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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
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Modern power systems are required to generate and supply high quality electric energy to customers.
To achieve this requirement, computers have been applied to power system planning, monitoring andcontrol. The increasing prominence of the computers has led to a new way of looking at the world. Power
system application programs for analyzing system behaviours are stored in computers. In the planning stage
of a power system, system analysis programs are executed repeatedly. Engineers adjust and modify the input
data to these programs according to their experience and knowledge about the system until satisfactory plans
are determined. Artificial intelligence emerged as a computer science discipline in the mid 1950s. Since
then, it has produced a number of powerful tools, many of which are of practical use in engineering to solve
difficult problems normally requiring human intelligence.Artificial Neural Networks and the Fuzzy logicsystems that are considered as the so called soft computing methods are now a days becoming predominant
tools in the area of Artificial Intelligence linked application oriented methods. Artificial intelligence has its
own well-developed programming languages. The most widely used languages are LISP and PROLOG.
The Neural network theory was first adopted in 1940 where the starting point was the learning law
proposed by ITEBB in 1949, which demonstrated how neurons could exhibit learning behaviour. The
application further waxed and waned away because of the lack of powerful technological advancement. The
resurgence occurred recently due to the new methods that are emerging as well as the computational power
suitable for simulation of interconnected neural networks. Further to the technological advancement in the
field of ANN, researchers were attracted on their important applications where logical and relational
thinking is required. Among the major applications viz., robotics, analysis, optimal control, database,
learning, signal processing, semiconductors, power system related applications became a useful tool for the
online researchers in this field.
Fuzzy Systems or logics were introduced by Lotfi Zadeh in 1965. It has basically been introduced to
solve inexact and vague concepts by relating those using multi-valuedness in a logical way. Earlier research
in this field was based on mathematical understanding of set theory and probability. Further as a part of
developing it as mathematics, the applications of these theories were considered in different areas. The
application of fuzzy systems other than in almost all the areas of the power systems are mainly in the field of
modal interface, speech recognition, functional reasoning, hybrid application along with Neural nets,
information, traction control, business.
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Chapter 2 WHAT IS AN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE?
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Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and robots and the branch of Computer
science that aims to create it. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and
engineering of making intelligent machines". AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of
intelligent agents"where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that
maximize its chances of success. In a broader sense, AI is a branch of computer science that studies the
computational requirements for tasks such as perception, reasoning and learning and develop systems to
perform those tasks.
2.1Tools
In the course of 50 years of research, AI has developed a large number of tools to solve the most
difficult problems in various fields. Few of them are mentioned below-
1.Neural networks
A neural network, also known as a parallel distributed processing network, is a computing solution
which consists of interconnected processing elements called nodes or neurons that work together to producean output function. It is loosely modeled after cortical structures of the brain.
2.Fuzzy Logic
Logic is used for knowledge representation and problem solving, but it can be applied to other
problems as well. Fuzzy logic is a superset of conventional(Boolean) logic that has been extended to handle
the concept of partial truth values between "completely true" and "completely false". As its name suggests, it
is the logic underlying modes of reasoning which are approximate rather than exact. Fuzzy logic allows the
truth of a statement to be represented as a value between 0 and 1, rather than simply True (1) or False (0).
3. Control theory
Control theory, the grandchild of cybernetics, has many important applications, especially in robotics.
4.Languages
AI researchers have developed several specialized languages for research, including LISP and PROLOG.
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Chapter 3 NEURAL NETWORKS
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3.1 Definition of the Neural Network
Neural networks are based on neurophysical models of human brain cells and their interconnection.
Neural networks are systems that typically consist of a large number of simple processing units, called
Neurons. A neuron has generally a high-dimensional Input vector and one single output signal. This output
signal is usually a non-linear function of the input vector and a weight vector. The function to be performed
on the Input vector is hence defined by the non-linear function and the weight vector of the neuron.
3.2 Fundamentals of an Artificial Neural Network
Elementary processing unit of ANNs is neuron. Generally it contains several inputs but has only
one output. As basic element the neurons are not powerful but their interconnections allow encoding
relationship between variables of the problems to which it is applied and provide very powerful processing
capabilities.
Fig 3.1 Schematic Diagram of the Neuron
General model of the processing unit of ANN can be considered to have the following three elements.
I. Weighted Summing Unit
The weighted summing unit consists of external or internal inputs (Xi (x1, x2, x3 xn)) times the
corresponding weights Wij = (wi1, wi2,. win). The fixed weighted inputs may be either from the
previous layers of ANN or from the output of neurons. If these inputs are derived from neuron outputs, it
forms the feedback architecture it has feed forward architecture.
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Neuron
Incoming Weighted
Connections
Output = F ( Inputs )
Outgoing WeightedConnections
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II. Linear Dynamical Function
It is essentially a single input or single output function block. This block may exist for time varying
signals and introduces a function that is an integral, a proportional, a time delay or a combination of these.
Example: Following two general functions can be used to relate input Pi with output Qi as(a1,a2) Qi(t) = Pi(t)
Qi(t) = Pi(t-T)
III. Non linear function
This decides the firing of neuron for given input values. It is a static nonlinear function which may be
pulse type or step type, differentiable (smooth) or non-identification (sharp) and having positive mean or
zero mean. Some of the examples of such functions are Threshold, Sigmoid, Tan hyperbolic or Gaussianfunctions.
