FINANCE RESEARCH-1 – --JRU --

GENERALIZE DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH—

RESEARCH – vital and essential – key to progress- human endeavors – no progress without research = industries needed research- a careful, critical, discipline inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the

nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem.

- Simply the systematic search for pertinent info on a specific topic or problem.- The process of gathering data or info to solve a particular or specific problem in a

scientific manner.- A systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering questions

posed by the researcher.- In its broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems.- Defined as a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing,

classifying, organizing, presenting and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life.

PURPOSE /GOALS OF RESEARCH1. to discover new facts about known phenomena (alcohol turn into a kind of fuel equal in

quality to gasoline)2. to find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and info.

Ex- cancer3. improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products (invention of new

gadgets and machines used by man).4. to discover previously unrecognized substances or elements (92 elements but due to

research now more than 100)5. discover pathways of action of known substances and elements (abuse of unprescribed

drugs and some poisonous substance. Ex-viagra6. to order related, valid generalizations into systematized science (result of this purpose is

the science we now studying in school)7. to provide basis for decision-making in buss, industry, educ, govt and in other

undertakings.8. to satisfy the researcher’s curiosity (Edison curiosity on how hen hatches eggs and he

invented incubator)9. to find answers to queries by means of scientific methods (life expectancy higher, in city

or in barrio?)10. to acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon that can be known

and understood better by research is why women are generally smaller than men.11. to expand or verify existing knowledge – happens when researches are REPLICATED –

previous research to be verified if the same facts are found.12. to improve educ practices.13. to promote health and prolong life.

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14. to provide man with more of his basic needs – more and better food, clothing, shelter, etc.15. to make work, travel and communication faster, easier and more comfortable. Ex –

airplane, labor saving machines, radios and televisions to remote areas.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH1. it is systematic – follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the discovery

of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.2. it is controlled – all variables except those that are tested or being experimented upon are

kept constant (not allowed to change or vary) so that the changes made on the subjects of the study can be attributed only to the experimental variable. This is especially true in an experimental research.

3. it is empirical – (depending on experience or experiments) - all procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all observers. Ex- 5 persons in a room, okey people believe, but 5 ghost in the room, not all will believe – some person do not believe in ghost.

4. it is analytical – there is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no error in their interpretation.

5. it is objective, unbiased and logical – all the findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data and no effort is made to alter the results of the research.

6. it employs hypothesis – questions of facts that shld be proved.7. it employs quantitative or statistical methods – data are transformed into numerical

measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or usefulness.8. it is an original work – except in historical research, data are gathered from primary

sources or first-hand sources and not from secondary sources (usually rinted materials such as books, or theses, etc)

9. it is done by an expert- researchers uses valid and carefully designed procedures, valid data-gathering instruments, and valid data. He subjects his data to expert scrutiny.

10. it is accurate investigation, observation and description – research activity is done accurately so that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific generalizations. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.

11. it is patient and unhurried activity – to ensure accuracy. Research hurriedly done or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may lead to shaky conclusions and generalizations.

12. it requires an effort-making capacity – it shld be conducted in effort, involves much work and time.

13. it requires courage – because the researcher oftentimes undergo hazards, discomforts and the like. At times the researcher encounters public and social disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues may arise.

HINDRANCES IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH (scientific investigation)1. as to tradition – customs, beliefs, practices, and superstitions, (ex- women conceiving a

child) 2. authority – someone who is considered an authority on the subject. Ex- doctor to say you

are sick – ordinary person acting as doctor.3. inaccurate observation – shadow concluded that there is ghost.4. overgeneralization – generalize ex- ilocano as thrifty, bicolano as oragon

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5. selective observation – Chinese stores beside a poor struggling Filipino store, Chinese are more hardworking than Filipinos.

6. made-up information – conclusion of cheating for change .. finding wallet concluded that he is an honest man, interpreting wrongly the findings of a research material.

7. illogical reasoning – extended good weather it may rain at the weekend, or it is sunny it will not rain that day.

8. ego-involvement in understanding – racial discrimination on foreigner, student getting low grade bec his teacher has a personal grudge against him,

9. mystification – attributed to supernatural power, the phenomena that cannot be understood. Things beyond human intelligence to understand.

10. to err is human – when a man renders a wrong decision or commits a mistake, he merely leans on the saying, “TAO LANG” .

11. dogmatism – unwritten policy of certain institutions and govt prohibiting the study of topics that are believed to run counter to the established doctrines of such institutions or govts.

KINDS AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH1. according to purpose – predictive or prognostic, directive, illuminative2. according to goal- basic or pure, applied3. according to the levels of investigation – exploratory, descriptive, experimental 4. according to the type of analysis – analytic approach, holistic approach 5. according to scope- done on limited scope to solve a particular problem6. according to choice of answers to problems – evaluation, developmental7. according to statistical content – as to quantitative or statistical (correlation, chi-square) ,

non-quantitative (descriptive data)8. according to time element – historical, descriptive, experimental.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH1. determining (recognizing) the problem2. forming a hypothesis3. doing the library search4. designing the study5. developing the instruments for collecting data6. collecting the data7. analyzing the data8. determining the implications and conclusions from the findings9. making recommendations for further research

PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD1. rigid control – refers to the manipulation of the research variables. Variables are those

things that vary in quantity and quality which are to be manipulated by the researcher. Ex- variables are age, sex, population, adequacy efficiency, etc. There are variables which sld be controlled rigidly, that is, kept constant or equal in a certain research work.

2. objectivity – means that there shld be no bias or partiality in treating the results of the inquiry. The results shld not be tampered with, whatever they may be.

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3. systematic organization – refers to proper and accurate tabulation of data as well as presenting them in statistical tables ready for interpretation.

4. rigorous standards – refers to setting up of standards or principles which serve as bases for evaluating the findings of a study. Such standards shld not be changed to suit the expectations of the researcher. The principle also refers to the accurate statistical computation and interpretation of quantified data.

BUSINESS RESARCH ---BUSINESS RESEARCH– purpose – is to obtain info and determine buss opportunities that are feasible and those that are not promising for the buss firm, and to provide estimates of the opportunities so that buss mgt can better assess the resources that will be required to develop the opportunity.

- it is the systematic gathering, recording, and analyzing of data about problems relating to the financial, production, and marketing of goods and services.

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF THE DEFINITION:1. deals with all phases of the financial, production and marketing of goods and services,2. systematic gathering, recording and analysis of data. One does not simply gather data that

are convenient or easily accessible. Instead, the problem must be systematically approached so that a clear picture of the buss situation is obtained.

3. it requires that the data are objectively and accurately gathered, recorded, analyzed, and interpreted. One does not simply gather data or perform analysis and interpretation that validate one’s preconceived opinion. It shld not be biased. The stand shld be objective, and shld reflect objectivity in all phases.

Research – French word CERCHIER, meaning to seek or search.1. for more explanations2. for verifiable truth3. to make discoveries

RE – means AGAIN, --- signifies replication of the search.

Research – preceded by the term business – shows that the focus of this treatise is on the financial, production, and marketing phases of the business world.

- world of business is complex, buss research seeks to bring more orderliness for a clearer direction and for better guidance in solving financial, production, and marketing problems.

General applications of business research are as follows:1. buss and sales research – target markets, behavioral patterns, attitudes of buyers, market

demands, selling activities and distribution channels.2. buss economics and financial research – buss cycle and forecasting of both short-range

and long-range plans, evaluation of alternative financial investment opportunities,3. marketing and product research – product planning and development, branding and

packaging,

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4. media and advertising research – proper selection of advertising themes, copywriting, media selection and analysis, acct mgt, product of props, preparation of advertisements, and budgeting.

5. corporate responsibility research – deals with buss firms’ social responsibilities to the public, which are outside of the buss functions and responsibilities.

