect object,complement,

appositive, orobject of a preposition. In addition, nouns sometimesmodifyother nouns to

formcompound nouns. See "Observations," below.

Verb, an action hero on the children's TV seriesSchoolhouse Rock!(1974)

Definition:

Thepart of speech(orword class) that describes an action or occurrence or indicates a state of

being.

There are two main classes of verbs: (1) the largeopen classoflexical verbs(also known as

main verbsorfull verbs--that is, verbs that aren't dependent on other verbs); and (2) the small

closed classofauxiliary verbs(also called helping verbs). The two subtypes of auxiliaries are

theprimary auxiliaries (be, have, and do), which can also act as lexical verbs, and themodal

auxiliaries(can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, and would).

Verbs andverb phrasesusually function aspredicates. They can display differences intense,

mood,aspect,number,person, andvoice. See "Observations," below.
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ectterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/moodterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/tenseterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/predterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/verbphraseterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/modalterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/modalterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/auxverbterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/closedclassterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/Main-Verb.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/lexicalverbterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/openclassterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/wordclassterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/basicsentencegrammar/a/POS.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/b/2010/07/05/the-parts-of-speech-at-schoolhouse-rock.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/compnounterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/modterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/objprepterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/apposterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/complterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/indirobjterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/dirobjecterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/subject.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nounphraseterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/headterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/adjecterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/articleterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/pluralterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/singularterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nominterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/wordclassterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/partsspeechterm.htm


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Definition:

Thepart of speech(orword class) that modifies anounor apronoun. Adjective: adjectival.

In addition to their basic (orpositive) forms, most descriptive adjectives have two other

forms:comparativeandsuperlative.

Definition:

Thepart of speech(orword class) that is primarily used to modify averb,adjective, or other

adverb. Adverbs can also modifyprepositional phrases,subordinate clauses, and complete

sentences. Adjective: adverbial.

Positions of an Adverb:An adverb that modifies an adjective ("quite sad") or another adverb ("very carelessly")

appears immediately in front of the word it modifies. An adverb that modifies a verb is

generally more flexible: it may appear before or after the verb it modifies ("softly sang" or

"sangsoftly"), or it may appear at the beginning of the sentence ("Softly she sang to the

baby"). The position of the adverb may have an effect on the meaning of the sentence.

Functions of an Adverb:Adverbs typically add information about time (rarely, frequently, tomorrow), manner (slowly,

quickly, willingly), or place (here, there, everywhere).

Forms of an Adverb:Many adverbs--especially adverbs of manner--are formed fromadjectivesby the addition of

the ending -ly (easily, dependably). But many common adverbs (just, still, almost, not) do not

end in -ly, and not all words that end in -ly (friendly, neighborly) are adverbs. See"Observations," below.
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GERUND:

Definition:

A traditional grammatical term for averbalthat ends in -ingand functions as anoun.Adjective:gerundial.

A gerund with itsobjects,complements, andmodifiersis called agerund phrase or simply a

noun phrase.

infinitive

Definition:

Averbal--usually preceded by theparticleto--that can function as anoun, anadjective, or an

adverb. Adjective: infinitival.

present participle

Examples ofpresent participles in a sentence by N. Scott Momaday (House Made of Dawn,

1968)

Definition:

A verb form--made by adding -ingto thebase form--that functions as anadjective. Present

participles are the only verb forms that are completely regular.

The present participle is used with a form of theauxiliarybe to express theprogressive aspect.
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past participle

Two examples ofpast participles

Definition:

The thirdprincipal partof averb, created by adding -ed, -d, or-tto thebase formof aregular

verb. (The past participle forms of regular verbs--such as looked, worked, and wished--are

identical to thepast tense.)

The past participle forms ofirregular verbshave various endings, including -d(said), -t

(slept), and -n (broken).

The past participle is used with theauxiliaryhas, have, orhadto express theperfect aspect. In

addition, the past participle is used with the auxiliary be to express thepassive voice.

conjunction

Amnemonicfor the common coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Definition:

Thepart of speech(orword class) that serves to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

The common conjunctions--and, but, for, or, nor, yet, andso--join the elements of a

coordinatestructure.

A sentence style that employs many coordinate conjunctions is calledpolysyndeton. A

sentence style that omits conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses is calledasyndeton.