3.3 Neural Network Design
A neural network element is a smallest processing unit of the whole network essentially forming a
weighted sum and transforming it by the activation function to obtain the output. In order to gain sufficient
computing power, several neurons are interconnected together. The manner in which actually the neurons
are connected together depends on the different classes of the neural networks. Basically neurons are
arranged in layers. ANNs have parallel distributed architecture with a large number of nodes and
connections.
3.3.1 ANN Architecture
Construction of neural network involves the following tasks.
(i) Determination of network topology
(ii) Determination of system (activation & synaptic) dynamics
(i)Determination of the Network Topology
The topology of the neural network refers to its framework as well as its interconnection scheme. The
number of layers and the number of nodes per layer often specify the framework. The types of layer include
Input Layer where the nodes are called input units, which do not process information but distribute
information to other units.
Hidden Layer(s) where the nodes are called hidden units, which are not directly observable. They provide
into the networks the capability to map or classify nonlinear problems.
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The Output Layer where the nodes are called output units, which encode possible concepts (or values) to
be assigned to the instance under consideration. For example each output unit a class of objects. Other main
important concept is the weightage for the connected unit. It can be real or integer numbers. They can be
confined to a range and are adjustable during network training. When training is completed, all of them
attain fixed values.
(ii)Determination of Systems (Activation & Synaptic) Dynamics
The dynamics of the network determines its operation. ANNs can be trainable non-linear dynamical
systems. Neural dynamics consists of two parts, one which corresponding to the dynamics of activation
states and the other corresponding to the dynamics of synaptic weights. The activation dynamics determines
the time evolution of the neural activations. Synaptic activation determines the change in the synaptic
weights. The synaptic weights form Long Term Memory (LTM) where as the activation state forms Short
Term Memory (STM) of the network. Synaptic weights change gradually, whereas the neuron's activation
fluctuate rapidly. Therefore, while computing the activation dynamics, the system weights are assumed to be
constant. The synaptic dynamics dictates the learning process.
3.4 When and why using Neural Network?
Neural set is basically a new way of solving the problems, which way can successfully be followed
for a number of problems. However for some problems, neural network is not useful. Main difference of
using the Neural Network and conventional method of solving problems are, Neural Network is trained to
perform satisfactory. In a training phase, training examples are presented to the networks and the weights of
the neural networks are adapted by a learning rate. The ways of implementing the solution to specific
problems can be divided as
Fig 3.2 Ways of Implementing a Solution to a Specific Problem
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3.5 Training of Artificial Neural Network
A neural network has to be configured such that the application of a set of inputs produces (either
'direct' or via a relaxation process) the desired set of outputs. Various methods to set the strengths of the
connections exist. One way is to set the weights explicitly and another way is to 'train' the neural networkby feeding it teaching patterns and letting it change its weights according to some learning rule. We can
categorize the learning situations in distinct sorts
Supervised learning or Associative learning is the one in which the network is trained by providing
it with input and matching output patterns. These input-output pairs can be provided by an external
teacher, or by the system which contains the neural network (self-supervised).
Unsupervised learning or Self-organization is the one in which an (output) unit is trained to respond
to clusters of pattern within the input. In this paradigm the system is supposed to discover statistically
salient features of the input population. Unlike the supervised learning paradigm, there is no a priori
set of categories into which the patterns are to be classified; rather the system must develop its own
representation of the input stimuli.
Reinforcement Learning This type of learning may be considered as an intermediate form of the
above two types of learning. Here the learning machine does some action on the environment and
gets a feedback response from the environment. The learning system grades its action good
(rewarding) or bad (punishable) based on the environmental response and accordingly adjusts itsparameters. Generally, parameter adjustment is continued until an equilibrium state occurs
3.6 Useful Functions of the Neural Network
Useful Functions to be performed by the Neural network are as follows:
Its useful to apply the neural networks on problems for which no direct algorithmic solutions exists but for
which problem examples of the desired responses are availed.
It is useful to apply Neural Networks for the problems that change over the time. The adaptability of theneural network will then be used to adapt the implemented solution whenever the problems changes.
Its useful to apply Neural Networks to problems for which only too complicated algorithms can be derived.
Too complicated means that implemented (conventional) algorithms are either too large, or consume too
much power. It's not useful to train neural network on problems for which the solution can easily be
implemented in an algorithm. Neural Network can also learn these simple algorithms but neural
implementation is generally larger and less accurate than the direct algorithmic implementation of the
solution. For number of problems the implementation of the solution in Neural Network is useful, while for
other problems the solution should not use neural networks.
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CHAPTER 4 FUZZY LOGIC AND FUZZY SYSTEMS
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4.1 Importance of Fuzzy Systems
Fuzzy set theory derives from the fact that almost all-natural classes and concepts are fuzzy rather
than crisp in nature. Fuzziness describes event ambiguity. It matters the degree, to which an event occurs,
not whether it occurs or occurs in random to what degree it occurs is fuzzy. Whether an ambiguous event
occurs - as when we say, "there is 20 percent chance of light rain tomorrow" - involves compound
uncertainties, the possibility of fuzzy event emerges. Fuzzy systems store benefits of fuzzy associates or
common sense "rules". Fuzzy programming admits degrees.