6. non-buss research – covers the diff types of problems encountered by govt, social, political, civic and other orgs where buss research techniques can be best applied.

Who do buss research?1. manufacturers2. advertising agencies3. advertising media4. retailers and wholesalers5. independent buss research firms6. govt agencies7. trade and professional assns.8. universities and foundations9. other agencies – banks and other financial institutions, public utilities and transportation

companies, etc

Preliminaries to research1. is there a need? If so, what?2. what field or arena you are most interested in?3. who are the people who have done something in the particular field or arena?4. what are the situations surrounding the field or arena?5. what is the importance of the particular field or segment of the field?6. is the field already explored? To what extend? Are there research studies already made

along the field?7. where can you secure literature?8. will you be able to handle the area competently?9. what factors shld you consider before making the decision?10. how will you use results?

: thorough evaluation has to be done, use of journals, articles and research reports of others, internet, handbooks, even books, to further defining a research problem.: field of expertise --- a must ---

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General Research FormatTitle PageRecommendationApproval SheetDedicationAcknowledgment additional upon presentation of Abstract of finish research workTable of contentsList of tablesList of Figures

I. Introductiona. Background of the studyb. Statement of the Problemc. Significance of the studyd. Scope and Limitations

II. Conceptual Frameworka. Review of related lit and studiesb. Research paradigmc. Research hypothesisd. Definition of variables

III. Methodologya. Population and sample main parts of research paperb. Instrumentsc. Procedured. Statistical analysis of data

IV. Results & Discussionsa. Presentationb. Analysisc. Interpretation

V. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendationa. Summaryb. Conclusionc. Recommendation

AppendicesBibliography additional upon presentationPersonal Data of finish research work

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FORMAT AND ITS DESCRIPTION

I.- INTRODUCTION–-- is not a title of the chapter. It is actually a paragraph side head, which begins Chapter 1.

The beginning of the introduction is the presentation of the topic, that is, what the topic is all about and its importance. The next part of the introduction is the reference to the existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a problem that has to be solved. The ending of the introduction shld be the rationale of the study – the need to solve the problem, the reason for conducting the study.

composed of three (3) paragraphs enabling the readers to see at a glimpse the entire contents of the research work.

o First paragraph – to provide the readers a mental warm-ups; thus, giving them info and readiness as to what the thesis is all about.

o Second paragraph – carries the bulk of introduction.o Third and last paragraph – is a sort of a closing portion that is intriguing and

challenging the readers to become interested in knowing the results of the proposed study. Consequently the readers will be prompted to continue reading the theses.

A. Background of the study – this segment consists of statements on what led he investigator to launch the study. A historical background may be given. Situations that may have spurred the researcher to undertake the study are included. The background of the study may have been generated by some empirical observations, the need to explore the problem and some other relevant conditions.

begins this section with a clear description of the background of the study and the social, institutional context which will frame the project. Be careful to describe as clearly as possible the problem intended to be addressed and refer to the relevant literature in the field.

This section describes the history of the problem. That is, it is an overview of factors which have led to the problem, comprise the problem and the historical significance relative to the problem. This shld take between one (1) to one and a half (1-1/2) pages.

B. Statement of the Problem – is what the researcher aims to discover or establish. Research demands that a clear statement of the problem be made. The researcher shld write out a simple language just what it is he/she proposes to investigate. It may be in the form of:

i. a question or questions or a single question followed by several sub-questions.

ii. A declarative statement or a series of complete statementsiii. A statement followed by a series of questions.

C. Significance of the study – refers to the significance of the study to the field involved, its timeliness and its practical value in terms of applicability an eventual implementation of the results. The researcher shld make certain that the results will indeed be useful.

Ex – To the School, to the community, to the students, etc.

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D. Scope and Limitations – limitations are stated to guide research report readers and the researchers themselves. This part states what is included in the particular study. Reasons why other aspects seemingly relevant to the study are omitted are also stated in this part of the report.

Scope of the study – defines where and when the study was conducted and who the subjects were. The scope sets the limitation and establishes the boundaries of the study.Limitations – is a phase or aspect of the investigation which may affect the result adversely but over which the researcher has no control.- it simple point out what is included or covered by the investigation and what is not. In terms of WHAT, the researcher shld explain clearly the specific topic covered by the study and which are not covered by the study. In terms of WHO/WHOM, the researcher shld identify who are involved in the research and who are not. In terms of WHERE, and WHEN, the writer is obliged to indicate definitely the locale and the time covered by the research.

II.- CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A. Review of related lit and studies – is the process that leads a researcher to past theory and studies. The review involves systematic identification, location, and analysis of documents containing info related to the research problem. It is the researcher’s immediate concern to look for these sources to put the literature into some organized form and use these for the study.

it helps in a situation in which a researcher has not decided for his topic yet. It will enable him to determine and have a good idea of the topic he is interested in through reading literature and studies such as theses, dissertations, books and even periodicals.

Includes foreign lit, local lit, foreign studies, local studies. Sources of lit and studies

Books, encyclopedia, almanacs, and similar references Articles published in professional journal magazines, periodicals,

newspapers. Manuscripts, monographs, speeches, letters and diaries. Unpublished theses and dissertations Constitution and laws and statutes of the land Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating frgovt offices and depts., Records of the schools, public and private, especially reports of

their activities. Reports fr seminars, educ, or otherwise. Official reports of all kinds, social, economic, scientific, technical

and political.= Types of sources1. general references – tells the where to find other sources, such as articles,

monographs, books and other docs.

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2. primary sources – these are the result of researches or investigations that are reported by the researchers themselves, and are then published. Most primary sources are journals.

3. secondary sources – these are publications in which the authors describe the works done by others.

= Characteristics of related lit and studies1. materials must be recent as possible2. it must be objective and unbiased3. must be relevant to the study4. must not be too few or too many.= Ways of citing related lit and studies1. by author or writer – in this method the ideas, facts or principles although they

have the same meaning, are explained or discussed separately and cited in the footnotes with their respective authors or writers.

2. by topics – in this case, if diff authors or writers have the same opinion about the topic, the topic is discussed and cited under the names of the authors. This is the summary of their opinions. This is to avoid separate and long discussions.

3. chronological – accdng to the year they were written, materials which are written earlier shld be cited first, before those which are written later.

= What to cite – only major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or conclusions relevant to the problem under investigation shld be discussed. Generally, such findings, ideas, generalizations, principles or conclusions ar summarized, paraphrased or synthesized.

B. Research paradigm – Conceptual Framework - Input, Processed, Output (IPO)Theoretical Framework - based on theory gathered

Conceptual Framework – show the research paradigm or structure of the entire study. This will guide the researcher what to do or not to do and what are needed or not needed in the study.o this is the researcher’s map that guides him/her in undertaking the study. It shows

how he/she understands and looks at the problem by means of presenting relationships of variables after a review of related literature and studies. The discussion of the conceptual framework is followed by a diagram (also called a paradigm) that allows the reader as well as the researcher to have an idea of the whole research process at one glance.

o The conceptual paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It depicts in a more vivid way what the research wants to cover.

Theoretical Framework – the foundation of the research study. These are highly related theories and principles that were established and proven by authorities which are very useful to the present study. Almost all research studies that were conducted in the past were based on universally accepted theories and principles.- means relating to or having the characteristics of the theory, therefore, refers to the set of interrelated construct, definitions, and prepositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables. It becomes the basis of

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the research problem. It explains the phenomena upon which the thesis investigation hopes to fill the vacuum in the stream of knowledge.

C. Research hypothesis – a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question. Usually stated in NULL form and tested statistically. The computed statistical value provides the basis for determining whether the hypothesis is to be accepted or rejected.

