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Chapter 9Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

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Steps in Problem Solving

1. Find and frame problem

2. Develop good problem-solving strategies

3. Evaluate solutions

4. Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time

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Problem-Solving Strategies

Subgoaling Set intermediate goals to help you reach the

final solution Algorithms

Strategies that guarantee a solution Heuristics

Shortcut strategy that suggests, but does not guarantee, a solution

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Problem-Solving Obstacles

Optimal problem solving might require humility – methods are open to revision

Fixation Using a prior strategy without looking for a new

perspective

Functional Fixedness Fail to solve a problem because of a fixation with the

usual functions.

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Reasoning and Decision Making

Reasoning The mental activity of

transforming information to reach conclusions

Inductive reasoning Driven by data; bottom-up; general

specific

Deductive reasoning Driven by logic; top-down; specific

general

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Reasoning and Decision Making

Decision Making Evaluating alternatives and making choices

among them

Reasoning and decision making can occur without conscious awareness

Complex decision making may benefit from a lack of conscious thought

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Decision-Making Obstacles

Confirmation Bias Tendency to search only for information that supports

our ideas

Hindsight Bias Tendency to falsely report after the fact that we

predicted an outcome

Availability Heuristic Predict the probability of an event based on how easily

similar events are recalled

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Critical Thinking

Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence

Mindfulness – Alert and mentally present

Open-Mindedness – Receptive to new ways of looking at things

Divergent versus Convergent Thinking

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Creative Thinking

Creative people are divergent thinkers Convergent vs. divergent

Characteristics of creative thinkers Flexibility and playful thinking

Brainstorming Inner motivation Willingness to face risk Objective evaluation of work

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Creative Problem Solving

1. Preparation

2. Incubation

3. Insight

4. Evaluation

5. Elaboration

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Intelligence

What is intelligence?

Definitions of intelligence reflect culture Measuring intelligence Validity Reliability Standardization

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Intelligence Tests

Binet – Mental Age (MA)

Stern – Intelligence Quotient (IQ) IQ = (MA/CA) * 100

Stanford-Binet Test

Wechsler Scales

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Intelligence: Normal Distribution

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Influences on Testing

Cultural Bias in Testing

Genetic Influences on Intelligence Heritability

Environmental Influences on Intelligence Flynn effect

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The Flynn Effect

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Variations in Intelligence

Giftedness: IQ ≥ 130

Mental Retardation: IQ < 70 Classifications of mental retardation:

Mild, moderate, severe, profound Categories of support:

Intermittent, limited, extensive, pervasive

Organic versus Cultural-Familial Retardation

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Theories of Multiple Intelligences

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Analytical intelligence Creative intelligence Practical intelligence

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Theories of Multiple Intelligences Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind

Verbal Mathematical Spatial Bodily-Kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist

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Language

Language - A form of spoken, written, or signed communication based on symbols

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

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Influences on Language

Biological Influences Language universals Hemispheric specialization

Environmental Influences Behavioral view Language exposure Maternal speech

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Development of Language

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Language and Education

Whole-Language Approach Belief that reading instruction should parallel natural

language learning Reading should be integrated with other subjects and

focus on real world material

Phonics Approach Reading instructions should teach basic rules for

translating symbols into sounds Complex reading materials after basic mastery