The

HELICOPTER PILOT’S

QUICK REFERENCE MANUAL

eBook Series Version 1.3

Copyright 2012 Find-it Fast Books

No part of this eBook, or in its entirety, may be reproduced or retransmitted by any

electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems for

the purpose of sharing with others without the express written consent of the author.

by

Jerry Miller

406 Henry Drive

Montoursville, PA 17754

www.finditfastbooks.com

“The writer does the most

who gives his reader the most knowledge,

and takes from him the least time.”

-Sydney Smith (1771-1845)

Table of Contents

Subject Page

ATC Shorthand .......................... 10

ATIS ................................ 15-16

Autorotation ........................... 38

Cold Weather Operations ............. 54-57

Collective Bounce ...................... 66

Common IFR Illusions ................... 82

Compressor Stall ....................... 71

Confined Area Operations ............... 50

Density Altitude .................... 31-33

Dynamic Rollover .................... 68-69

ELT .................................... 27

Fog Hazard, Night Flying ............... 61

Fuel Contamination ..................... 72

General Precautions ................. 36-37

Ground Reconnaissance, Remote Area ..... 49

Ground Resonance ....................... 70

High Recon - Remote Area ............... 46

Hot Weather Flying ..................... 53

Human Element, The ..................... 90

IFR Illusions .......................... 82

Inadvertent IFR ................. 80 and 84

Light Signals, Tower, In Flight ........ 29

Light Signals, Tower, On The Ground .... 28

Low Level Inadvertent IFR .............. 84

Low Recon - Remote Area ................ 46

Low Rotor RPM .......................... 62

Mast Bumping ........................ 63-64

Mid-Air Collision Avoidance ......... 40-41

Military Training Routes ............ 25-26

i

Table of Contents

Subject Page

Mountain Flying ..................... 44-45

Ni-Cad Battery Overheat ................ 73

Night Flying ........................ 58-60

Night Flying Fog Hazard ................ 61

Night Remote Area ...................... 48

Noise Abatement ..................... 42-43

Overcast, Trapped On Top ............... 85

Passenger Safety Briefing ........... 34-35

Phonetic Alphabet ...................... 3

Pinnacle & Ridgeline Operations ........ 51

Post Flight Inspection ................. 89

Radio Usage ......................... 12-13

Remote Area - Hi/Lo Recon/More ...... 46-49

Remote Area, Night ..................... 48

Retreating Blade Stall .............. 65-66

Safety Around Helicopters .............. 34

Search & Rescue Checklist ....... .. 86-88

Settling With Power .................... 67

Slope Operations ....................... 52

Spatial Disorientation .............. 81-83

Special Use Airspace ................ 22-24

Surface Wind Determination ............. 39

Take Off and Landing Data Card ......... 30

Temperature Conversion ................. 2

Temp Flight Restrictions (TFRs) ..... 17-21

Thunderstorms .......................... 78

Tower Light Signals, In Flight ......... 29

Tower Light Signals, On The Ground ..... 28

Transponder Suffixes ................... 6

ii

Table of Contents

Subject Page

Trapped On Top Of An Overcast .......... 85

Turbulence ............................. 74

Twenty-four Hour Clock .................. 4

Unfavorable Weather .................... 79

UNICOM ................................. 14

Vertigo – Spatial Disorientation .... 81-83

Vertigo, to Prevent .................... 83

VFR Flight Mission Profile ............ 1

VFR Flight Plan, Filing ................ 11

Wake Turbulence ..................... 75-76

Weather Briefing, Receiving ............ 8

Weather Briefing, Requesting ........... 7

Weather Shorthand ................... 9-10

Wire Strikes ........................... 77

Zulu Time, Computing (UTC) ............. 5

METAR & TAF Contractions Decoder ... Apdx A

NOTAM Contractions Decoder ......... Apdx B

iii

INTRODUCTION

This eBook is designed to serve as a checklist style quick

reference guide emphasizing the areas of knowledge needed to be a

safe and competent helicopter pilot.

Students pilots will find this eBook especially helpful by

introducing the intricacies of helicopter operations in a simple and

straight-forward manner.

For the experienced helicopter pilot this book also serves as an

excellent refresher guide, allowing for an occasional quick review.

The condensed format of this eBook is designed to aid in the

access and recall of those flight conditions that demand your

constant awareness and understanding.

In addition to the bookmarks of this eBook, you may also

access listed topics from the Table of Contents where all subject

topics are linked to their respective page numbers.

Through continuing review you can meet your responsibility as

a knowledgeable and proficient pilot who serves as an asset to the

aviation community and to those you support.

Have this guide in your eReader when you fly. It will be

helpful many times in planning and conducting your flights.

iv

VFR FLIGHT PROFILE

FLIGHT PLANNING:

Mission requirements

Weight and Balance

Route and times

Weather and NOTAMS

Performance data:

Based on hottest temperature

and highest altitude expected.

Fuel requirements

Walk-around preflight inspection:

Verify fuel load visually

Specialized equipment on board

Survival equipment on board

INFLIGHT

Record takeoff time

Perform hover check

When at level cruise altitude:

Again, check engine instruments

Check flight instruments

Confirm that the directional gyro

agrees with magnetic compass.

Perform fuel consumption check

Record cruise power settings

1

TEMPERATURES - Celsius to Fahrenheit

C F C F C F

41 - 105 22 - 71 03 - 37

40 - 104 21 - 70 02 - 36

39 - 103 21 - 69 02 - 35

39 - 102 20 - 68 01 - 34

38 - 101 19 - 67 01 - 33

38 - 100 19 - 66 00 - 32

37 - 99 18 - 65 M00 - 31

37 - 98 18 - 64 M01 - 30

36 - 97 17 - 63 M02 - 29

36 - 96 17 – 62 M02 - 28

35 - 95 16 - 61 M03 - 27

34 - 94 16 - 60 M03 - 26

34 - 93 15 - 59 M04 - 25

33 - 92 14 - 58 M04 – 24

33 - 91 14 – 57 M05 – 23

32 - 90 13 - 56 M05 - 22

32 - 89 13 - 55 M06 - 21

31 - 88 12 - 54 M06 - 20

31 - 87 12 - 53 M07 - 19

30 - 86 11 – 52 M08 - 18

29 - 85 11 - 51 M08 - 17

29 - 84 10 - 50 M09 - 16

28 - 83 09 - 49 M09 - 15

28 - 82 09 - 48 M10 - 14

28 - 81 08 – 47 M10 - 13

27 - 80 08 - 46 M11 - 12

26 - 79 07 - 45 M11 - 11

26 - 78 07 - 44 M12 - 10

25 - 77 06 - 43 M13 - 09

24 - 76 06 – 42 M13 - 08

24 - 75 05 - 41 M14 - 07

23 - 74 04 - 40 M14 - 06

23 - 73 04 - 39 M15 - 05

22 - 72 03 - 38 M16 - 04

2

PHONETIC ALPHABET

A Alpha

B Bravo

C Charlie

D Delta

E Echo

F Foxtrot

G Golf

H Hotel

I India

J Juliet

K Kilo

L Lima

M Mike

N November

O Oscar

P Papa

Q Quebec

R Romeo

S Sierra

T Tango

U Uniform

V Victor

W Whiskey

X X-ray

Y Yankee

Z Zulu

3

THE 24 HOUR CLOCK

0100 = 1 a.m.