When asked a question or given an input, fuzzy systems fire each fuzzy rule in parallel, but to a
different degree, to infer a conclusion or output. Thus fuzzy systems reason with sets, fuzzy" or multi
valued sets. They estimate sampled functions from input to output. They may use linguistic or numeric
samples. For example, they may use heavy, longer or number (relative) for the degree of fuzziveness. Fuzzy
interpretations of data are a natural and intuitively plausible way to formulate and solve various problems in
pattern recognition. Fuzzy logic is a logical system for formalization of approximate reasoning, and in a
wider sense, used anonymously with Fuzzy set theory. It is an extension of multi valued logic. Fuzzy logic
systems provide an excellent framework to more completely and effectively model uncertainty and
imprecision in human reasoning with the use of linguistic variables with membership functions.Fuzzification offers superior expressive power, greater generality, and an improved capability to model
complex problems at a low solution cost.
4.2 Basic Concepts
Suppose your are approaching a red light and must advise a driving student when to apply brakes.
Would U say " begin braking 14 feet from the cross walk " or shall we say "apply brakes pretty soon". We
will say the latter and so the natural language is one example of ways vagueness arises, is used, and ispropagated in every days life. Imprecision in data and information gathered from and about our
environment is either statistical (e.g. a coin toss) the outcome is a matter of chance - or non-statistical - This
latter type of uncertainty is called fuzziness.
4.3 Fuzzy Sets and Rules
In fuzzy set theory ' normal 'sets are called crisp sets, in order to distinguish them from fuzzy sets.
Let C be a crisp set defined on the universe U, then for any element of u of U, either u (C) or U (C) occurs.In fuzzy set theory this property is generalized, therefore in a fuzzy set F, It is not necessary that either u
F or u (F) exist. In the fuzzy sets theory the generalization of the membership properties are as follows.7
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For any crisp set C it is possible to define a characteristic function C: U [0,1] instead from thetwo-element set {0,1}. The set that is defined on the basis of such an extended membership function is called
as fuzzy set. Fuzzy rules are elementary or composed proposals. They result from a conjunction between
elementary fuzzy proposals. A fuzzy rule is composed of a premise and a conclusion. The classical structure
of a rule is If < premise> then . When the premise is an elementary fuzzy proposal, the rule
is described as follows. If then < conclusion>. The x is a variable; generally real, defined on a
referential called the universe of discourse, given as a capital letter here X. A is a linguistic term, taken in a
set of terms noted as TX. Basic concept of fuzzy logic's is fuzzy " If then Rule " or Fuzzy Rule.
4.4 Classical Operations of Fuzzy Sets
Zadeh defined classical operations for fuzzy sets
Let f (X) = all fuzzy subsets of X (that is, m f (X) m: X | (0,1),
The fuzzy sets mA, mBF (x). The fuzzy rules are
1.Definition: Two fuzzy sets are equal (A = B) if and only if
X X: (=) Equality A = B mA(x) = mB(x)
(X where x: point wise, function __ theoretic operations)
2.Definition: A is a subset of B (A B) if and only if
X X: () Containment A B mA (x) mB (x)The other operations are
X X: (~) ComplimentmA (x) = 1-mA (x)
X X: () Intersection mA B (x) = min {mA (x), mB (x)}
X X: () UnionmAB (x) = min {mA (x), mB(x)}
4.5 Membership Function and Membership ValuesMembership function is the basis idea in fuzzy set theory. Its values measure degrees to which
objects satisfy imprecisely defined properties. Fuzziness represents similarities of objects to imprecisely
defined properties and probabilities which convey information about value frequencies. The member ship
function F of the fuzzy set F is a function
F: U [0,1]
So, every element u of U has a membership degree F (u) {0,1}. F is completely determined by the set of
tuplesF = {(u, F (u)) | u U}
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4.6 Fuzzy Relations
The fuzzy relation can be considered as a fuzzy set of tuples. That means each tuples has
membership degree between 0 and 1. Its definition is
Let U and V be uncountable (continuous) universe and R : U X V [ 0,1] , thenR = R(u,v) /(u,v)
UxV
This is a binary fuzzy relation on U x V. If U and V are controllable (discrete) universes, then
R = R(u,v) /(u,v)
UxV
The integral symbol denoted the set of all tuples on U x V denoted by
R(u,v) /(u,v)
4.7 Properties of Fuzzy Sets
Let A and B be the fuzzy sets, defined respectively on the universes X and Y, and let R be a fuzzy
relation defined on XxY. The support of fuzzy set A is the crisp that contains all element of A with non-zero
membership degree. This is denoted by S (A), formally defined as
S (A) = {uX | A (u) >0}
The width of the convex fuzzy set A with support set S (A) is defined by Width (A) which is
equal to Sup (S (A)) - Inf (S (A)) where Sup and Inf denote the mathematical operations supremum andinfimum.