In contrast tocoordinating conjunctions, which connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal

rank,subordinating conjunctionsconnect clauses of unequal rank.
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Definition:

A word (one of theparts of speechand a member of aclosed word class) that shows the

relationship between anounorpronounand other words in a sentence.

The combination of a preposition and anoun phraseis called aprepositional phrase. A word

group (such as in front oforon top of) that functions like a simple, one-word preposition is

called acomplex preposition.

Prepositions convey the following relationships: agency (by); comparison (like, as . . . as);

direction (to, toward, through); place (at, by, on); possession (of); purpose (for); source (from,

out of); and time (at, before, on). See "Observations," below.

tense

Definition:

The time of averb's action or state of being, such as past, present, or future. See also:

aspect

Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English by Douglas Biber, Susan Conrad,

and Geoffrey Leech (Longman, 2002)

Definition:

Theverbform that indicates completion, duration, or repetition of an action. (Compare with

tense.) The two aspects in English areperfectandprogressive.

In English, aspect is expressed by means ofparticles, separate verbs, andverb phrases.

Etymology:From the Latin, "how [something] looks"
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vocabulary

Evelyn Waugh (Diaries, Dec. 25, 1962)

Definition:

All thewordsof alanguage, or the words used by a particular person or group. See also:

grammar

Definition:

1. The systematic study and description of alanguage.

2. A set of rules and examples dealing with thesyntaxandwordstructures (morphology)of a language. Adjective:grammatical.

lexis

Rules, Patterns and Words: Grammar and Lexis in English Language Teachingby DaveWillis (Cambridge University Press, 2004)

Definition:

A term inlinguisticsfor thevocabularyof alanguage. Adjective: lexical.
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syntax

Analysing English Sentences: A Minimalist Approach by Andrew Radford (CambridgeUniversity Press, 2009)

Definition:

(1) Inlinguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in whichwordscombine to form

phrases,clauses, andsentences. Syntax is one of the major components ofgrammar.

(2) The arrangement of words in a sentence. Adjective:syntactic.

subject

Definition:

The part of asentenceorclausethat commonly indicates (a) what it is about, or (b) who orwhat performs the action (that is, theagent).

The subject is typically anoun,noun phrase, orpronoun. In adeclarative sentence, the subject

usually appears before theverb("Gus never smiles"). In aninterrogative sentence, the subject

usually follows the first part of a verb ("Does Gus ever smile?").

As discussed below, there are exceptions to this traditional definition of a subject.
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object

Definition:

A word or group of words, functioning as anounor apronoun, that is influenced by averb(direct object), averbal(indirect object), or apreposition(object of a preposition).

Etymology:

From the Latin, "to throw"

indirect object

Definition:

Anounorpronounthat indicates to whom or for whom the action of averbin a sentence is

performed.

With verbs that can be followed by two objects, the indirect object typically comes

immediately after the verb and before thedirect object.

direct object

Definition:

Anounorpronounin a sentence that receives the action of atransitive verb.

complementDefinition:

A word or word group that completes thepredicatein a sentence.

The two kinds of complements aresubject complements (which follow the verb be and other

linking verbs) and object complements (which follow adirect object). If it identifies the

subject, the complement is anounorpronoun; if it describes the subject, the complement is an

adjective.

Complements are requiredto complete the verb, in contrast tomodifiers, which are optional.
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syllable

Definition:

One or morelettersrepresenting a unit of spokenlanguageconsisting of a singleuninterrupted sound. Adjective:syllabic.

A syllable is made up of either a singlevowelsound (as in thepronunciationofoh) or a

combination of vowel andconsonant(s)(as in no and not).

A syllable that stands alone is called amonosyllable. A word containing two or more syllables

is called apolysyllable.

word

Definition:

Aspeechsound or a combination of sounds, or its representation inwriting, that symbolizes

and communicates a meaning and may consist of a singlemorphemeor a combination of

morphemes.

phrase

Definition:

Any small group of words within asentenceor aclause.

A phrase functions as a unit and includes ahead(orheadword), which determines the type or

nature of the phrase.

adjective phrase

Definition:

A word group with anadjectiveas itshead. This adjective may be accompanied bymodifiers,

determiners, and/orqualifiers.

Adjective phrases modifynouns. They may beattributive(appearing before the noun) or

predicative(appearing after alinking verb), but not all adjectives can be used in both

positions.
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adverb phrase

An adverb phrase (also called an adverbialphrase) usually answers one of these questions.