0200 = 2 a.m.

0300 = 3 a.m.

0400 = 4 a.m.

0500 = 5 a.m.

0600 = 6 a.m.

0700 = 7 a.m.

0800 = 8 a.m.

0900 = 9 a.m.

1000 = 10 a.m.

1100 = 11 a.m.

1200 = 12 p.m.

1300 = 1 p.m.

1400 = 2 p.m.

1500 = 3 p.m.

1600 = 4 p.m.

1700 = 5 p.m.

1800 = 6 p.m.

1900 = 7 p.m.

2000 = 8 p.m.

2100 = 9 p.m.

2200 = 10 p.m.

2300 = 11 p.m.

2400 = 12 a.m.

For the current accurate time, call the U.S. Naval

Observatory Master Clock at 202-762-1401.

4

COMPUTING "ZULU" TIME(Universal Coordinated Time – UTC)

For Standard Time:

Eastern Standard Time add 5 hours

Central Standard Time add 6 hours

Mountain Standard Time add 7 hours

Pacific Standard Time add 8 hours

B.C. Standard Time add 8 hours

Yukon Standard Time add 8 hours

Alaska Standard Time add 9 hours

Bering Standard Time add 10 hours

Hawaii Standard Time add 10 hours

For Daylight Savings Time:

Eastern Daylight Savings add 4 hours

Central Daylight Savings add 5 hours

Mountain Daylight Savings add 6 hours

Pacific Daylight Savings add 7 hours

B.C. Daylight Savings add 7 hours

Yukon Daylight Savings add 7 hours

Alaska Daylight Savings add 8 hours

Bering Daylight Savings add 9 hours

Hawaii Daylight Savings add 9 hours

5

TRANSPONDER

Use one of the suffix codes listed below that describes your

transponder's features and append it to your type of aircraft when

filing a flight plan.

X - No transponder

T - Transponder with

no altitude encoding

U - Transponder with

altitude encoding

D - DME, no transponder

B - DME, transponder with

no altitude encoding

A - DME, transponder with

altitude encoding

W - RNAV, no transponder

C - RNAV, transponder with

no altitude encoding

R - RNAV, transponder with

altitude encoding

G - GPS, transponder with Global

Positioning System

F - FMS, transponder with Flight

Management System

6

WEATHER BRIEFING

When calling for a weather briefing, give the following

background information to the weather briefer at the Flight Service

Station.

Type of flight (VFR)

Aircraft identification

Aircraft type

Departure point

Route of flight

Destination

Flight altitude

Estimated time of departure

Estimated time en route

Request a standard briefing shortly before your departure

to receive all available weather data pertinent to your flight.

Request an abbreviated briefing to update the information

received from an earlier standard briefing if the weather is

changeable.

Request an outlook briefing to plan for a flight later in the

day or for the next day to see if the weather will be favorable for

your planned flight.

7

CONTENT OF ASTANDARD WEATHER BRIEFING

After you provide background information to a pilot weather

briefer and request a standard briefing, the following information

should be provided in the below order.

Adverse conditions (IFR weather,

mountain obscuration, turbulence,

icing, thunderstorms)

"VFR flight not recommended"

statement (if applicable to the

current or forecast weather)

Synopsis (position of fronts and

high and low pressure systems

Current weather conditions

En route forecast

Destination forecast

Winds aloft (temperatures

are in degrees Celsius)

Notices to Airmen (NOTAMS)

Temporary Flight Restrictions

8

WEATHER SHORTHAND

Weather briefers tend to talk fast. Learning the below contractions

will help you to keep up with the pace of the briefing when

copying weather information.

DZ - Drizzle

RA - Rain

SN - Snow

SG - Snow Grains

IC - Ice Crystals

PE - Ice Pellets

GR - Hail

GS - Small Hail or Snow Pellets

UP - Unknown Precipitation

BR - Mist

FG - Fog

FU - Smoke

DU - Dust

SA - Sand

HZ - Haze

PY - Spray

VA - Volcanic Ash

PO - Dust or Sand Swirls

SQ - Squalls

SS - Sandstorm

DS – Dust storm

FC - Funnel Cloud

+FC - Tornado or Waterspout

MI - Shallow

BC - Patches

DR - Low Drifting

BL - Blowing

SH - Showers

TS - Thunderstorm

FZ - Freezing

PR – Partial

VC - In the Vicinity

- Light Precipitation

(No Symbol) - Moderate Precipitation

+ Moderate Precipitation

9

WEATHER SHORTHAND

Wind Character Words Common to

TAFs (Forecasts)

0000 Calm

G Gust WS Wind Shear

Q Squall CHC Chance

WSHFT Wind Shift ISOLD Isolated

OCNL Occasional

BCMG Becoming

SLT Slight

VCNTY Vicinity

Sky Condition

FEW Few

SCT Scattered

BKN Broken

OVC Overcast

VV Indefinite Ceiling

ATC SHORTHAND

You can reduce your workload during flight by using the below

symbols to copy ATC instructions.

@ At / Until

X Cross Cruise

> Before Freq Frequency

< After or Past M Maintain

SQ Squawk

Climb and Maintain

Descend and Maintain

At or Below

v < Clearance Void If Not Off By...(time)

10

FILING A VFR FLIGHT PLAN

After receiving your weather briefing, you may wish to file a

VFR flight plan. Provide the below information in the following

order:

Aircraft identification

Aircraft type and transponder suffix

True airspeed

Point and time of departure

Initial cruising altitude

Route of flight and destination

Remarks, if any

Estimated time en route (ETE)

Fuel on board (in hours and minutes)

Pilot's name & phone number

Number of persons on board

Color of the aircraft

11

RADIO USAGE

Listen momentarily before transmitting so you won't override

other radio transmissions.

Plan what you will say before transmitting.

Key your microphone button, then pause a second before

speaking. This will ensure that the first words you say will be

transmitted over the radio.

Keep your transmissions as brief as possible, using terminology

listed in the Pilot/Controller Glossary contained in the Airman's

Information Manual (AIM). When you use this standardized

phraseology, broken or garbled transmission can be better

understood.

Upon initial contact with ATC use your full call sign, and then

wait. ATC may be talking to another aircraft on another frequency

and unable to respond immediately.

If radio reception is weak or garbled or you cannot establish

radio communications, you may be too low or too far away from

the ATC facility you are attempting to contact.

If airspace, traffic, weather conditions permit, climbing to a

higher altitude may allow you to establish radio contact.

12

RADIO USAGE

If radio contact is still not established, check:

Comm radio - On

Radio volume - Up

Frequency - Selected

Radio circuit breakers – In

Also, your headset may be malfunctioning or the plug may not

be seated all the way into the jack.

Check the plug to be sure it is firmly seated. The radio

frequency you are trying to transmit over may be inoperative either

in your aircraft radio or at the ground station you are calling.