4.8 Fuzzy Truth Value
A fuzzy truth-value is defined to be a fuzzy set on the closed interval V = [0,1] as follows. A is a
fuzzy truth-value if and only if A is a fuzzy set on [0,1] and L be the set of all fuzzy values, that is L = {a | a
is fuzzy set on [0,1]}The same can be graphically written as follows
(a) Numerical Truth Values (b) Interval Truth Values (c) Fuzzy Truth ValuesFigure 4.1 Truth Values in Fuzzy Logic
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4.9 Learning in Fuzzy Systems
Generally learning can be well or can be bad. But one cannot learn without changing, and we cannot
change without learning. Learning laws describe the synaptic dynamical system, how the system encodes
information. They determine how the synaptic web process unfolds in time as the system samples newinformation. This is one way neural network compute with dynamical systems.
Fuzzy systems learn associative rules to estimate functions or control systems through unknown
probability (sub set hood) function p (x). The probability density function p (x) describes a distribution of
vector patterns or signals X, a few of which the neural or fuzzy systems sample. When a neural or fuzzy
system estimates a function f: X Y, it in effect estimates the joint probability density P (x, y). Then
solutions points (X, f (x)) should reside in high probability regions of the input/ output product space X x Y.
An unsupervised learning systems process each sample X but does not know" that X belongs to class Di
and not to class Dj. Supervised learning use class-membership information and unsupervised learning used
unlabelled samples.
4.10 Fuzzy Logic Controllers (FLC)
Fuzzy systems, utilizing neuristic knowledge, have been employed very effectively as controllers
popularly known as Intelligence Control. Design Problems of FLC are
1) Define Input and Output variables that are determined which status of the process shall be observed and
which control actions are to be considered.
2) Define the condition interface, that is, fix the way in which observations of the process are expressed as
fuzzy sets.
3) Design the rule base, which is, fixed the way in which observations of the process are expressed as fuzzy
sets.
4) Design the computational unit, that is, supply algorithm to perform fuzzy computations those will
generally lead to fuzzy outputs.
5) Determine rules according to which fuzzy control statements can be transformed into crisp control
actions. (Defuzzification).
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Chapter 5 SUBSTATION
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A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distributionsystem. Substations
transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions.Electric power may flow through several substations between generatingplant and consumer, and its voltage
may change in several steps. A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while
decreasing thecurrent, while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for
domestic and commercial distribution. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution
system became a grid.
Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment, and transformers. In a large
substation,circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short circuits or overload currents that may occur on thenetwork. Substations themselves do not usually have generators, although a power plant may have a
substation nearby. Earth faults at a substation can cause a ground potential rise. Currents flowing in the
Earth's surface during a fault can cause metal objects to have a significantly different voltage than the ground
under a person's feet; this touch potential presents a hazard of electrocution.
5.1 Transmission Substation
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where alltransmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, the substation contains high-voltage switches that
allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have
transformersto convert between two transmission voltages,voltage control/power factor correction devices
such as capacitors, reactors orstatic VAR compensators and equipment such asphase shifting transformers
to control power flow between two adjacent power systems. Modern substations may be implemented using
International Standards such as IEC61850.
5.2 Distribution Substation
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of
an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main transmission network,
unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a value suitable for
local distribution. The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub
transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The
output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 and 33 kVdepending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility.
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Chapter 6 INTELLIGENT SUBSTATION
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6.1 Concept Of Intelligent Substations
In conventional substations, apparatus such as switchgear and transformer, control, protection and
monitoring equipment is independent of every other device, and connection is based on the signals coming
through the cable. On the other hand, an intelligent substation shares all information on apparatus, control,
protection, measurement and apparatus monitoring equipment through one bus by applying both digital
technology and IT-related technology.
Moreover, high efficiency and miniaturization can be achieved because the local cubicle contains
unified control/protection and measurement equipment that is one integrated system (Fig 6.1). Since an
optical bus shares the information between the apparatus and equipment, the amount of cable is sharply
reduced.
6.2 Apparatus Monitoring System
All the data from each monitoring and measuring device is transmitted and used for a higher-level
monitoring system via an optical bus. The required data is accessed through the Intranet or the Internet at the
maintenance site of an electricity supply company or a manufacturer and the apparatus can be monitored
from a remote location. The construction, analysis and diagnosis of the database including trend
management and history management also become possible. As a result, signs of abnormalities can be
checked out well in advance, and prompt action can be taken in times of emergency.
Maintenance plans can also be drafted to ensure reliability, by inspecting revision description and
parts management, efficient maintenance planning and reliability maintenance are also realized
simultaneously.
Intelligent system techniques may be of great help in the implementation of area power systemcontrols. Most of these applications require large quantities of system information, which can be provided by
modern telecommunications and computing technology, but require new processing techniques able to
extract salient information from these large sets of raw data. Importantly, such large data sets are never error
free and often contain various types of uncertainty. Finally, control actions may be based on operating
strategies specified in qualitative form, which need to be translated into quantitative decisions.
An important aspect to be considered in the implementation of power systems controls is that, in the
restructured power system environment, several of these activities will fall under the category of ancillaryservices. Therefore, besides the technical issues, economic and financial infrastructure should be taken into
account in the design and implementation of control schemes.