D. Operational Definition of variables – terms are defined according to their use in the study. This clears up difficulty in understanding the research report. Sometimes the definition of terms given in the Webster dictionary is not the definition of the same term as used in the study. Arranged in alphabetically using the first letter of the first word as basis. This portion of the thesis will then look like a little dictionary. Acronyms shld always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly known or if it is used for the last time.

III.- METHODOLOGY –- varies according to the research method used.

- this cld be the descriptive research method, survey type, the project feasibility, case study, normative survey, experimental method, etc.

A. Population and sample – the researcher describes how he selected the place, products, situations and respondents. If region were used, the diff regions of the country are included in his first list. The researcher shld describe how he went about selecting the sampled places and sampled products and respondents in this part of the methodology.

B. Instruments – instruments used for gathering data are described. The various aspects of the instruments are mentioned. Items in each instruments are described too. It is desirable that writers mention how these instruments were used in the study. Cld it be that instrument 1 is intended to shed light on hypothesis 1, instrument 2 on hypothesis 2 , etc.

if the instrument is lengthy, this is generally placed in the appendix. Such placement has to be mentioned in the text and labeled as Appendix A, or B, or C, as the case may be. If the researcher developed a survey on his own or modified one which is in the literature, he needs to include this plus the cover letter in the appendix. If he is using a well-researched questionnaire, reference it clearly.

Ways of collecting data Mechanical devices include almost all tools (microscope,

telescope, thermometers, rulers, monitors) used in physical sciences.

Clerical tools used when the researcher studies people and gather data on the feelings, emotions, attitudes, and judgment of the subject such as:

o Questionnaire method – planned, related to particular topic with space provided for indicating response to each

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question intended for submission to a number of persons for a reply.

o Interview method – face to face between personso Empirical observation methodo Registration methodo Testing methodo Experiment methodo Library method

= types of survey questionnaires 1. dichotomous response items – offer the respondent two (2) alternatives to choose

from (yes-no, true-false)2. multiple choice3. checklist4. rating scales – it is where the respondent evaluates a particular product, certain

attitudes and other characteristics. It is where he expresses his perceptions or how he views something.

a. Numerical rating scale – is where a respondent indicates his response in a scale of numbers ranging from 1 to 7.

b. Graphic rating scale – contains words than numbers. (never, seldom, occasionally, frequently, always)

c. Forced choice rating scale – presents a respondent with series of choices and requires him to choose one over the other._________ has sense of humor _________ always comes late_________ boring _________ terror

5. ranking items – contains lists of items and the respondent is asked to choose which item is the most important, second important, and so on.

6. attitude scale – measure the attitude of respondents by asking a series of statements of preference.

a. Semantic differential – where the respondent indicates an attitude or opinion between two (2) extreme choices. Ex- clean --- dirty

b. Likert scale – is made up of a series of opinion statements about some issues. Ex- strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, strongly disagree.

C. Procedure – clarifies the data gathering steps, procedures and time schedule. It explains for whom and how permission to conduct the study will be obtained, how it will be administered to and retrieved from the respondents. How long it will take the respondents to answer each instrument and when the data gathering will be done.

- Who gathered the data? From where are they gathered? When were the data gathered? How were the data gathered? Were there special teams involved? Was the collection by mail or was it personally handled by the researcher? What were the difficulties encountered, if any? Was there a need for special ways of collecting the data? How long did it take to gather the data? What about the administration of the data-gathering instrument?

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D .-Statistical analysis of data – treatment of data includes the classifications made, the tallying, and the statistical computations made. It is advisable that the researcher looks back at the formulated sub-problems or hypotheses using these as guide to the presentation of treatment used. Statistical formulas are also presented here. However, if long processes are used, formulas or steps undergone cld be included in the appendix. In the presentation of formulas, it wld be beneficial to the reader if symbols are interpreted or explained.

IV- RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS- – The PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS and INTERPRETATION of data

This chapter presents, analyzes and interprets the data gathered out of the instruments used in the study presented according to the specific problems.

A. RESULTS- The results of the study are presented using the

1. data in the form of statistical tables called Tabular Presentation, 2. in the form of graphs called Graphical Presentation and 3. in the form of sentences or statements called Textual Presentation.

It includes plain presentation of figures in tales and graphs.

Tabular Presentation- is a method of presenting data using statistical table derived from a tabulation diagram or “talligram”, which is a contraption of “tally” and “diagram”. - Tabulation diagram is the drawing of horizontal and vertical lines forming a number of desired columns which are systematically determined out of the classes and sub-classes involved in the study. It is these columns where the numerical facts or data are entered. After making the tally, the statistical table is finally presented purposely to facilitate easy analysis and interpretation of data.

The statistical table shld have the ff functional parts:1. table number – which is usually written in Arabic is placed at the center, above the title

numbered consecutively throughout the research.2. written below the table number describing the subject matter or content or the data

presented in the table. The title is presented in V-shaped or inverted pyramid form.3. the content which contains all information written in the rows and columns.4. a headnote which is written below the title and is usually enclosed in parenthesis

explaining something which is not clear in the table.5. a source note generally written below the table or headnote indicating the origin of data

presented in the table;6. presentation of table – tables are presented in narrative form.

Graphical Presentation- a graph is a diagram consisting of a line or lines showing the variation, changes or relationship of data in a most attractive, effective and convincing way.- it is presented according to their qualitative, geographical, chronological attributes and classified as:

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1. bar graphs – presented in a form of histogram or single horizontal or single vertical bar graph.

2. linear graph – graphs presented in the form of band frequency polygon, etc.3. pictogram

The important parts of a graph are:1. number – usually written as “Figure 1”, “Figure 2”, etc at the bottom of the graph.2. title – usually written above the graph describing what the graph is all about.

Ex- Figure 1 – Map of Mandaluyong, NCR3. scale – which indicates the length or height unit representing a certain amt of the

variables being used in the graph.4. source – written below the chart indicating the origin of the graph.5. presentation of graph – the graph is presented or explained in narrative form.

Ex – Figure …. Shows the …..

Textual Presentation- uses statements or sentences with numerals in order to describe the data purposely to invite attention to some significant data. This presentation usually precedes that table or the graph with the mixture of words and numbers in statements.- textual presentation shld be as complete as possible and followed by an analysis and interpretation of implications of the data. It includes comparative statements on the findings of other studies to make some generalizations. This presentation is always strengthened by the studies and literature presented in Chapter 2 and by the results of the interview and observation.

B. DISCUSSION- this portion includes the topical presentation according to the results earlier presented.- it includes the analysis and interpretation of findings.

V.-SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION- this is were the whole research study is summarized, and where generalization in the form of conclusion are presented and the solutions to the problems are offered in the form of recommendations.

A. Summary- includes brief and concise statements of the main purpose and specific problems of the study, the significance of the study, the method of research used, the respondents, the research instruments, and sampling design. It shld also include textual and numeral summary of imprt data and significant findings especially those upon which the conclusion is based.

B.Conclusion- includes general statements, inferences, generalizations, implications based on the findings of the study. It is usually taken on the hypotheses of the study. The conclusion shld be guided against bias, incorrect generalization, deduction and misleading impressions.

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C. Recommendation- are usually statements that offer solutions to the issues or problems presented and discussed in the study. No statement shld be made as part of the recommendations which have not been included or discussed in the study. All recommendations enumerated in the study shldbe practical, specific, feasible, attainable, logical and valid. Recommendation for further study on similar topic but in other places to verify or amplify the result of the study.

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FEASIBILITY STUDY- a thorough and systematic analysis of all factors to ascertain the viability of an undertaking.- it gives a CAPSULE VIEW of the whole project by presenting its highlights, descriptive definition, long-range objectives, feasibility criteria, history and basic assumptions. - it contains the name of the firm, location and size of its office, plant site, comprehensive description of the business and its operations and the project lines.