Try calling on another frequency. It's also possible that your

receiver is not working, but your transmitter is functioning

normally, so make reports and advisories "in the blind."

Remember - Good radio technique involves:

Brevity - Be brief in your transmissions

to reduce radio congestion.

Understanding - Use proper phraseology

to reduce confusion.

Courtesy - Listen before transmitting to

prevent frequency override.

13

UNICOM

Unicom is a private aeronautical radio station monitored by

Fixed Base Operators. It is not an air traffic control frequency.

Common UNICOM frequencies include 122.7, 122.8, 122.975,

122.725, and 123.0, and others.

At non-tower airports, UNICOM can provide

Runway and wind conditions

Weather conditions

Fuel types and availability

Information regarding food, lodging

and ground transportation

Activation of Pilot Controlled

Lighting System (PCL)

At tower controlled or FSS served airports, use the tower or

FSS to obtain runway and wind information and weather

conditions.

Check the Airport Data on your charts or consult the

Airport/Facility Directory for UNICOM availability and

frequencies at specific airports you plan to use.

Communications cannot always be established on UNICOM

due to unattended or unmonitored radio receiver sets at airport's

Fixed Base Operator facility.

14

AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATIONSERVICE

(ATIS)

ATIS is a continuous broadcast of recorded non-control

information at high activity terminal areas.

ATIS relieves radio congestion on control frequencies by

continuously transmitting routine but essential information.

ATIS is broadcast for use by all departing and arriving IFR and

VFR aircraft.

All pilots should listen to ATIS prior to requesting taxi

clearance if departing, and prior to reporting to ATC if arriving.

ATIS information includes

A phonetic alphabet code word

identifying the broadcast

Sky condition and visibility

Winds

Altimeter setting

Instrument approach and

runways in use

Notices to airmen (NOTAMs)

Other pertinent information

15

AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATIONSERVICE

ATIS

Consult the Airport/Facility Directory or sectional charts for the

ATIS frequencies for the specific airports you plan to use. Either a

discrete VHF frequency or a VOR frequency will be listed,

identified by the word "ATIS.“

When listening to ATIS on a VOR frequency, it may be

occasionally interrupted by FSS talking over it to other aircraft.

Upon initial contact to approach control, tower or ground

control, indicate to ATC that you have the current ATIS

information by stating that you have the ATIS code letter (ie, "I

have information Bravo.").

ATIS broadcasts are generally updated hourly, but more

frequent updates are possible if a significant change in information

occurs.

With each subsequent ATIS update, the next succeeding

phonetic alphabet code letter is used to identify the current ATIS

message.

Remember

ATIS information is non-control information. It is not a

clearance to taxi for take off, or a clearance to land.

16

Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)

Example of a TFR in FDC NOTAM format:

!FDC 3/7836 ZLC MT FLIGHT RESTRICTION SEELEY LAKE,

MT EFFECTIVE IMMEDIATELY UNTIL FURTHER NOTICE.

PURSUANT TO 14 CFR SECTION 91, 137 (A) (2)

TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ARE IN EFFECT

WITHIN A 5 NAUTICAL RADIUS OF 472341N/1125856W

THE MISSOULA /MSO/ VOR/DME 040 DEGREE RADIAL AT

054 NM AT AND BELOW 10500 FT MSL TO PROVIDE A

SAFE ENVIRONMENT FOR FIRE FIGHTING AIRCRAFT

OPERATIONS. THE U.S. FOREST SERVICE, TELEPHONE

406-731-5300/ 119.825/HIGH, IS IN CHARGE OF ON SCENE

EMERGENCY RESPONSE ACTIVITIES. GREAT FALLS

/GTF/ AFSS TELEPHONE 406-268-2100, IS THE FAA

COORDINATION FACILITY.

Partial example of a presidential movement TFR in FDC NOTAM

format:

!FDC 3/7886 ZKC PART 1 OF 3 FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ST

LOUIS, MISSOURI, AUGUST 26, 2003 LOCAL. PURSUANT

TO TITLE 14, SECTION 91.141 OF THE CODE OF FEDERAL

REGULATIONS AIRCRAFT FLIGHT OPERATIONS ARE

PROHIBITED WITHIN 30 NMR UP TO BUT NOT

INCLUDING FL180 OF...

Notice, above, the "SECTION 91.141." This is a red flag

that this FDC NOTAM is a presidential movement TFR. Read

these NOTAMs very carefully.

An FDC NOTAM is regulatory flight information

concerning IFR charts, procedures, and airspace usage.

TFRs are in FDC NOTAM format.

17

Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)

In the current security sensitive environment following the

events of "9-11", understanding TFRs has become an absolute

necessity for all pilots.

A TFR restricts or prohibits air traffic operations due to a real

or perceived hazard or condition.

A TFR temporarily restricts or prohibits flight over a specified

area, such as:

For national security purposes

Presidential or vice-presidential "no fly zones"

Sports stadiums

Disaster relief areas, such as floods & earthquakes

Fire fighting operations

Aircraft accident sites

Toxic gas leaks or spills

Nuclear accidents or incidents

The purpose in designating an area as a TFR is to:

Protect persons and property on the surface

Provide a safe environment for the operation

of disaster relief aircraft

Prevent unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft

above an event of high public interest

18

Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)

TFRs:

Are not depicted on aeronautical charts

Are usually short term in duration

Can appear, disappear, or change almost daily

Are disseminated as FDC NOTAMS, explaining:

Where the TFR is located

How big it is, usually in terms of a radius

How high it extends in altitude

How long it is expected to remain in effect

TFR information is available from:

Flight Service Station weather briefings

(1-800-WXBRIEF, up to the minute status)

Always note the date and time you

called flight service as proof you

received all available TFR information

if you experience an incursion of a TFR.

Recordings of briefings are maintained

for 15 days.

DUATS (Up to the minute status)

AOPA Online (unofficial information that may

not be up to the minute)

Other unofficial websites that may not be timely

19

Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)

It is the pilot's responsibility to avoid flight into TFRs.

Inadvertently entering a TFR may result in:

A law enforcement official greeting upon landing

Suspension of pilot certificate

Interception by military aircraft

If intercepted by military aircraft, follow the

procedures listed in the Aeronautical

Information Manual (AIM), Section 6,

Para 5-6-2, Tables 5-6-1 & 5-6-2

Even though a pilot may be completely familiar with all TFR

information pertinent to the route of flight, incursions can result

from:

The issuance or change of a TFR after receiving

a weather briefing.

Pilots misled by air traffic controllers:

Even though ATC helps pilots to avoid

TFRs as much as possible, VFR vectors

followed by radar service termination may

mislead a pilot into continued flight on the

last assigned vector into a TFR. Therefore,

always maintain positional awareness when

flying in the vicinity of a TFR. Do not

blindly rely on ATC to keep you out of

TFRs. Refer to your charts throughout

your flight.