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Fig.6.1 Intelligent Substation System Configuration (Image). The whole substation system is combined by
optical LAN, and apparatus composition is simplified.
6.3 Power System Controls
Power system controls can be broadly classified into two categories: local and area (regional/system-
wide). The boundary between these two categories is not precise as area controls are often implemented by
optimally adjusting local control parameters and set points. Area controls main characteristic is the need to
process information gathered at various points of the network and to model the behavior of large parts of the
power system. This type of control is usually not limited to the automatic feedback type but often includes
strategies based on empirical knowledge and human intervention. Local control, on the other hand, is
typically implemented using conventional automatic control rules, such as, PID control, which are believed
to offer adequate performance in most applications. Still, this is not to discount the usefulness of new
intelligent methodologies, such as, fuzzy logic controllers, for local controls.
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For convenience, power system higher level controls are classified here as:
Generation scheduling and automatic control: includes unit commitment, economic dispatch, and
automatic generation control; in the past, well established control methods were used but this situation
has been changing to deal with the new scenario created by the power industry restructuring;
Voltage control: is mostly of the local type but some systems have already gone to a higher coordinated
secondary control to allow a more effective use of reactive power sources and increase stability margins;
Preventive security control: has the objective to detect insecure operating points and to suggest
corrective actions; the grand challenges in this area are on-line Dynamic and Voltage Security
Assessment (DSA and VSA);
Emergency control: manages the problem of controlling the system after a large disturbance; it is an
event driven type of control and includes special protection schemes;
Restorative control: its main function is to re-energize the system after a major disturbance followed by
a partial or total blackout.
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CHAPTER 7 DEVICES CONTRIBUTING TO INTELLIGENT SYSTEM
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7.1 Switchgear And Transformer
The burden can be drastically decreased because the sensor signal from the PCT is digitized at the
sensor output edge and the load on the PCT only reaches that of an A-D (analog-to-digital) converter.
Rogowski coils are used as the current sensors and capacitive potential dividers are used as the voltage
sensors. These sensors drastically reduce the size of the switchgear (Fig 7.1).
Fig 7.1 Gas Combined Switchgear Miniaturization by Digital Correspondence Sensor. 550-kV GCS (gas
combined switchgear)
GCB: gas circuit breaker
CT: current transformer
PT: potential transformer
Present studies on miniaturizing conventional equipment have so far been aimed at standardizing series.
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7.2 Protection And Control
Intelligent substations require protection and control equipment to be installed outdoors and this
needs to be compact so that the local cubicle is able to contain them. Outdoor installation requiresimprovements in insulation against heat and air tightness besides parts reliability. Compact protection and
control equipment will generate demand for unified fabrication of protection/control and high-density
components.
7.2.1 Trends In Protection And Control Systems
Due to the rapid progress in todays information field, applying digital technology and adding IT
function to the protection/control system are possible, to support stable power supply, and improvemaintenance. In Japanese protection/control systems, digitization has made advances since the last half of
the 1980s. Digital technology has unique advantages, namely minimizing maintenance and improving
reliability, and it has speeded up the conversion from individual analog-type to digital-type relays. Now,
however, digitization is not only required for independent single-function equipment, but for the systematic
operation and employment of the whole substation. Such systems have greatly improved efficiency in
employment and maintenance using IT. The key phrases to fulfill these needs are as follows:
(1) Slimming of total system as a protection control equipment
Unification of equipment
(2) High efficiency of employment/maintenance support using IT technology
Extended employment/maintenance by remote control
(3) System directly linked to the equipment for protection/control
Distributed installation near the apparatus
Thus, there has been a need for constructing a high efficiency system through system-wide miniaturization
and integration of IT.
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hhhhh.
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Figure 1Highly flexible and intelligent energy system infrastructures are required to facilitate substantially
higher amounts of renewable energy than todays energy systems and thereby lead to the necessary COreductions as well as ensuring the future security of energy supply in all regions of the world.
Information And
Communication Technologies
Internet and Satellites
+Traditional PowerSystem structure
Links between the intelligent infrastructure and the traditionalpower system structure are the basis for the future flexible andintelligent energy system
Power plants/CHP HV transmission Transformer LV transmission End use
Intelligent, two way communication between suppliersand end-users together with distributed generationfurther enhances the flexibility Distributed generation and
efficient building systems
Internet
Smart end-usedevices
Distributedgeneration &storage
Controlinterface
Renewables
Data management Plug-in hybrids
Dynamicsystemscontrol
Utility
Communi-cations PV
Distributionoperations
Intelligent Energy
System
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Fig 7.2 Intelligent Energy System
CHAPTER 8 APPLICATION OF NEURAL NETWORKS
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_________________________________________________________________
Neural Networks have been used in a board range of applications including: pattern classification,pattern recognition, optimization, prediction and automatic control. In spite of different structures andtraining paradigms, all NN applications are special cases of vector mapping. The following fields hasattracted the most attention in the past five years:1-Load Forecasting2-Fault Diagnosis/Fault Location3-Economic Dispatch4-Security Assessment5-Contingency Screening
Fig 8.1 Neural networks applications in power systems-April 2005
8.1 Load Forecasting
Commonly and popular problem that has an important role in economic, financial, development,expansion and planning is load forecasting of power systems. The availability of historical load data on theutility databases makes this area highly suitable for ANN implementation.