Definition:

A word group with anadverbas itshead. This adverb may be accompanied bymodifiersor

qualifiers.

An adverb phrase can modify averb, anadjective, or another adverb, and it can appear in a

number of different positions in a sentence.

noun phrase (NP)

Definition:

A word group with anounorpronounas itshead. The noun head can be accompanied by

modifiers,determiners(such as the, a, her), and/orcomplements.

A noun phrase (often abbreviated asNP) most commonly functions as asubject,object, or

complement.

prepositional phrase

There are fourprepositional phrases in the opening sentence ofThe Cricket in Times Square(1960), a children's book by George Selden.

Definition:

A group of words made up of apreposition, itsobject, and any of the object'smodifiers.
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verb phrase

Definition:

(1) Intraditional grammar, a word group that includes amain verband itsauxiliaries.

(2) Ingenerative grammar, apredicate: that is, alexical verband all the words governed by

that verb except asubject.

clause

Definition:

A group of words that contains asubjectand apredicate.

A clause may be either asentence(anindependent clause) or a sentence-like construction

within another sentence (adependent clause).

independent clause

Definition:

A group of words made up of asubjectand apredicate. An independent clause (unlike a

dependent clause) can stand alone as asentence.

By itself, an independent clause (also known as amain clause) is asimple sentence.

dependent clauseDefinition:

A group of words that has both asubjectand averbbut (unlike anindependent clause) cannot

stand alone as asentence. Also known as asubordinate clause.

Dependent clauses includeadverb clauses,adjective clauses, andnoun clauses.
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sentence

Four functional types ofsentences: (1)declarative, (2)interrogative, (3)imperative, and (4)

exclamatory

Definition:

The largest independent unit ofgrammar: it begins with acapital letterand ends with aperiod,

question mark, orexclamation point. Adjective:sentential.

The sentence is traditionally (and inadequately) defined as a word or group of words that

expresses a complete idea and that includes asubjectand averb.

The four basic sentence structures are thesimple sentence, thecompound sentence, the

complex sentence, and thecompound-complex sentence.

simple sentence

A simple sentence from Jack Nicholson as Colonel Jessup in A Few Good Men (1992)

Definition:

Asentencewith only oneindependent clause(also known as amain clause).
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compound sentence

A compound sentence from the movieBraveheart(1995)

Definition:

Asentencethat contains at least twoindependent clauses.

Compound sentences can be formed in three ways:(1) usingcoordinating conjunctions;

(2) using thesemicolon, either with or withoutconjunctive adverbs;

(3) on occasion, using thecolon.

complex sentence

A complex sentence from Henry David Thoreau

Definition:

Asentencethat contains anindependent clauseand at least onedependent clause.

compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence from Judy Garland as Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz(1939)

Definition:

Asentencewith two or moreindependent clausesand at least onedependent clause.
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paragraph

Don Marquis, quoted by E. Anthony in O Rare Don Marquis (1962)

Definition:

A group of closely relatedsentencesthatdevelopa central idea. Adjective:paragraphic.

essay

Phillip Lopate, The Art of the Personal Essay: An Anthology From the Classical Era to the

Presentby Phillip Lopate (Anchor, 1994)

Definition:

A short work ofnonfiction. A writer of essays is anessayist.

In an essay, an authorialvoicetypically invites animplied readerto accept as authentic a

certain textual mode of experience.

PAPER:

article in a journal
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article (composition)

The Everything Guide to Writing Nonfiction: All You Need to Write and Sell Exceptional

Nonfiction Books, Articles, Essays, Reviews, and Memoirs, by Richard D. Bank (Adams

Media, 2009)

Definition:

Incomposition studies, a short work ofnonfictionthat typically appears in a magazine,

newspaper, or book.

Unlikeessays, which often highlight the subjective impressions of the author (ornarrator),

articles are usually written from an objectivepoint of view.

Articles include news items, feature stories,reports,profiles, instructions, product

descriptions, and other informative pieces of writing.

Dissertation

Definition:

A graduate thesis pertaining to a specific study within your field. The thesis is based on an individual

research conducted by you and supervised by your advisor.

thesis

Definition:

1) The main idea of anessay,report,speech, orresearchpaper, sometimes written as a single

declarative sentence. A thesis may be implied rather than stated directly.

2) In theprogymnasmata, an exercise that requires a student to argue a case for one side or the

other.
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