20

Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)

Certain aircraft may be authorized entry into a TFR:

Aircraft operating under an IFR flight plan

Aircraft participating in relief operations

Aircraft carrying law enforcement personnel

Aircraft carrying accredited news officials

Aircraft operating to or from airports located

within the TFR - with prior authorization

To protect yourself from inadvertent entry into a TFR:

Call Flight Service for a weather briefing and

ask for NOTAMS and TFR information.

After receiving TFR information either from

Flight Service or DUATS, refer to your

charts to determine if the plotted TFR is

pertinent to your proposed route of flight.

Discuss TFRs with Flight Service briefers and

your fellow pilots to better understand them.

If you receive a pilot weather briefing from

Flight Service, record the date, time, and

name of the Flight Service station you

received your briefing from. The recording

of your of your briefing can then be found

if you violate a TFR and you believe that

you were not informed about the TFR by

the pilot weather briefer.

21

SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

Prohibited Area - Designated airspace within which the flight

of an aircraft is not allowed for security or other reasons associated

with the national welfare. Avoid these areas!

Restricted Area - Designated airspace within which flight is

subject to restrictions. They indicate the existence of unusual

hazards such as artillery firing or aerial gunnery. You must receive

permission from the using or controlling agency to enter a

restricted area between designated altitudes during specified times.

Get permission to enter these areas!

Warning Area - Designated airspace located over

international waters along ocean coastlines. U.S. military forces

conduct hazardous operations within these areas. No restriction to

flight is imposed. However, civil aircraft should be aware of

possible hazardous conditions. Be alert to see and avoid inthese areas!

Alert Area - Designated airspace containing a high volume of

pilot training activity or unusual aeronautical activity not

hazardous to aircraft. No flight restrictions apply, but pilots should

be especially alert for collision avoidance. Be alert to see andavoid in these areas!

22

SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

Military Operations Area (MOA) - Designated airspace

containing military training activities depicted to alert pilots of

their location.

MOAs do not restrict VFR operations, however always exercise

extreme caution whenever training activity is in progress. Bealert to see and avoid in these areas!

Other airspace

Charted National Park Service AreasU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Areas

U.S. Forest Service Areas

Although not classified as special use airspace, these areas have

flight limitations imposed by the agencies that administer them.

See the margin of sectional charts for information concerning

flight over these areas.

Altitude restrictions are often applied to reduce the bird strike

hazard and/or to reduce noise disturbance to the area below.

23

SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

Special use airspace is depicted on aeronautical charts in many

shapes and sizes.

Information is provided on the borders of these charts

concerning altitudes, times of use, contacting agency, and notice to

airmen (NOTAM) information.

Contacting agencies

Using agency - The agency, organization, or military

command whose activity required the establishment of special use

airspace.

Contact the using agency for information on warning and alert

areas. Flight Service should have using agency phone numbers on

file for you to call.

Controlling agency - The FAA facility or military ATC

facility that may approve flight through or within a restricted area.

Request permission in flight by radio.

You may contact either the using or controlling agency for

authorization to fly through or within special use airspace.

Requesting permission from the controlling agency would be

the simplest and most expedient method to gain entry into special

use airspace.

24

MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES

Military Training Routes (MTRs) are established for low-

altitude military training operations with airspeeds exceeding 250

knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) below 10,000 feet MSL (and

sometimes higher altitudes).

The route centerline is depicted on aeronautical charts.

Normal route width is five to ten miles either side of the

centerline.

Some route segments may be as narrow as two miles or as wide

as twenty miles from the centerline.

Two types of charted military training routes:

IRs (IFR MTRs) - Operations conducted under instrument

flight rules regardless of weather conditions.

VRs (VFR MTRs) - Operations conducted under visual flight

rules during VFR weather conditions.

(Uncharted slow speed training routes also exist.)

25

MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES

When receiving your weather briefing you must specifically

request military training route information, otherwise you will not

be told about MTR activity.

While on a flight, contact the local flight service station for

military training route information along your course.

It is in your best interest to always keep alert for hi-speed

military traffic when flying in the vicinity of MTRs - even if they

are inactive.

Regardless of the times of scheduled use and the routes

depicted on charts, high performance military aircraft sometimes

fly during unscheduled times and pilots do occasionally fly off

course.

The Department of Defense publishes three Area Planning

Charts detailing the Military Training Routes covering the Eastern,

Central, and Western U.S.

Published by:

Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center

3200 South Second Street

St. Louis, MO 63118-3399

26

ELT

(EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER)

The ELT is one of your best means of being found if you

experience a crash landing.

Always know the ELT location in your aircraft, how to remove

it, and how to activate it manually.

The range of an activated ELT varies from 75 to 150 miles and

useful life is from 3 to 8 days, depending on battery condition.

Warming the ELT battery (ideally to 70 degrees) in an

emergency situation will increase ELT performance and length of

operating time.

After an accident, if your radio is working, tune your radio to

121.5 to see if the ELT is transmitting. Then transmit on 121.5 to

call for help.

If you detect an activated ELT signal during a flight,

immediately notify ATC of the ELT signal and give your aircraft

position.

After completing a flight and before shutting down your

aircraft, monitor 121.5 to ensure that your ELT did not

inadvertently activate.

27

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWERLIGHT GUN SIGNALS

AIRCRAFT ON THE GROUND

COLOR AND TYPE AIRCRAFT ON

OF SIGNAL THE GROUND

Steady green ................................. Cleared for takeoff

Flashing green ................................. Cleared for taxi

Steady red ............................................ STOP

Flashing red ..................................... Taxi clear of the

runway in use

Flashing white ................................. Return to starting

point on airport

Alternating ....................................... Exercise extreme

red and green caution

28

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWERLIGHT GUN SIGNALS

AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT

COLOR AND TYPE AIRCRAFT IN

OF SIGNAL FLIGHT

Steady green ................................... Cleared to land

Flashing green ................................. Return for landing

(to be followed by

steady green)

Steady red ........................................... Give way to

other aircraft

continue circling

Flashing red ........................................ Airport unsafe

do not land

Alternating ......................................... Exercise extreme

red and green caution

29

TAKE OFF & LANDING DATA CARD

(Make copies and fill in the data from

your aircraft's performance charts)

TAKEOFF LANDING

Pressure Altitude

Outside Air Temperature

Density Altitude

Wind

Gross Weight

Skid Height

Power Required to Hover

Power Available

Maximum Gross

Weight for Hover

Maximum Knots

Indicated Air Speed

30

DENSITY ALTITUDE COMPUTATION

Required:

1. PRESSURE ALTITUDE: Set the altimeter to 29.92

and read pressure altitude directly from altimeter.

DON'T FORGET TO RESET THE ALTIMETER!

2. Use a constant of 120.

3. ACTUAL AIR TEMPERATURE: Read this directly

from the aircraft's outside air temperature gauge.

4. STANDARD AIR TEMPERATURE: Compute this

by subtracting 2 degrees centigrade for each 1,000

feet above sea level from 15 degrees centigrade.