Short-term load forecasting over an interval ranging from an hour to a week is important for variousapplications such as unit commitment, economic dispatch, energy transfer scheduling and real timecontrol.
Mid-term load forecasting that range from one month to five years, used to purchase enough fuel forpower plants after electricity tariffs are calculated
.
Long-term load forecasting (LTLF), covering from 5 to 20 years or more, used by planningengineers and economists to determine the type and the size of generating plants that minimize bothfixed and variable costs.
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Fig 8.2 Types of load forecasting that done with NN
8.2 Fault Diagnosis/Fault Location
Fig 8.3 Fault Diagnosis process
Progress in the areas of communication and digital technology has increased the amount of
information available at supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. Although information is
very useful, during events that cause outages, the operator may be overwhelmed by the excessive number of
simultaneously operating alarms, which increases the time required for identifying the main outage causeand to start the restoration process. Besides, factors such as stress and inexperience can affect the operators
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1PREPROCESSING
2DISTURBANCEDETECTION ANDCLASSIFICATION
FAULT DIAGNOSIS
3HYPOTHESISGENERATION
4HYPOTHESISJUSTIFICATION
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performance; thus, the availability of a tool to support the real-time decision-making process is welcome.
The protection devices are responsible for detecting the occurrence of a fault, and when necessary, they send
trip signals to circuit breakers (CBs) in order to isolate the defective part of the system.
However, when relays or CBs do not work properly, larger parts of the system may be disconnected.
After such events, in order to avoid damages to energy distribution utilities and consumers, it is essential to
restore the system as soon as possible. Nevertheless, before starting the restoration, it is necessary to identify
the event that caused the sequence of alarms such as protection system failure, defects in communication
channels, corrupted data acquisition.
The heuristic nature of the reasoning involved in the operators analysis and the absence of an
analytical formulation, leads to the use of artificial intelligence techniques. Expert systems, neural networks,
fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms (GAs), and Petri nets constitute the principal techniques applied to the fault
diagnosis problem.
8.3 Economic dispatch
Main goal of economic dispatch (ED) consists of minimizing the operating costs depending on
demand and subject to certain constraints, i.e. how to allocate the required load demand between the
available generation units. In practice, the whole of the unit operating range is not always available for load
allocation due to physical operation limitations. Several methods have been used in past for solving
economic dispatch problems including Lagrangian relaxation method, linear programming(LP) techniques
specially dynamic programming(DP), Beales quadratic programming, Newton-Raphsons economic
method, Lagrangian augmented function, and recently Genetic algorithms and NNs. Because of, economic
dispatch problem becomes a non convex optimization problem, the Lagrangian multiplier method, which is
commonly used in ED problems, can not to be directly applied any longer.
Dynamic programming approach is one of the widely employed methods but for a practical-sized
system, the fine step size and the large units number often cause the curse of dimensionality'. Main
drawbacks of genetic algorithm and tabu search for ED are difficult to define the fitness function, find the
several sub-optimum solutions without guaranty that this solution isn't locally and longer search time.
Neural networks have a well-demonstrated capability of solving combinational optimization
problem. Because of this networks capability to consider all constrained limitation such as transmission line
loss and transmission capability limitations, penalty factor when we have special units, control the units
pollutions and etc., caused increasing the paper proposed recently. Recently attractive tools for ED are
neural network based on genetic algorithm and fuzzy systems.
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8.4 Security Assessment
Security of a power system is the ability to sustain, without any abnormalities, the worst impending
contingency. Security assessment has been at the forefront of ANN applications from the beginning. The
goal of security assessment is to supply the operating state so that suitable preventive actions can beundertaken. In one of the early approaches, Sobajic and Pao synthesized one of the crucial parameters of the
system, the critical clearing time (CCT). The principle task of an electric power system is to deliver the
power requested by the customers, without exceeding acceptable voltage and frequency limits. This task has
to be solved in real time and in safe, reliable and economical manner.
Fig 8.4 Data flow in power System Operation
Generally there are two types of security assessments:
static security assessment and dynamic security assessment. In both types different operational states are
defined as follows: Normal or secure state: In the normal state, all customer demands are met and operating limit is within
presented limits.
Alert or critical state: In this state the system variables are still within limits and constrain are satisfied,
but little disturbance can lead to variable toward instability.
Emergency or unsecure state: the power system enters the emergency mode of operation upon violation of
security related inequality constraints.
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8.5 Contingency Screening
To assess system security, a huge number of possible contingencies are to beevaluated and ranked.
Conventional ranking methods suffer from masking & longcomputing time. Since a systems operational
history is available in most utility databases, it should be possible to group contingencies into varioussubclasses. However it is impossible to generate enough training sets to cover the entire range of power
system operation. The optimization method used linear programming techniques to maximize the
probability of correct classification of contingencies. This implementation classifies contingencies
according to the number and type of limit violations. The method has interesting applications in combining
security monitoring and preventive control.
