Language Planning and PolicyLanguage Planning and Policy

Covers many issues – orthography, education, administration, international communication, language rights

Mainly concerned with national government policy but not always – churches, universities, local govts.

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General – language planning is the deliberate attempt to change linguistic behaviour (deliberate language change)

Or to stop it changingLanguage policy – general principles

behind such attempts

General QuestionsGeneral Questions

Is language planning possible? Is planning in general possible? – record of

planned economies is very poorWhat about planned languages?Yes, sometimes – but often at a high cost –

money, minority/majority rights, bureaucracy Quebec’s “language police”

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Is language planning desirable? – many sociolinguists would say no

Compare fate of English vs French

Corpus PlanningCorpus Planning

Internal structure and features of languages –pronunciation, spelling, syntax

Changes in Malay – compare place names

In English – no central control – Oxbridge and the Times, BBC – regional accents of news readers

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Writing systems sometimes a problem –which system? Political implications

Central Asia/Azerbeijan – shift from Cyrillic to Roman (but not Arabic) – each script linked with political ideology

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Spelling reforms – modest American reforms in English, reforms in Malay/Indonesian, proposals for German

New words – often a political or religious issue – divergence of Hindustani – “native” words in Icelandic and French

Codifying and teaching grammar

Example: IcelandicExample: Icelandic

Language Institute – 36 terminology committees -- keeping English out by inventing new Icelandic words

Computer – tolva – combines words for number and prophetess

frioD jofur -- thief of peace (pager)TV screen – sk jar cow’s amniotic sac

StandardisationStandardisation

Standard linguistic rules – local, national, regional, national

Range of standardisationOral languages without writing systems –

not used in education or for “high” purposes, lot of variation –Aslian languages

Partial standardisation – written language, used in primary education – Yoruba, Tamil

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Restricted standardisation – language is not used in law or higher education or is used for religion but not for science – Arabic? Hebrew?

Mature standardisation – language is used in all types of communication – how many?

Status planningStatus planning

Relationship between languages – often reflects political conflict and status of those who speak (or granparents) spoke the language

Northern Ireland – demands for official recognition of Irish (and then Ulster Scots)

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Allocation of functionsNational or official – symbolic or

ceremonial Malay in Singapore (national anthem) Irish (political parties – a chara (Oh friend)

in letters Welsh, Maori, African languages in South

Africa

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Provincial – French in Quebec, Welsh, Catalan, Iban in Sarawak

Lingua franca – Swahili, LingalaGroup – Roma, YiddishEducational – Latin, Sanskrit, Pali ,

Classical Arabic

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Literary – Hebrew, LatinReligious – Sanskrit etcMass media Industrial, servicesAlso prestige and acquisition planning –

cintai bahasa

Language planning Language planning processes: selectionprocesses: selection

Choice of language or variety for certain functions

originally gradual and unplanned – East Midlands dialect – standard English

Parisian French, Kano Hausa

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Deliberate creation of standard language from a specific dilaect, Basque, Indonesian, Bahasa Melayu from Johore-Riau, Pilipino from Tagalog

Most powerful or numerous dialect becomes the standard

Not always – Tuscan – standard Italian

CodificationCodification

Creation of linguistic standards or normsGraphisation – writing systemGrammatication – syntax and morphologyLexicalisation – new wordsDone by language academies, government

bodies, individuals

ImplementationImplementation

Production of written materialsExtension of domainsMarketingEnforcement – official or unofficial,

occasionally violent

Case studiesCase studies

Indonesia – many different languages – Javanese largest numbers of speakers but many varieties – admin language Dutch – Malay a trade language

National language before independence – Malay

Dutch – no international value, fear of Javanese domination

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Singapore – dominant Chinese population – but spoke stigmatised dialects – no natural resources

Multilingual policy – some free choice – encouragement of 2 H varieties

Linguistic variety reduced – English/Mandarin bilinguals dominant group

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Malaysia – dominant Malay groupNo role for minority vernaculars – spoke

stigmatised varietiesMalay national and official language Modified in recent years

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Timor LesteLocal language Tetum – a L varietyOfficial language Portuguese1975 occupied by Indonesia – then

independent – Portuguese became the national language

ModernisationModernisation

Lexical enrichmentBorrowing (often politically motivated)Extension of existing wordsneologisms

conclusionconclusion

Language planning – successful when supported by social or economic forces or political interests – French, Catalan, Mandarin in Singapore

Less successful if opposed by economic or political forces – Irish, Welsh, anti-Singlish, anti-rojak

Often unsuccessful – preserve Aboriginal or Amerindian languages