Sample Computation:

Field Elevation: 1,000 feet Mean Sea Level

Pressure Altitude: 2,000 feet (Altimeter set at 29.92)

Actual Temperature: 25 degrees centigrade (OAT)

Standard Temperature: 13 degrees centigrade

(15 degrees minus 2 degrees)

Density Altitude Computation:

Density Altitude = 2,000' + [120 X ( 25O

- 13O

)]

Density Altitude = 2,000' + ( 120 X 12 )

Density Altitude = 2,000' + 1,440

Density Altitude = 3,400 feet

31

EFFECTS OF DENSITY ALTITUDE

High elevations combined with high temperatures create high

density altitude which reduces helicopter performance.

During a high density altitude condition aircraft engines ingest

less air which reduces power, and rotors cannot "grab" the thin air

which reduces lift.

Attention to density altitude is especially critical if you depart a

low lying airport during the cool morning hours and then operate

from a high elevation location later in the day after temperatures

have risen.

DENSITY ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON HOVERING:

The higher the density altitude, the lower the hovering ceiling -

and more power is required to hover.

ON RATE OF CLIMB:

High density altitude reduces the rate of climb.

ON LANDING:

If density altitude is higher at the destination than at the

departure point, sufficient power to hover may not be available at

the destination point.

32

EFFECTS OF DENSITY ALTITUDE

Keep in mind that actual density altitude may be higher than

computed if the moisture content of the air (relative humidity) is

high.

One method you can use to deal with the effects of high density

altitude to accomplish your mission would be to carry less fuel to

reduce helicopter gross weight. This would improve aircraft

performance and/or increase useful load. However, endurance and

range would be reduced.

DENSITY ALTITUDE SUMMARY

MOST ADVERSE CONDITIONS:

High altitudeHigh gross weightHigh temperaturesCalm or no wind

MOST FAVORABLE CONDITIONS:

Low altitudeLow gross weightLow temperatures

Moderate wind

33

SAFETY AROUND HELICOPTERS

PASSENGER BOARDING AND UNBOARDINGSafety Briefing:

Never approach the helicopter until told to do so.

Approach and depart from the front or side - never be out of the

pilot's field of vision.

Crouch low before getting under the main rotor.

Never walk near the tail rotor.

Never approach from or depart onto an uphill slope.

Hold firmly onto hats and loose articles when boarding and

unboarding.

Never reach up for or dart after a hat or object that has blown

away.

Protect your eyes by shielding them or by squinting, or better yet,

wear protective eye shields.

If you are blinded by dust or a blowing object, sit down and wait

for help - never feel your way toward or away from the helicopter.

At night, never shine lights directly toward the helicopter to avoid

affecting the pilot's night vision.

34

SAFETY AROUND HELICOPTERS

Passenger Safety Briefing (con’t):

Keep safety belts securely fastened at all times.

Do not smoke during ground operations, take offs, landings,

and when directed by the pilot.

Do not use butane or plastic reservoir lighters.

IF A CRASH LANDING IS IMMINENT

Loosen tie.

Tighten safety belt.

Prior to contact with the surface, if facing forward,

fold arms and rest them on knees.

Bend body forward as far as possible and

and rest head firmly on arms. Use pillow,

blanket, or clothing as cushion, if available.

Passengers facing rearward, sit upright, back

firmly against backrest.

If it becomes necessary to evacuate the helicopter immediately

following a precautionary or emergency landing, exit through the

passenger or crew doors, if possible.

Break Plexiglas as a last resort.

Keep well below the rotor plane and assemble off the nose of

the helicopter outside of the main rotor tip area for a head count.

STAY AWAY FROM THE TAIL ROTOR!

35

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

Do not perform acrobatic flight.

Do not check magnetos in flight.

Cautiously adjust mixture in flight.

Secure all objects in cockpit to prevent fouling of controls.

Always hover for a moment before beginning a new flight.

Always taxi slowly.

Use caution when hovering on the leeward side of obstructions or

buildings.

Always clear the area prior to executing maneuvers.

Stay out of the shaded area of the height velocity chart.

Maintain proper rotor RPM, especially in rough, gusty air.

Avoid an extreme nose down attitude when executing a takeoff.

Avoid abrupt rearward cyclic movement which could cause the

main rotor blades to flex down into the tail boom.

36

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

Avoid abrupt changes of flight controls causing a negative "G"

load.

Avoid protracted rearward flight and downward hovering.

Avoid airspeeds for all maneuvers that exceed maximum level

flight velocities.

Avoid full movement of the cyclic at low RPM which may result

in damage to the short shaft.

Be absolutely certain your seat is locked into position.

Be sure your main rotor blade is not tied down prior to engine

start:

On two blade rotor systems, place the main rotor

blades perpendicular to the fuselage.

On three blade rotor systems, place one main

rotor blade directly to the front at the twelve

o'clock position.

On four and five rotor systems, place rotor

blades diagonal to the fuselage.

37

AUTOROTATION

Poor entry into autorotation after engine failure causes many

helicopter accidents.

In the event of an actual engine failure, rotor RPM drop

will be faster and lower than what you have ever experienced

in training.

This is especially true if you are in a powered climb at the time

of an engine failure.

YOU MUST KEEP THE ROTOR SPEED UP

BY

IMMEDIATELY LOWERING THE COLLECTIVE

DURING DESCENT

Bank & turn increases rotor RPM.

Out of trim glide increases descent rate.

Reducing rotor RPM stretches glide.

Reducing airspeed slows descent rate.

Be sure to maintain rotor RPM and airspeed within your

helicopter's operating limits.

38

SURFACE WIND DETERMINATION

Note during your weather briefing, the current surface winds,

the forecast surface winds, and the forecast winds aloft.

Forecast winds aloft are useful wind direction information if

you plan on operating at the higher elevations in mountainous

terrain.

INFLIGHT SOURCES

Note smoke plumes and flags.

Groups of grazing livestock generally stand facing downwind in

a relatively strong wind.

Bodies of wind whipped water show a smooth surface near the

upwind shoreline.

Broadleaf tree leaves showing their undersides indicate the

upwind direction.

Note your drift while performing a constant rate 360 degree

turn.

The most common prevailing wind for a given area can be seen

on a sectional chart by noting the airport runway alignments

depicted on the chart.

39

MID-AIR COLLISION AVOIDANCE

Scan continuously, even in good weather.

Use clearing turns, always.

During climbs and descents, execute gentle banks to the left and

right while looking for traffic.

Turn on your strobes, rotating beacon, and landing light - even

during daylight hours.

Talk and listen on your radio, even when it is not mandatory.

When in radar contact, continue to maintain your scan.

MOST INFLIGHT COLLISIONSAND NEAR MISSES OCCUR:

Within 5 miles of an airport. Especially in the airport traffic

pattern and on final approach.

Over VOR stations.

On warm weekend afternoons when more pilots are flying.

40

MID-AIR COLLISION AVOIDANCE

If an observed aircraft in flight appears stationary, it may be a

collision hazard approaching you at your altitude.

SCANNING TECHNIQUES

Attempt to develop a systematic scan pattern that is comfortable

to you.

Try a left to right scan pattern shifting your eyes in ten degree

increments.

Allow only 1/4 to 1/3 of your total scan for viewing your

instruments or for performing cockpit chores.

Inactive, relaxed eyes focus at a distance of only 10 to 30 feet in

front of you. Essentially, you are looking but not seeing.