Major parts of the feasibility report –RTU FORMAT--1. Summary of the project – abstract regarding the proposal/project 2. marketing – includes the research made on actual and potential demand for the product,

competition, selling price and marketing plans.3. technical – shld delve on the manufacturing process, operating requirements, plant

capacity, plant layout, etc.4. organization and management – cover the type or form of business org and division of

functions within the org.5. financial aspects – cover the presentation of the expected results of operation, their

effects on the financial resources of the company, and analysis thereof regarding profitability, liquidity and stability and the financing which includes the determination of the financing requirements, sources of financing, and cost of capital.a. taxation – tax implications and tax saving measures. All applicable taxes must be

included in the financial projections.b. legal - based on legality/constitutionality

6. social and economic benefits – presented to show the relevance of the project under study in relation to the plans of the govt in the particular region, the benefits that may be derived directly or indirectly by the community and other buss establishments, and the possible effect on our national economy

Gantt chart – is prepared by determining the set of jobs or activities waiting for each schedule. = shows the schedules developed using the ff rules.

- Earliest due date first (EDD) – priority is given to the job with the earliest due date. - First in system first served (FISFS) – priority is given to the job that arrived in the

activity first.- First come first served (FCFS) – priority is given to the processing of the activity that

arrived at the schedule first.- Least Slack first (LSF) – priority is given to the processing of the activity that has least

slack. Slack is the difference between the due date, and the work remaining on the schedule.

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- Shortest Processing time (SPT) – priority is given to the activity with the shortest processing time on the schedule under consideration.

- Least Work remaining (LWR) – priority is given to the activity with the least amt of total processing remaining to be done.

Sample of Gantt Chart---

OTHER RELATED TOPICS:=========================HOW TO CONDUCT A RESEARCH WORK?

CONCEPT MAP OF PRESENTATION1. Introduction to research2. Steps in conducting research3. Types of research4. Format, style and documentation5. Parts of the research paper6. APA format and style7. Main parts of the proposed paper

1. Introduction

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1.1 Theoretical Framework1.2 Conceptual Framework1.3 Statement of the Problem1.4 Hypothesis1.5 Assumption1.6 Scope and Limitation1.7 Definition of Terms

2. Review of Related Literature and Studies3. Research methodology

Meaning of research- to search again- to take another more careful look- to find out more

Reasons: Not enough, misleading or totally wrong

Research – is any organized inquiry carried out to provide information for solving problems.- is the formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of the problems.

Scientific Method- Answering the question- Formulation of a theoretical framework and methodology,- Collection, analysis and interpretation of pertinent data- Presentation of recommendations

Guidelines in the selection of a research topic- Importance of the guidelines

to make the research more interestingto make the conduct of the study enjoyable to the researcher/sto ensure the completion of the study

The guidelines of the selection of a topic:- the research topic must be chosen by the researcher herself/himself- it must be within the interest of the researcher- it must be within the specialization of the researcher- it must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle- it must be within the ability of the researcher to finance- it is researchable and manageable

o data are available and accessibleo answers to specific questions and sub-problems can be foundo the hypothesis formulated are testableo equipment and instruments are available

- it can be completed within reasonable time- relevant to the present time and situation- results are practical and implementable

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- it requires original, critical and reflective thinking- it must contribute to the body of human knowledge- it must pave the way for a solution of the problem/problems- it must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the people- it must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of violence but

by peaceful means- there must be a return of some kind to the researcher, such as the satisfaction of

intellectual curiosity and being able to discover the truth or improved specialization, competence and skill in research work.

- There must be consideration of the hazards involved either physical, social or legal

Elements of a research problem:- aim or purpose of the problem for the investigation – answer the question “WHY?”- the subject matter or topic to be investigated – “WHAT?”- the place or locale where the research is to be conducted – “WHERE?”- the period or time of study during which the data are to be collected – “WHEN?”- population of the universe from whom the data are to be collected – “WHO?” of “for

WHOM?”

Characteristics of a research problem- S specific (the problem should be specifically stated)- M measurable (it is easy to measure by using research instrument)- A achievable (using correct statistical techniques)- R realistic (real results are not manipulated)- T time-bound (the time frame is required in every activity because the shorter the

competition of the activity the better)

EXAMPLES OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS- innovation/diversification of product or service- customer satisfaction- expansion (physical/human/capital)- high productivity- optimum profit- financial stability- efficiency and effectivity in labor force- effective financial control and management- improve current trends and practices- provide inputs to policy formulation- sustain competitive advantage

STEPS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCHA. Define the Problem

1. this is the critical stepa. what is it you are actually trying to do?b. the research question

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2. your research is your experimenta. your DEPENDENT variableb. what are you actually interested in?

c. this is the focus of your research intentions

3. identify your perspectivea. what is your point of view?

1. will you be attempting to solve a problem or explain it? (intentions are NOT synonymous)

2. are you examining your issue as a particular kind of researcher?- psychologist, sociologist, economist, political, scientist, public administrator, law enforcement practitioner …?

b. This matters

4. degree and definitiona. how broad is your problem?

- individual, local, state, national, international?

b. How do you define your key variables?1. must itemize your operational definitions2. these definitions must be exact, as explicit as possible

B. Develop the theory(explanation / solution)

1. what is the explanation / solution to your problem?- based on your perspective, what are you proposing?

2. a statement of what you believe3. identifies what it is you will examine as well as what it is you will not4. the library should be your first stop5. work with what you know (epistemology) along with how you find out

(methodology) in response to what it is you do not know

C. Conceptualization/Measurement1. understanding specifically what you intend to examine2. what do you “see” when you “see” someone doing what you intend to examine?3. what information are you actually seeking

- what do you want / need to prove your point?4. a more thorough discussion of this area will be conducted later (in the research

design section), but this is thinking about your problem.

D. Identify Methodology/Data Collection Strategy1. how will you seek the answers to the questions you must ask to prove your point?

- what questions need to be asked?2. what are your options to generate the “best” information?3. typical social science strategies

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a. secondary analysis

b. face-to-face interviewsc. self-report questionnairesd. unobtrusive measurese. field research

E. Data analysis / Presentation1. what strategy best shows your efforts?

a. various levels of statistical analysis are the most popular in social science research1. univariate, bivariate, multivariate statistical analyses2. graphs (pictograms)3. tables

b. narratives (growing in popularity; post modernism)- written, verbal descriptions

c. multi-media presentations

2. purpose is to illustrate what it is you did

TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE AND METHOD

A. CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE1. Experimental research-- it is a carefully planned process designed to manipulate influences systematically, while

holding other influences constant, in order to observe and measure the outcomes in relation to theory.

- Seek to establish direct cause-effect relations between the elements examined in research, in terms of quantifying the direction and strength of the observed relations.

2. Non-experimental research-- does not measure effects directly by manipulating controlled variable, but seeks

relationships that can be found to exist between uncontrolled variables.- There is a wide range of variations on ways to conduct this type of research- It is by far the most frequently used type of research in management and business

3. Quasi-experimental research-- it uses a scientific approach and assumptions, but does not fulfill all of the criteria for

classification as fully experimental researcho outcomes from the types of research

for the purely scientific purpose of adding to a body of knowledge for the purpose of reducing or solving some specific problems

4. Pure research-- conducted for the purpose of adding to knowledge, and building a theory or model

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- expand the limits of knowledge- conducted to verify the acceptability of a given theory or to know more about a certain

concept.

5. Applied research-- conducted when a decision must be made about a specific real-life problem- there is action to be taken at the end of the research project

6. Action research –- a well-known process for guiding applied research- an established process for conducting applied social research, with a focus upon taking

action as a result of findings, set within a long-term cyclical process

B. CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO METHODS1. Descriptive method-- it is fact finding with adequate interpretations

o types of descriptive research research survey continuity description case study research job and activity analysis library and documented research

2. Historical method-- interprets past trends of attitude, event and fact

3. Experimental method –- has to do with controlled observation of change and development, whether in the realms

of the natural or the social sciences.

OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH1. Philosophical type of research-- the function of this type of research is to point out the supreme value of reflective

thinking on the level of the largest generalization of widest import, to give information about the methods and techniques of philosophical reasoning and to stimulate to whatever ordered research is possible on this level of reflection.

2. Prognostic type of research-- refers to any scientific investigation in which the main and stated purpose is to predict the

future operations of factors investigated.

3. Sociological types of research-- includes a study of all human group relationships- seeks to solve the problems of education as an institution for human betterment.

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4. Creative type of research-- it is reflective thinking in a situation of aesthetic values.

5. Research in curriculum-making-- deals with those generally agreed upon procedures and techniques that lead to a better

selection of socially valuable content material, its functional organization, and its validation and verification in actual use.

Format, Style and Documentation

Format- the format of a thesis report is the layout, plan, or pattern which will be used by the

researcher as guide in the preparation of such report.

Style- on thesis, after the investigation, data collection, analysis and interpretation the next step

is to clearly communicate the idea. This is where a consistent styles are needed.

Style – Principles of Readability- principles of appeal – interest- principles of personalization – human interest- principles of patterning – clear and plain to the reader- principles of emphasis – reader get important points- principles of dilution – too great density of ideas makes reading difficult.- Principles of plain word – chose of proper and essential word.

An Approach to Style- place you’re self in the background- write is a way that comes naturally- work from a suitable design- write with nouns and verbs- revise and rewrite.- Do not over write- Do not overstate- Avoid use of qualifiers- Use orthodox spelling- Do not explain too much- Do not construct awkward adverbs.- Make sure the readers know who is speaking- Avoid fancy words- Do not use dialect unless your ear is good- Be clear- Do not inject opinions- Use figure of speech sparingly

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- Do not use shortcuts at the cost of clarity- Avoid foreign languages

PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER – APA STYLE

Title Page- summarizes the main idea of the paper- avoid abbreviation; recommended length is 10 to 12 words- by line: name of the author and the institution (without the words by or from the)- author’s name: first name, middle initial/s, and last name. Omit titles (Dr., PhD)

Abstract- brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article- do not include information that does not appear in the body of the paper- should not exceed 120 words- include only the 4 or 5 most important concepts, findings or implications - abbreviate liberally- set the active voice (but without the personal pronouns I or We)- use third person rather than first person

Chapter 1Introduction

- development of the problem under investigation and statement of the purpose of the investigation.

o Introduce the problem- because the introduction is clearly identified by its position in the article it is not labeled

o Before writing, consider the ff: why is the problem important? How do the hypothesis and the experimental design relate to the problem?

o What are the theoretical implications of the study, and how does the study relate to previous work in the areas?

o What theoretical propositions are tested, and how were they derived?o A good introduction answers these questions in a paragraph or twoo Develop the background: discuss literature but not exhaustively; assume the

reader is knowledgeable about the field; provide appropriate history, etc.o State the purpose and rationale: make this statement in the closing paragraphs of

the introduction.

Chapter 2Method

- description of the method used to conduct the investigation- identify sub-sections: Participants or subjects, instrument and procedure.

Chapter 3Results

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- report of the results that were found.

Chapter 4Discussion

- interpretation and discussion of the implications of the results- state the purpose and rationale: make this statement in the closing paragraphs of the

discussion.

Parts of a Research Paper – APA STYLEDocumenting Sources: Using APA Format

Popular Styles in Writing APA – psychology, education and other social sciences MLA – literature, arts and humanities AMA – medicine, health, and biological sciences Turabian – designed for college students to use with all subjects Chicago Manual Style – used with all subjects in the “real world” by books, magazines,

newspapers and other non-scholarly publications.

Background- APA style or APA format are the terms commonly used to describe the writing style

guidelines which are developed, maintained and periodically revised and updated by the AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA).

- APA style may be referring to APA’s system of citations in text and reference.

Format- when ask you to write in “APA style” they do not mean writing style.- They are referring to the editorial style- It consists of rules or guidelines that a publisher observes- Editorial style concerns uniform use of such elements as:

o Punctuations and abbreviationso Construction of tableso Selection of headingso Citation of referenceso Presentation of statisticso As well as many other elements that are a part of every manuscript.

- APA has developed a standard for writing style that is now widely used by writers in the social sciences, education, business and psychology. APA documentation

style calls for “in-text” citations of sources of information to be listed within the text when are referenced, rather than in footnotes and endnotes, as some systems calls for it.

Why use APA format?(acc. To PurdueUniversity Writing Lab)

Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily Provides format within a discipline

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Thesis Parts Using APA Format

Chapter I – The Problem and the Review of Related LiteratureIntroductionReview of Related LiteratureConceptual FrameworkStatement of the ProblemHypothesisAssumptions (Optional)Significance of StudyScope ad LimitationsDefinition of Terms

Chapter II – MethodologyResearch DesignParticipantsInstrumentStatistical TreatmentResearch Procedure

Chapter III – Results and DiscussionResultsDiscussion

Chapte IV – Summary, Conclusion and RecommendationSummaryConclusionRecommendation

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OTHER RELATED DISCUSSIONS:=============HYPOTHESIS – is a shrewd guess that is formulated and provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation. In a sense, the hypothesis takes the place in research that is held by opinion in everyday life. They differ in that while both hypothesis and opinion are preceded by consideration of the facts, only in the case of the former is it a rule to test by further comparison with the data. The function of the working hypothesis is guidance in the search for evidence, by way of limiting the area of investigation, sensitizing the worker to pertinent data and relationships, and providing a unifying concept.

A better understanding of the hypothesis cldbe had by taking note of the ff definition:

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A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. It consists of elements expressed in an orderly system by relationship which seek to explain a condition that has not yet been verified by facts. In it, some of the elements or relationship between the elements are known facts. But other elements or relationships are conceptual. That is, they are products of the research worker’s imagination. They leap beyond known facts and experiences. Thus, a hypothesis logically relates known facts to intelligent guesses about unknown conditions in an effort to extend or enlarge our knowledge. The conceptual and factual elements and relationships must be formulated in such a precise and objective manner that the research worker can test the implications of the hypothesis.

As noted above, the hypothesis provides guidance in the search for evidence. Without a well-conceived and precisely formulate hypothesis, no scientific undertaking can proceed effectively and any attempt to do so is like working in the dark. The hypotheses serve a number of definite purposes in research. These are:

1. they are a means of stating assumptions;2. they are a means of presenting or providing explanations;3. they serve as determiners of the relevancy of facts;4. they help the investigator determine the research design, ex – what research methods and

procedures to use;5. they aid the research worker in presenting the conclusions of his study; and6. they are sources for the formulation of new hypothesis.

Guerrero states that once the problem has been chose, delimited, and clearly stated, it is necessary to formulate the hypothesis regarding the problem. He elaborates on the nature of the hypothesis in this wise:

It is in a sense a prediction of the findings which one may encounter in the process of research; it is a supposition in general terms regarding the unknown aspects of the situation which has given rise to the problem. It is a generalization which anticipates the kind of findings which one may expect after working out the problem.

Functions of a hypothesis:1. It may determine at the start what kind of research is to be done, and what methodology

may be used. Thus, if the hypothesis in the hypothetical problem referred to above is, “the personal or demographic characteristics of teachers are directly and positively related to their participation in faculty meetings,” this kind of hypothesis suggests a research design involving the showing of the relationship between the two factors – the demographic characteristics and the participation of teachers. This may involve a test of relationship through the chi-square.

2. the general influence of the hypothesis is carried over to the presentation of data. The general arrangement of the tables, the scheme of the graphs and other statistical devices are in general decided and planned with the hypothesis partly in mind.