The training process involves the following steps:
1. Selection of input/output parameters for training.
2. Generation of training data.
3. Normalization of training data
4. Testing of the network with unknown set of data
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CHAPTER 9 APPLICATION OF FUZZY LOGIC
_________________________________________________________________
In power systems operation, economy and security, maximum load supply and minimum generating
cost are conflicting objectives. The combination of these objectives by weighing coefficients is the
traditional approach to solve this problem. Fuzzy theory offers better compromise and obtain solutions
which cannot be found by weighing methods. The benefits of fuzzy set theory over traditional methods are
as follows:
(1) It provides alternatives for the many attributes of objective selected.
(2) It resolves conflicting objectives by designing weights appropriate to a selected objective.
(3) It provides capability for handling ambiguity expressed in diagnostic process which involves symptoms
and causes.(4) It develops process control as fuzzy relation between information about the condition of the process to be
controlled.
(5) It develops intelligent robots that employ sensors for path or position determination.
(6) It improves human reliability models in cases where many people perform multiple tasks. The areas
where fuzzy logic can be used in power systems cover all the aspects of the power system:
9.1 Reactive Power and Voltage ControlReactive sources which are spread throughout the system should be controlled accurately based on
the loading conditions (light load or peak load) to optimize and ensure the security of electric power
transmission system. These controls are known as voltage/reactive power or voltage/VAR control. The aim
of these controls is to reduce voltage deviations or minimum losses or enhancing voltage. Main types of
voltage/ VAR problems are
1. Planning of system reactive demands and control facilities as well as installation of reactive power control
resources.2. The operation of existing voltage/VAR resources and control device.
Fuzzy set theory has been applied off late for reactive power control with the purpose of improving
the voltage profile of power system. Here the voltage deviation and controlling variables are translated into
fuzzy set notations to formulate the relations between voltage deviation and controlling ability of controlling
device. Main control variables are VAR compensators, transformer taps and generator excitation. A fuzzy
rule system is formed to select these controllers, their movement and step size. The controllers are selected
based on
1. Local controllability towards a bus having unacceptable voltage.
2. Overall controllability towards the buses having poor voltage profile.
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9.2 Fuzzy logic in Control areas
Fuzzy logic has been used in control area by using fuzzy logic stabilizer, converter/drives and in
other types of control. In order to design a robust controller for the auxiliary control loop of static VAR
system, both fuzzy logic and variable structure system concepts are used. The design of a simple fuzzycontroller using the least number of rules for stabilization of a synchronous generator connected to a large
power system gives a superior results compared to conventional control in better damping during transient
disturbances. In order to enhance voltage security of an electric power system, fuzzy set theory for voltage
reactive control of power system is use by translating voltage bus voltage and s\controlling variables into
fuzzy set notations to formulate the relation between voltage violation level and controlling ability of
controlling devices. Max- Min method is employed on the fuzzy sets in accordance with requirement of real-
time control. By Fuzzification the bus voltage violation level and controlling ability of controlling devices to
essentially reflect the operators intuition in operation , the aim of enhancing the control effects is achieved.
This is to simulate the usual action of the operator if he is not satisfied with the grading of the fuzzy model,
he can adjust the parameters used in the definition of the membership functions, so that his desire will be
closely matched. Conventional Optimal Power Flow solutions utilize standard techniques. These techniques
limit the practical value and scope of optimal power flow applications. Different considerations have to
make a trade-off between minimum objective function, satisfying constraints and desirable moving control
variables. In real-life system, it has been found that a slight violation of the normal operation limits may
result in significant cost saving. Fuzzy logic can reach the trade-off in a better way using eg. Min-Max
techniques.
Demand side management programs are strategies designed to alter the shape of the load curve. In order
to successfully implement such a strategy, customer acceptance of the program is vital. Thus it is desirable to
design a model for direct load control which may accommodate customer preferences. Fuzzy logic may be
used to optimize both customer satisfaction and utility unit commitment savings based on a fuzzy load
model for the direct load control of appliances.
9.3 Dissolved Gas Analysis
A Periodic maintenance of large power transformers fault diagnosis system has been proposed and
implemented of fuzzy diagnosis to improve the conventional DGA methods. DGA technology is approved as
applicable to discover internal latent transformer failure and its development trend. Therefore, whether in the
domestic or international arena, DGA technology has secured a significant position in the rank of preventive
testing of electrical equipments. The fuzzy logic analysis involves three successive processes, namely:
Fuzzification, Fuzzy Inference and Defuzzification. In the process of designing a transformer fault
diagnostic system, the uncertainly shows the following two characteristics-
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(i) A great number of test data (including the preventive test and other tests), some expert experience
and some criteria which can be directly numerated should be translated into fuzzy numbers. This process is
called numerical uncertainty translation.
(ii) Some expert experience and some criteria which are expressed in linguistic language cannot be
numerated directly. They also need to be changed into fuzzy numbers. The process is called linguistic
uncertainty translation.