Maintaining an active scan pattern reduces collision risks by

preventing relaxation of your eyes.

So, keep those eyes moving to:

SEE AND AVOID!

41

NOISE ABATEMENT

Blade slap is objectionable to some non-aviation oriented

community members.

Blade slap is generated during level, high speed flight.

Blade slap also occurs during partial power descents.

The noisiest approaches occur in the 55 and 65 knot airspeed

range, and with a 400 to 600 FPM rate of descent.

To operate more quietly near populated (noise sensitive) areas:

IN CRUISE FLIGHT

Fly as high as practical.

Reduce airspeed 10 to 20 percent below normal cruise speeds.

Overfly the noise sensitive area on the downwind side.

42

NOISE ABATEMENT

DURING APPROACH

Depart the last 1,000 feet of altitude at 10 to 15 knots higher

than normal airspeed, if practical.

Keep rotor torque as low as safely practical.

Attempt to reduce noticeable blade slap with cyclic and

collective inputs, if practical.

DURING GROUND OPERATIONS

Turn the helicopter's quietest quadrant toward the noise

sensitive area.

To determine the quietest quadrant, with another pilot at the

controls, walk around the helicopter with the rotors turning. It will

be apparent.

If parked with the rotors turning for extended periods of time,

reduce RPM consistent with minimum oil pressure values and

operator manual limits.

For published noise abatement procedures specific to your

model helicopter, consult your flight manual.

43

MOUNTAIN FLYING

Get a full weather briefing. A marginal VFR forecast usually

means IFR conditions in the mountains. Especially if the flight

precaution of "mountain obscuration" is forecast.

If forecast winds aloft exceed 25 knots below 12,000 feet MSL,

the wind velocity may be twice as strong in or near mountain

passes or canyons.

Plan your trip for early morning or evening hours. Turbulence

is usually greatest from 10:00 AM and 6:00 PM.

Keep your helicopter as light as possible to increase aircraft

performance in the high density altitude environment of

mountainous terrain.

Mountain winds follow contours like a stream of water. The air

on the downwind (leeward) side of a mountain can be extremely

turbulent. Fly on the upwind side of a canyon or mountain

whenever possible.

Make a continuous check of wind speed and direction.

Plan your approach so that an aborted landing can be made

downhill and/or into the wind without climbing.

If wind is relatively calm, try to select a hill or knoll for landing

to take advantage of any possible wind effect.

When evaluating a strange landing site, perform as many flybys

as you feel is necessary before landing.

44

MOUNTAIN FLYING

Evaluate the obstacles in the landing site and consider possible

null areas and routes of departure.

Determine the ability to hover out of ground effect prior to

attempting an approach and landing.

Fly as smoothly as possible and avoid steep turns.

Cross mountain peaks and ridges high enough to stay out of

downdrafts on the leeward side of the crest.

Avoid downdrafts prevalent on leeward (downside) slopes.

Plan your flight to take advantage of the updrafts on the

windward slopes.

Whenever possible, approaches to ridges should be along the

ridge on the upwind side rather than perpendicular to them.

Avoid high rates of descent when approaching landing sites.

Know your route and plan thoroughly for flying into

mountainous areas.

Carry a good survival kit and know how to use it.

And bring along a coat or jacket, even in the summertime, when

flying in mountainous terrain.

45

REMOTE AREA CHECKLIST

HIGH RECON

(fly at 300 feet AGL and 50 knots)

1. Before landing checklist

2. Area for suitability

3. Wind direction

4. Approach and departure routes

5. Turbulence - updrafts and downdrafts

6. Site evaluation

7. Free air temperature

8. Hover power required

9. Power available

LOW RECON

(fly at 50 feet above obstaclesand 40 knot groundspeed)

1. Approach route (fly the same route used for high recon, but offset for the best view)

2. Wind – reconfirm

3. Specific landing spot – choose

4. Departure route - select

46

REMOTE AREA CHECKLIST

LANDING

1. Survey - determine best spot for touchdown

2. If shutting down engine - make sure skids are on a firm surface

TAKE OFF

1. Hover power – recalculate, if additional weight has been added

2. Wind - recheck for speed and direction

3. Determine best departure and abort routes - always leave yourself an out!

4. Copilot - monitor gauges

5. Before take off checklist

6. Take off - use maximum power until all obstacles are cleared and climb airspeed is attained

7. Radio call (if applicable)

47

NIGHT REMOTE AREA CHECKLIST

DO NOT CONDUCT A LOW RECON

(Perform in addition to daytime HIGH RECON)

1. Lighting - use all available external lights

2. Crew briefing:

Procedures and pilot's intentions

Terrain features and crew duties

3. Cockpit lights - dimmed (Passenger lights off)

4. Site evaluation - Determine suitability

(minimum of 500 ft AGL on downwind)

5. Final approach - normal to shallow angle

(begin no lower than 300 ft AGL)

6. Copilot will call:

a. 100 ft increments until 300 ft AGL

b. 50 ft increments below 300 ft AGL

c. When pilot exceeds 300 FPM rate of descent during last 100 ft AGL of the approach

7. Take off - Pilot make instrument take off

Copilot - monitor visual cues

48

REMOTE AREA

BEFORE TAKEOFF GROUND RECON

TO DETERMINE

1. Type of takeoff to perform.

2. Take off point to maximize available area.

3. How to get the helicopter safely from the

landing point to the takeoff point.

PROCEDURE

1. Determine wind direction.

a. Friction controls if engine is running.

b. Walk away from rotor wash.

c. Drop dust or grass to check wind drift.

2. Go to downwind end of remote area and

mark a position for takeoff which allows

clearance of helicopter from all obstructions.

a. Use a heavy log or stone so rotorwash

will not disturb it.

b. If rearward hovering will be required

to reach the take off point, place

added reference markers to provide

a safe ground track while hovering.

49

CONFINED AREA

GENERAL RULES

Know the winds at all times.

Keep forced landing areas within reach, if at all possible.

Operate the helicopter as close to normal capabilities as long as

possible.

Angle of approach should be no steeper than necessary to clear

any obstacles.

Perform a normal take off from a hover and use a steeper angle

of climb only if required to clear any barriers.

If a normal take off is not possible, perform a maximum

performance takeoff.

Always land to a specific point located well forward of the area,

and keep the spot in sight during the approach.

Ensure tail rotor clearance from all obstructions on approach

and when hovering.

50

PINNACLE AND RIDGELINE OPERATIONS

Climb on the upwind side to take advantage of updrafts.

Avoid leeward side downdrafts and turbulence.

Use a steeper than normal approach when barriers or excessive

downdrafts exist.

Use a shallower than normal approach when there are no

downdrafts or barriers, or of an out of ground effect hover may not

be possible.

When landing on ridges, the safest approach path is usually

along the ridge on the upwind side.

Gaining airspeed on take off is more important than gaining

altitude.

a. Allows a more rapid departure from

unfavorable terrain.

b. Allows a more favorable glide angle,

increasing the ability to reach forced

landing areas.

c. Permits a more effective autorotative

flare.