3. the nature and type of the research instrument to be developed is also shaped partly by the hypothesis. The nature of the questions in a questionnaire, the nature of the tests to be use if any, the range and scope of the readings to be undertaken – all these will depend to a great extent on the nature of the hypothesis.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

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1. it shld be reasonable2. it shld be consistent with known facts3. it shld be stated in such a way that it can be tested as true or false4. it shld be stated in a simple terms as possible

following these statements, possible conclusions may be suggested. This approach clearly establishes the nature of the problem and the logic underlying the investigation, and gives direction to the data-gathering process.

Hypothesis – states expected or tentative conclusions that may be reached. This is needed only in EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH and NOT in other types.

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FRAMING OF HYPOTHESIS AND ASSUMPTIONS (RIVERA JR)

Hypothesis – is an intelligent statement or prediction expressed in a form of declarative sentence, presented and analyzed using statistical tools in order to accept or reject the findings of the study. - it is defined as a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more variables. Moreover, a hypothesis is an inference which has to be proven. It is a tentative formulation or explanation about the expected outcome of the study presented in the NULL form. It is expresses the existence, attributes or significant relationship between variables included in the research.

Anderson states that the hypothesis predicts what the data will show and will give an acceptable reason for the performance. It is considered an educated or intelligent guess as it is formulated on the basis of well-thought of objectives and review of studies and literature related to the problem under consideration. It serves as a guide in the search for a solution to the problem in directing the type of data to be collected and the type of statistical tools. It is taken from the specific problems of the study. It is a testable statement. It may be expressed in two ways namely:

1. the NULL HYPOTHESIS which is a denial of an attribute, an existence, a difference or an effect or relationship expressed in a NEGATIVE statement exemplified by this example. “there is NO significant difference in the perception of the different respondent groups on the effectiveness of the program in terms of its vision.”

2. the ALTERNATIVE or OPERATIONAL form which affirms the existence of a phenomenon, acceptance of the attribute of relationship, effects and differences. Hence, a relationship exists among the variables. It is exemplified by this example: “there is a significant difference in the perception of the different respondent groups on the effectiveness of the program in terms of its vision.”

The use of the null hypothesis has become very popular in thesis and dissertation bec it is easier to disprove. However, the recent trend is toward the use of alternative hypothesis. This will provide a better motivation to carry out the study.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

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1. itshld be expressed in comparative relationship bet and among the variables with valid basis and justifiable explanation of a phenomenon; it may be expressed in terms of cause and effect.

2. there must have valid and acceptable conclusion that cld be drawn after using the appropriate statistical tools.

3. it must be formulated based on the specific question raise in the study.4. itshld be testable to prove the relationship of the variables using statistical tools.

Ex-QUESTION – “Is there a significant difference in the perception of the respondent groups about the effectiveness of the Phil School of Technology in terms of its vision?”

- hypothesescld be stated out in this specific question:a. Null hypothesis – “There is NO significant difference in the perception of the

respondent groups about the effectiveness of the Phil Sch of Tech in terms of its vision.”

b. Alternative Form – “There is significant difference in the perception of the respondent groups about the effectiveness of the PST in terms of its vision.”

ASSUMPTION- is a statement related to the problem which is presumed to be true on the basis of observation or experience. It is used to provide general direction to the study and does not require confirmation or discussion in the thesis or dissertation nor statistical computation. This may be included in the background of the study. Hence, it may not be used as part of the format of the investigation.

The following assumptions were used in the dissertation entitled - “The establishment of a marine biological station for the US. A Proposal,”.

1. that a marine biological station cld enrich student knowledge in the biological field through proper exposure to biological researches;

2. this project will make student appreciate better the study of ecology by actual and proper exposure to animals in their natural habitat, thus giving more meaning and life to the biological field;

3. the realization of the objectives of a marine station will be dependent upon its facilities and eqpt as well as the available local resources in the area and the specific needs of the students.

RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related literature is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related. For instance, if the present study deals with drug addiction, literature to be reviewed or surveyed shldbe composed of materials that deal with drug addition. These mats are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers and other publications.

These materials are classified as1. local, if printed in the Phils and

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2. foreign, if printed in other lands.

Related studies, are studies, inquiries or investigations already conducted to which the present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually unpublished mats such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.

They may be classified as1. local if the inquiry was conducted in the Phils2. foreign, if conducted in foreign lands.

Importance, purpose and functions of related literature and studiesA survey or review of related literature and studies is very imprtbec such reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is bec related lit and studies guide the researcher in pursuing his research venture.

Reviewed lit and studies help or guide the researcher in the ff ways:1. they help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research problem or

topic. By reviewing related mats, a replication of a similar problem may be found better than the problem already chosen. Replication study or a research problem already conducted but in another place.

2. they help the investigator understand his topic for research better. Reviewing related lit and studies may clarify vague points about his problem.

3. they ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is duplication if an investigation already made is conducted again in the same locale using practically the same respondents. This is avoided if a survey of related lit and studies be made first.

4. they help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related info. This is bec the bibliography pf a study already conducted indicate references about similar studies.

5. they help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in:a. the formulation of specific questions to be researched on;b. the formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there shld be any;c. the formulation of conceptual framework;d. the selection and application of the methods of research;e. the selection and application of sampling techniques;f. the selection and/or application and validation of research instruments for

gathering data;g. the selection and application of statistical procedures;h. the analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data;i. the making of the summary of implications for the whole study;j. the formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

6. they help and guide the researcher in making comparison bet his findings with the findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of formulating generalizations or principles which are the contributions of the study to the fund of knowledge.

Characteristics of related lit and studies

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1. the surveyed materials must be as recent as possible – due to rapid social, economic, scientific, and technological changes. Finding several yrs ago may be of little value today bec of the fast changing life style of the people.EXCEPTIONS are

a. treaties that deal on universals or thing of more or less permanent nature may still be good today.

b. Mathematical laws and formulas and statistical procedures that had been formulated a long, long time ago which are being used today with very, very little improvement.

c. Natural and physical laws - books on these, though written a long time ago, are still being cited today.

d. Conditions of today and those of a remote past, say ten or twenty years ago – naturally, literature and studies about that remote past have to be surveyed and reviewed.

2. materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased – shld not be ONESIDED, either political, or religious etc.

3. materials surveyed must be relevant to the study – only mats that have some bearing or similarity to the research problem at hand shld be reviewed.

4. surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and reliable – there are cases where FICTITIOUS data are supplied just to complete a research report (thesis or dissertation). Of course, this kind of deception is hard to DETECT and to PROVE. Thus, this is a real problem to honest researchers.

5. reviewed mats must not be too few nor too many- shld be sufficient enough to give insight into the research problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability of related materials. Sometimes there is a paucity of such mats. Ordinarily, from 10 to 15 related materials are needed for a master’s thesis and from 15 to 25 for a doctoral dissertation depending upon their availability, as well as their depth and length of discussions. For an undergraduate thesis, from 5 to 10 may do. The numbers are only suggestive and not imperative nor mandatory. These are only the average numbers observed from theses and dissertations surveyed by this author.

Sources of related lit and studies1. books, encyclopedias, almanacs and other similar references2. articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and other

publications3. manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries4. unpublished theses and dissertations5. the constitution and laws and statutes of the land6. bulletins, circulars, and order emanating from govt offices and depts., especially from the

office of the pres and the dept of educ.7. records of schools, public and private, especially reports on their activities.8. reports from seminars, educational or otherwise9. official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological,

political, etc from the govt and other entities.

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Where to locate the sources of related lit and studies1. libraries, either govt, school, or private libraries2. govt and private offices.3. the National library4. the library of the dept of educ,the last 2 are rich depositories of related mats, particularly unpublished master’s theses and doctoral dissertations.