In fuzzy diagnosis system we take first, the associated membership functions of fuzzy subsets were
determined empirically or basically in a trial-and-error manner, while the conventional DGA diagnosis
criteria were to be implicitly obeyed. And second step, a great number of previous diagnosis records of
dissolved gas were mainly employed as a test purpose rather than as a development basis of the fuzzy
diagnosis system.
The information inherently contained in the numerical data was not fully utilized in establishing the
diagnosis system. And the last step, due to the wide variety of conditions which affect the results of DGA,
the diagnosis system should be continuously maintained or modified according to the cases newly obtained.
However, manual knowledge acquisition and knowledge base revision out of the large numerical data are
quite tedious, often resulting in a lengthy process of generating the fuzzy if-then rules and the membership
functions of the corresponding fuzzy subsets.
The approach is based on the interpretation of DGA data using Fuzzy Logic (FL). The proposed
diagnostic method adopts indicators related to the ratios C2H4/C2H6, C2H2/C2H4 CH4/H2 and to the
concentration of specific gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, ethane, ethylene, acetylene.
Different combinations of these four codes represent different fault patterns, overheating, arcing, and
corona. Fuzzy Analysis an integrated analysis, it can diagnose the fault of transformer effectively and
manage the data of DGA in oil of transformer.
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Fig 9.1 Structure of the Fuzzy Diagnosis System
9.4 Fuzzy Logic in Power Electronics
The perspective of extensive use of AI tools, such as expert system, fuzzy logic , neural networks and
genetic algorithms, are expected to usher a new era in power electronics and motion control in the coming
decades. In spite of AI progress, their applications in power electronics is just at it beginning. Logic
controllers have witnessed quite a number of applications of fuzzy logic. A rule based fuzzy logic controller
to control output power of a pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter used in standalone wind energy
conversion scheme has been used.
The self excited induction generator used has the inherited problem of fluctuations in the magnitude
and frequency of its terminal voltage with changes in wind velocity and load. To overcome this drawback
the variable magnitude, variable frequency voltage at the generator terminals is rectified and the power is
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ICE/IEEE Transformer
DGA Criteria
Set of membership functionand knowledge based rule
Data base of Dissolvedgas in oil
Fuzzification Rule Base FuzzyInterface System
Diagnosis Result
Defuzzification
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transferred to the load through a PWM inverter. In order to extract maximum power from the wind energy
system and transfer it to the load, a fuzzy logic controller has to be provided to regulate the modulation
index of the PWM inverter based on the input signals. By fuzzifying these signals and the use of rules based
on these fuzzified signals, the fuzzy control is performed giving the fuzzy output required after
Defuzzification. This will provide an optimum utilization of the wind energy.
9.5 Generator Operation and Control
The major application lies in the control of excitation system of the Synchronous Generator.
Synchronous Generator excitation control is one of the most important measures to enhance power system
stability and to guarantee the quality of the electrical power it provides. A number of new control theories
have been introduced to design high performance excitation controllers. Among them the linear optimal
control theory, the adaptive control theory the fuzzy logic control theory and the nonlinear control theory are
the most commonly used ones. Fuzzy logic Controllers are advantageous in many respects. They are simple
in structure and relatively easy to realize.
Mathematical models of the control systems are not required. Variations of the parameters and
operation conditions of the controlled systems do not significantly affect the performance of the controller.
All of these advantages have enabled this technique to attract more and more attention in recent years. Jinyu
Wena, O.P. Malik et al suggested a method to design the FLC based on Genetic Algorithm. In this controller
the generator terminal voltage and the rotor speed deviation are used as its inputs. As a result, both the
voltage profile and the dynamic stability of the generating unit are enhanced. Also FLC design has been
carried out by G.A. Chown, R.C. Hartman et al for Automatic Logic Controller (AGC). The main problem
solved by this method is the secondary frequency controller and AGC. The fuzzy controller was
implemented in the control ACE calculation, which determines the shortfall or surplus generation unit that
has to be corrected. Short term generation scheduling with take-or-pay fuel contract was developed by Kit
Po Wong and Suzannah Yin Wa Wong et al in which a fuzzy set approach is developed to assist the solution
process to find schedules which meet as closely as possible the take-or-pay fuel consumption. This
formulation is then extended to the entire economic dispatch problem when the fuel consumption is higher
than the agreed amount in the take-or pay contract.
The extended formulation is combined with the genetic algorithms and simulated- annealing
optimization methods for the establishment of new algorithms for the problem. Stabilizer control and the
exciter and governor loops using fuzzy set theory and the Neural nets was developed by M.B. Djukanovic
and M. S. Calvoic. Here a design technique for the new hydro power plant controller using fuzzy set theory
and ANN was developed. The controller is suitable for real time operation, with the aim of improving thegenerating unit transients by acting through the exciter input, the guide vane and the runner blade positions.
The developed fuzzy logic controller, whose control signals are adjusted using the on-line measurements,28
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can offer better damping effects for generator oscillations over a wider range of operating conditions than
conventional regulators. The FLC, based on a set of fuzzy logic operations that are performed on controller
inputs, provides a means of converting linguistic control requirements based on expert knowledge into an
efficient control strategy. Using unsupervised learning of ANN generates a fuzzy associative matrix.