51

SLOPE OPERATIONS

At termination of approach, hover into position to land cross

slope to avoid tail rotor strike.

Do not turn the tail upslope.

A slope of five degrees is the maximum for normal helicopter

operations.

Do not continue with a slope landing if lateral cyclic travel is

reaching its limits.

Maintain normal operating RPM to allow immediate take off if

the helicopter slides downslope.

After landing, check the security of the helicopter by gently

moving around the cyclic before reducing RPM.

During take off, remember again, do not turn the tail

upslope.

Be thoroughly familiar with dynamic rollover characteristics.

52

HOT WEATHER FLIGHT TECHNIQUE

Make full use of wind and translational lift.

Hover as low as possible and no longer than necessary.

Maintain maximum allowable rotor RPM.

Accelerate very slowly into forward flight.

Use running take offs and landings when necessary.

Use caution in maximum performance take offs and in steep

approaches.

Avoid high rates of descent during all approaches.

Always keep in mind the effects of density altitude & how it

reduces helicopter performance.

Height temperatures

High altitudes

High gross weights

– all, reduce helicopter performance.

53

COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS

PREFLIGHT INSPECTION

Preflight inspection is especially important in cold weather.

Fight the urge to hurry so you don't overlook anything during

the preflight inspection.

Dress properly for the weather. This makes you more

comfortable during preflight and, more importantly, being cold can

cause fatigue that will slow your instrument crosscheck and

decision making ability during flight.

Remove the pitot tube cover and ensure that the pitot tube and

static system sensing ports are clear.

Check for fuel contamination. If the helicopter was warm when

parked with less than full fuel tanks, cold temperatures may cause

water to condense in the fuel tanks.

Remove all frost, ice, and snow to reduce drag on airfoils, and

to prevent control binding. Any un-removed snow may melt on

control surfaces and later freeze causing control binding.

Be sure that the skids or wheels are not frozen to the

surface.

54

COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS

GROUND OPERATIONS

Perform engine start, run-up, and operational checks slowly:

a. Allows engine to warm up.

b. Clears controls and rotating parts

of residual ice and snow.

Increase RPM from ground idle to flight RPM slowly, if parked

on ice or snow, to prevent a possible sudden yaw.

Be aware that foreign object damage (FOD) may result due to

of rotor wash blowing chunks of ice into the air, leading to

possible engine ingestion.

Prior to initial liftoff to a hover, be sure the skids or wheels are

not frozen to the surface.

Keep in mind that powdery snow may cause a whiteout

condition when hovering.

55

COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS

INFLIGHT

Remember to use pitot heat when flying in visible moisture and

freezing temperatures.

Avoid flight into known or forecast icing conditions.

When flying over snow covered terrain, depth perception is

difficult - especially at night.

You may fly lower than you realize due to an illusion of height

caused by featureless snow covered terrain.

During approaches to featureless snow covered terrain

(especially at night) complete loss of depth perception may result

in unexpected contact with the ground.

In very cold temperatures, the altimeter reads higher than the

actual altitude. Keep this in mind when flying at night in areas

with high obstacles or terrain features.

56

COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS

WHITEOUT DURING TAKE OFF

To avoid a whiteout condition you can perform a maximum

performance take off:

Keep the ball centered

Use slightly forward cyclic

Reference directional gyro and attitude indicator

Maintain a positive rate of climb

WHITEOUT DURING LANDING

During approach, if the visual horizon is lost immediately

initiate a maximum performance take off (go-around) as outlined

above.

SETTING DOWN ON CRUSTED SNOW

If snow depth is unknown, do not place the full weight of the

helicopter on the snow when landing.

Dynamic rollover may result if one skid or wheel breaks

through the snow crust.

Tail rotor strike may occur if both skids or wheels break

through the snow crust.

57

NIGHT FLYING

YOU are the most important element in flying at night.

Be well rested. Fatigue resulting from your activities earlier in

the day can significantly reduce your ability to perform safely at

night.

It is difficult enough to see at night, but when fatigued your

vision is further impaired.

Regain your currency for night flying with a qualified instructor

if you are planning a night flight with no night experience in your

recent past.

Spend at least one-half hour in a dimly lit environment, if

possible, prior to flight.

Use a red-lensed flashlight during your preflight walk-around

inspection to preserve your night vision.

Take a flashlight (preferably two) and spare batteries on your

flight in case of aircraft electrical failure - check them for proper

operation prior to flight.

Make sure the navigation lights, anti-collision and landing

lights are functioning properly to allow others to see and avoid you

at night.

58

NIGHT FLYING

A thorough and complete weather briefing is especially

important for night flying. Clouds easily avoided during the day

may not even be noticed at night until you fly into them.

Plan your route carefully to allow adequate terrain clearance by

consulting the aeronautical charts.

In planning for intermediate and destination airports, be sure

they are attended at night and have the type of fuel you need.

Calling these airports to verify hours of operation and fuel

availability is well worth your time.

During your descent and approach into an airport at night, use

all airport lighting aids available to you.

Know the CTAF frequencies of any airports you plan to use so

you can activate the Pilot Controlled Lighting (PCL) devices

during your landing.

Use the Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or the

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) to ensure adequate

terrain clearance during final approach. If no VASI or PAPI is

available, fly a steeper than normal approach to avoid unseen

terrain hazards.

And always check Notices to Airmen to be sure all airport

lighting aids will be available to you.

59

NIGHT FLYING

Also, at night do not look directly at an object you wish to see.

If you stare directly at the object, it will tend to disappear.

To preserve your night vision, keep your cockpit lights as dim

as possible.

Night approaches into unlighted areas over smooth terrain can

result in complete loss of depth perception and even lead to

inadvertent contact with the ground.

And, if flying under instrument flight rules in the clouds at

night, turn off the anti-collision lights and turn the navigation

lights to steady in order to prevent spatial disorientation.

60

NIGHT FLYING FOG HAZARD

A major concern associated with night flying for the VFR rated

pilot is fog formation.

When fog is forecast, it can begin to form anywhere from two

hours before to two hours after the time referenced in the terminal

forecasts.

When the temperature-dewpoint spread is less than five

degrees, fog formation is very likely - especially with light wind

conditions.

When fog forms, your first indication may be the twinkling of

lights on the ground caused by diffusion.

This is a good time to land at the nearest suitable airport while

you still can.

When landing, be very cautious if a thin fog layer covers your

airport of intended landing.

The fog may look deceptively thin from above where you can

see down through it.

But on final approach when you enter the fog, all visibility

looking ahead may be lost.

Be prepared to do a go-around with no hesitation if your

visibility suddenly deteriorates during landing.

61

HAZARDS

LOW ROTOR RPM

Cause

1. Too much upward collective pitch, resulting in:

a. A high angle of attack on the

main rotor blades.

b. A high amount of drag on the

main rotor blades.

2. Engine power available (or being used) is not

sufficient to maintain normal rotor RPM.

Aggressive maneuvering and flying in turbulence can

amplify the effects of low rotor RPM which may result in

main rotor contact with the airframe.