METHODOLOGY

This chapter of a thesis or dissertation contains a comprehensive description of the 1. research design, 2. the research locals, 3. the samples and sampling technique/s used, 4. instrumentation, 5. procedure, and 6. a complete statistical analysis of the data.

THE RESEARCH DESIGNMethodology contains a brief description of the research design to be used and including the justification on why it is the best method for the study.

Research design – refers to a scheme or plan of action used to meet the research objectives of the study. It is a detailed plan of how the research will be conducted. Hence, the quality of research output depends upon the research design or method used in the study.

Any researcher shld, therefore, exercise a great level of judgment in selecting the appropriate and effective method of research in order to ensure the success of the attainment of the specific objectives of the study.

Any or a combination of the ff research design cldbe utilized depending on its appropriateness to the study to be conducted:

1. descriptive method2. experimental method3. historical method

1. Descriptive method – is a general procedure employed in studies that have for their chief purpose the description of phenomena.

- It is a design which describes the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the course of a particular phenomena.

- This method is used to discover facts on which professional judgment cld be based.

- It involves the description, recording, analysis and interpretation of what it is. - It is used in many fields of investigation due to its applicability to solve diff kinds

of problems.

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- There are several types of descriptive research which are widely used by many researchers. Some of these are:

i. Surveyii. Content analysis

iii. Case studyiv. Feasibility study

SURVEY – is used when the objectives of the study is to see a general or specific picture of the population under investigation in terms of their social and economic characteristics, opinions and their knowledge about or behavior towards a certain phenomenon covering either relatively large population under investigation called CENSUS or with a limited scope which covers only a portion of population under study called SAMPLE SURVEY.

It is used to gather information or preferences about health care, needs, practices, beliefs, attitudes, interests, perception and other related topics.

CONTENT ANALYSIS – is used to describe objectively, systematically and quantitatively the content of documents found in buss records, minutes of meetings, speeches, newspapers, journals or magazines.

- it is otherwise known as DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS. Ex – instead of using interview as an instrument to gather data on the topic; an objective, systematic and quantitative analysis of news and articles in newspapers, journals, magazines covering a given period of time as indicated in the research title may be done. As in the title “The attitudes of Filipinos toward the Americans in 1980 – 81.”

CASE STUDY – is used when an extensively thorough and comprehensive study of a particular individual, group or institution or situation is involved over a period of time.

- it is a comprehensive study of a person, a group or a community.- As a comprehensive and extensive examination of a particular individual, group

or situation in a given period of time. - In using this type of method, the researcher shld always practice FAIRNESS and

OBJECTIVITY in analyzing and presenting the findings of the study. - He/she shld act as an observer-participant of the case on hand.- He/she also observes actions and records the significant events based on his/her

own observations.

FEASIBILITY STUDY – is a method used to find the viability of a proposed undertaking on the establishment of either a certain institution, an infrastructure or a business venture.

- this study involves an extensive and systematic analysis of all the factors affecting the possibility of success of a proposed project.

2. Experimental method – can be used inside and outside laboratory conditions. It is the most PRESTIGIUOS METHOD of advancing scientific knowledge.

- this method is a design which is used to manipulate and control one or more independent variables for variation concomitant for the manipulation of the independent variables.

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- It is a technique of discovering information through experimentation. It is a procedure involving a manipulation or control of conditions for the purpose of studying the relative effects of various treatments applied to members of a sample or of the same treatment applied to members of diff samples.

3. historical method – is a useful design which involves a critical writing of past experiences, events and developments in order to provide helpful information and direction for present and future actions.

- it is a critical investigation of past events, experiences and developments, and the meticulous examination of evidence of the validity of sources of past information and the interpretation of weighted evidence. Knowing the past will enable us to understand ourselves as a people. We also learn to appreciate the things we have done in the past which contribute to what we enjoy or suffer today. This enable us to learn from the mistakes of the past and assist us to avoid them not only in the present but also in the future.

- This method will shed light on the issues under study which will eventually lead to the discovery of the truth and enrichment of knowledge.

- 2 basic sources of historical data:i. documents which are reports of events made up of impressions in the past

that have been consciously recorded with the purpose of transmitting information, and

ii. remains or relics which are physical objects or written materials of historical value and produced without the purpose of deliberately imparting information.

THE RESEARCH LOCALS- contains a description of the place where the respondents are to be obtained.

SAMPLES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES- for a study to produce a valid and reliable result, sufficient representatives of samples and appropriate sampling techniques shld be adopted.

Sampling – is the process of getting a representative part of the population being studied. A representative of the samples is determined in a manner that the characteristics, properties and variations are reflected. - defined as the process of measuring a small portion of something followed by a general statement about the whole thing.

o - a SAMPLE is any sub-aggregate drawn from the population.

THE POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE

POPULATION - refers to a group to which an investigator wld like the result to be generalized. Hence, it is a larger group about which a generalization is made. - it also refers to “all members of any well-defined class of people, events or objects.”

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A sample is a small group taken from a larger population composed of members being studied. A good sample size shld be a representative of the population and shld be adequate in size to be reliable. If all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected, then the sample is a representative of the population.

Formula to determine the size of a sample:n = N

------------------ 1 + (N) (e)2

where:n = sample sizeN = population sizee = desired margin or error

Example: Suppose in your study, the size of your population is 10,000. What is the size of your sample if you allow 2% margin of error?

n = 10,000------------------1 + (10,000) (.02)2

= 10,000 = 10,000--------------------- ---------1 + (10,000) (.0004) 1 + 4

= 10,000 n = 2,000 -------- representative sample out of 5 10,000

** this formula is not applicable to a small population

Depending upon the type of research use, Gay and Sevilla offers some minimum acceptable sizes as follows:

1. descriptive research – 20% for a smaller population as small as 500 and below and 10% of the population for a larger population as large as 1,000.

2. Experimental research – 30 per group as minimum although 15 sub-subjects are acceptable.

SAMPLING DESIGNSThere are basically two types of sampling:

1. Probability sampling2. non-probability sampling

PROBABLITY SAMPLING – is a type of sampling where in the selection of samples is done with the members of the population having equal chance to be selected as part of the representative sample. It is further classified into:

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1. simple random sampling – in this type of sampling, every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen to be included in the sample. It is the simplest probability sampling which is usually done by using lottery or raffle method of getting the representative samples of the population.

- this method is easily done by listing all the names of the members of the population from the first to the last member. Write their individual numbers in small pieces of paper, then place these in a box and draw them after shaking the box very well until the total sample is withdrawn.

2. stratified random sampling – it is the selection of samples from the different classes or strata of the population involved in the research. Each class is treated as a different population. A simple random sampling is then used in each class with proportionate and equal percentage of representation from each stratum.

Ex – respondents teachers, public or private10% population size 1,000 from public, 2,000 from private1,000 x 10% = 100 for public2,000 x 10% = 200 from private

3. systematic sampling – a technique of sampling involves the selection of the desired number size in a list by arranging them systematically or logically in either alphabetical arrangement or any acceptable organization.

4. Cluster sampling – involves the selection of the samples in a group and is usually applied on a geographical basis in a heterogenous population (different classes). An ex of this is selecting a representative sample size of teachers from the different regions/cities in NCR which are involved in a study.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING- a type of sampling wherein no system of selection is employed and the samples may not be a proportion of the population and may depend upon the situation, as presented in this portion of the sampling design. - samples are taken out of judgment and are not derived through procedure that will guarantee equal chances of representation, hence, this is also called NON-RANDOM SAMPLING. - classified into types:

1. purposive sampling – otherwise called deliberate sampling.- in this design, the respondents are selected based on the judgment of who best qualify the objectives of the research. For ex- a researcher is interested in finding out the student’s perception of the performance of the school officials in a college/university. Instead of conducting a random sampling, the researcher can just involved purposely the student leaders as respondents.

2. quota sampling – this method involves the taking of the desired number of respondents with the required characteristics proportionate to the population under study. An ex- is when a researcher wld like to document the experience of male and female scientists who have been involved in the establishment of a marine station. He/she shld look for these scientists until the desired number of respondents is met.

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3. convenience or accidental sampling – this sampling technique involves the conduct of a study wherein respondents are selected based on the convenience of the researcher. If an investigator wld conduct a study among some NCR residents to find out the pros and cons on the implementation of the EVAT, he/she may use interview to gather the data. He/she can just stay in one place and ask anyone whom he meets on the issue. This conduct of research uses convenience sampling.

INSTRUMENTATION- is the process of constructing research instruments that cld be used appropriately in gathering data on the study. The

1. questionnaire, 2. interview and 3. observation

are the most commonly used tools in gathering data.

QUESTIONNAIRE- is a set of orderly arranged questions carefully prepared to answer the specific

problems of the study. - A list of questions to be answered by a group of people especially designed to get

facts or information. - It is a list of written questions related to a particular topic, provided with space for

respondents to fill-up.

Types of Questions1. open-ended questions – the questions are listed in a way that it allows the respondents to

freely express himself on the subject or issue. It does not enumerate alternative responses. Ex – How are you affected by the change of your school leadership? What do you suggest to improve the teaching of English?

2. fixed alternative questions – this is also called the CLOSED type of questions which provide a list of choices among enumerated alternatives. Hence, the subject responses are limited to a specific alternative. Ex- How are you affected by the change of your school leadership? (please check)_____ a little _____ very much _____ extremely _____ not at all What do you suggest to improve the teaching of English?_____ send teachers to attend seminars outside the school_____ conduct seminars on effective teaching among the teachers_____ grant scholarships_____ send teachers to attend graduate programs _____ Others : (please state)

Preparation of the questionnaire- a review of related literature and studies will be very helpful in the preparation of

the questionnaire. Once a topic for research has been decided and approved by the appropriate body, the formulation of specific questions follows.

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- Try to examine the questionnaires used in some of the research studies similar to your approved topic. They can serve as a guide in the formulation of your questions in the questionnaire. You may also talk to people who are knowledgeable in the construction of a questionnaire.

- Draft your questions and after its completion, finalize and submit the questionnaire for comments and suggestions for improvement to your ADVISER or to anyone who is knowledgeable on the preparation of a questionnaire for editing.

- Test the reliability, effectiveness and validity of your questionnaire through DRY-RUN and taking into consideration the clarity of items, vagueness of statements, time element in answering the questions, convenience in tabulating the answer, difficulties and other related problems.

- A dry-run is done to a group of people composed of at least 20 members, of the same characteristics as the respondents of your study.

- The questionnaire shld include CLEAR INSTRUCTIONS or DIRECTIONS of what to do with the list of questions. Each questionnaire shld include a COVER LETTER cordially and courteously composed, neatly organized and typed, containing the following information:

i. The greetings, the subject and the brief significance of the study;ii. Vital role of the respondent in answering the questions;

iii. Where to return the questionnaire and when (deadline);iv. Guarantee of confidentiality of the information and anonymity of the

respondents;v. Statement of gratitude for the cooperation and participation of the

respondents;vi. Expression of willingness to supply the respondents the result of the study;

vii. Personal signature of the researcher; andviii. Endorsement from influential people. This may help in the excellent

retrieval of the questionnaire.

Guidelines in the preparation of the questionnaire- in the construction of the questions for your questionnaire, the ff guidelines may be useful:

1. directions and questions shld be clear and definite. Avoid vague and double-barreled questions like: “Can you follow or not?”

2. Construct questions with proper grammar and punctuation marks.3. Questions asked shld be related to the study and expressed affirmatively.4. Give sufficient number of questions and alternative responses.5. Group and arrange the questions according to specific problems of the study.6. The alternative responses shld be relevant to the questions being asked.7. Questions shld be worded carefully that will elicit clear and definite answers.

INTERVIEW- is a face-to-face verbal and direct interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee. It is a meeting wherein the investigator does the questioning to the respondent to gather information regarding the study. It is another essential instrument used to gather data. It is used to supplement the results of the questionnaire.

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Types of Interview According to Style1. formal – the interviewer follows an interview schedule made up of standard questions

and answer sheet which are carefully designed to gather information that will answer the specific questions of the study.

2. Informal – the interviewer is guided only by a number of significant points to which the conduct of the interview is centered, and not by a set of questions or interview guide.

Types of Interview According to Purpose1. non-directive – the interviewee is allowed to talk freely on the topic.2. standardized – the same questions are asked without changes on the specific wordings in

the interview schedule and conduct the interview in the same manner as the others. Also called FORMAL INTERVIEW.

3. non-standardized – or INFORMAL INTERVIEW – involves a specific pattern of questions asked. The interviewer has the freedom to organize the interview in his/her own way and in the most appropriate situation.

4. semi-standardized – a combination of formal and informal types composed of carefully prepared questions pivoting only on the problem.

5. focused interview – similar to informal interview only that the investigator focuses his/her questions on the specific topics that are to be investigated in depth. Hence is also called DEPTH INTERVIEW.

Types of Interview According to Format1. structural or standardized interview2. semi-structural or the semi-standardized interview3. unstructured or non-standardized interview

OBSERVATION- the process of watching the situation of the research thru the use of the SENSES such as sight, smell, hearing and taste. It is used to gather empirical data that cld be obtained by using other means. It also helps to verify the results of the questionnaire and the interviews to supplement the findings of the study. - observation as “the earliest method on the acquisition of knowledge”.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF INSTRUMENTS- in order to ensure effectiveness in the gathering of data needed in the research, the instruments that will be used by the researcher in conducting the study shld be RELIABLE and VALID.

RELIABILITY – the “state of being reliable”, that may be relied or depended upon; it is the degree of being precise and consistent. Precision and consistency shld be the qualities of the instrument to be considered reliable. Consistency does not guarantee reliability.

VALIDITY – the degree to which an instrument measures what it intends to measure. If the data obtained are close to what we feel we are measuring, then, we say that the instrument is valid.

PROCEDURES

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- includes the details of the data collection procedure. It involves the statements on the person responsible for the administration and retrieval of the questionnaire, the conduct of the interview, and the time frame involved to collect the needed data. The above info are needed in the proposed study. In the final writing of the questionnaire, the procedure shld be mentioned in this section of the paper. A brief information on the subjects of the interview shld also be mentioned in this part.

1. Statistical Analysis- the process of numerical presentation and analysis of the data gathered in consonance with the specific problem or hypotheses of the study. Hence, the careful choice of the appropriate statistical tools is based on the hypotheses or specific problem for which the research is designed. - Statistical analysis is the most precise and objective step to analyze the results of the study. Some of the statistical tools used in research are as follows:

1. Mean – or the arithmetic mean is the arithmetical average obtained by adding all the arithmetical scores divided by the number of cases as presented by a formula.

2. Median – is the middlemost score in mid-point of a distribution. It is the value on each side of which 50% of the cases where the distribution fall.

3. Mode – is the number which appears with the greatest frequency.

2. The test of significance - there are 2 general types of test of significance namely:

1. parametric tests2. non-parametric tests

Parametric test – are usually used for testing the significance of the samples obtained which must be based upon an assumption of a normal or symmetrical curve in the population under study.

The most commonly used parametric tests are:1. Z-Test2. t-test for Independent sample means3. t-test for dependent sample means4. F-test5. Two-way ANOVA or Two-Way Test6. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

Non-parametric tests:1. Chi-Square Test

i. Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Testii. Chi-Square Test of Association

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