Recovery

1. Immediately lower the collective pitch and increase

the throttle.

2. Adjust the collective pitch after recovery as

needed to resume normal flight.

3. If recovery is too slow, lifting power and tail

rotor effectiveness will be lost.

62

HAZARDS

MAST BUMPING

Mast bumping may occur in helicopters configured with a

teetering, two bladed rotor system.

Mast bumping occurs when the main rotor hub assembly strikes

the main rotor mast during flight.

The result may be main rotor separation from the helicopter

airframe.

Mast bumping may occur during a low G condition caused by

an abrupt control input or by a cyclic pushover while in forward

flight.

High airspeed and turbulence increase the likelihood of mast

bumping during abrupt control inputs, cyclic pushovers, or

excessive sideslip.

To Avoid Mast Bumping

Fly within the prescribed airspeeds for safe operation of your

model of helicopter.

Avoid abrupt control inputs and fly as smoothly as possible -

especially when flying at high density altitudes.

63

HAZARDS

MAST BUMPING

To Avoid Mast Bumping (con't)

Avoid sideslip and maintain balanced flight at all times.

If flying a light gross weight helicopter, avoid flight if

turbulence is forecast to be severe, or extreme.

If you encounter severe, or extreme turbulence while flying a

light gross weight helicopter, adjust your helicopter's airspeed to

the turbulence penetration airspeed as defined in the aircraft

operator's manual, and land as soon as practical.

And the greatest and most important action you must condition

yourself to automatically respond to is this:

If the helicopter rolls right in a low G condition, gently apply

aft cyclic to restore positive G and rotor thrust - then correct for

the right roll.

(This action is appropriate for helicopters with a counter-

clockwise rotating blade.)

64

HAZARDS

RETREATING BLADE STALL

Cause

Retreating blade stall is caused by a high angle of attack of the

retreating main rotor blade.

Factors leading toRetreating blade include

High airspeeds

High gross weight

High density altitude

Low rotor RPM

Steep or abrupt turns

Turbulent air

Warning signs

Pitch-up of the nose

Rolling tendency

Cyclic feedback

Abnormal vibration

65

HAZARDS

RETREATING BLADE STALL (con’t)

Retreating blade stall may quickly advance into severe blade

stall due to:

A steep turn

Rapid pull-up

An abrupt maneuver

The stall will be rapid and violent

Corrective measures

Reduce collective pitch

Reduce forward airspeed

Minimize maneuvering

Increase rotor RPM

HAZARDS

COLLECTIVE BOUNCE

Corrective measures

Relax hand pressure on the collective

Increase collective friction

Make a positive application, either up or

down, of the collective pitch control.

66

HAZARDS

SETTLING WITH POWER

Causes

Vertical or near vertical descent rate of

at least 300 FPM

Low forward airspeed

Use of over 20% of engine power

Result

The helicopter is settling in its own turbulence

There is insufficient power to retard the sink rate

The main rotor stalls from the rotor hub outward

Recovery

Lower the collective

Gain forward airspeed

(You must have enough altitude

to perform both recovery actions)

During a steep approach, if your rate of descent

increases - even though you are applying power:

ABANDON THE APPROACH!

67

HAZARDS

DYNAMIC ROLLOVER

Condition

During liftoff or landing from a hover, the helicopter may pivot

about a skid or wheel that remains on the ground.

The helicopter may then enter an abrupt rolling motion which

full lateral cyclic input cannot correct.

The recovery angle can be exceeded in less than two seconds.

Contributing conditions

Right side skid or wheel down condition

Crosswind from the left

Right lateral offset of helicopter's center of

gravity

Main rotor thrust almost equal to helicopter

weight

(discussion continued on next page)

68

HAZARDS

DYNAMIC ROLLOVER

Causes

Slope landings or take offs

Skid or wheel caught on a fixed object

Skid or wheel stuck in ice

Skid or wheel stuck in soft asphalt

Failure to remove skid or wheel tiedown

Corrective action

If the helicopter bank angle exceeds five degrees and corrective

lateral cyclic is not effective, perform a smooth and moderate

reduction of the collective.

Do not rapidly reduce or "dump" the collective. This may

cause fuselage or rotor blade contact -- or even cause a rollover in

the opposite direction.

Pilot technique to prevent dynamic rollover

Maintain cyclic trim and avoid side drift

Avoid tailwind conditions during slope

operations

Keep roll rates small

69

HAZARDS

GROUND RESONANCE

Ground resonance occurs in helicopters with three bladed, fully

articulated rotor systems. Unless immediate corrective action is

taken, oscillations will increase rapidly and destruction of the

helicopter will result.

Cause

The landing gear unevenly strikes the surface, transmitting a

series of shocks to the main rotor head. This causes the rotor head

to become unbalanced.

Result

A severe wobbling or shaking of the fuselage develops and

rapidly occurs, similar to the oscillations of a dropped coin striking

the floor at an angle.

Corrective action

Immediately lift off into a hover, if RPM is sufficient.

-Or-

Immediately close the throttle and reduce collective pitch, if

RPM is too low for take off.

70

HAZARDS

COMPRESSOR STALL

Symptoms

Sharp rumble

Sharp loud reports

Severe engine vibration

Rapid rise in turbine outlet temperature

Actions

Reduce collective

Turn off de-ice/bleed air

Avoid rapid or maximum power applications

If compressor stall progresses

Make a normal landing to a safe area

Record the readings of the

Gas producer

Exhaust gas temperature

Torque

Duration of the stall

71

HAZARDS

FUEL CONTAMINATION

Typical contaminants include water, rust, sand, dust, microbial

growth, and certain fuel additives.

Parking the helicopter overnight with a partially filled fuel tank

may cause condensation and resulting water contamination of fuel.

Unintentional mixing of other types or grades of fuel may

reduce engine efficiency or cause engine failure.

Refueling from small tanks or drums or from improperly

filtered fuel tanks may introduce dirt, sand, rust, or water into an

aircraft fuel tank.

Precautions to Prevent Fuel Contamination

During preflight, drain several ounces of fuel from the fuel

sumps and examine it for contaminants.

Be present during refueling operations to ensure that the proper

type and grade of fuel is added.

During the final postflight at the end of the last flight for the

day, top off the fuel tank to prevent water condensation in the

aircraft fuel tank.

72

HAZARDS

NI-CAD BATTERY OVERHEAT

(NI-CAD = Nickel Cadmium)

Causes

Frequent engine starts.

Unnecessary use of the helicopter battery during ground

operations for lights, avionics, etc.

Prevention

During a series of short duration flights with consecutive engine

starts, plan the use of an external power supply, if possible.

Adhere to the helicopter operator manual's recommended rest

periods between engine starts.

During flight, frequently monitor the bus voltage or load current

for any increase, decrease, or fluctuations indicating an abnormal

condition.

73

HAZARDS

TURBULENCE

If you encounter turbulence

Maintain a level flight attitude

Stay in trim

Minimize cyclic inputs

Keep a power reserve

Maintain the proper airspeed as

recommended in the operator

manual for your helicopter.

If you encounter severe or extreme turbulence, land as soon as

practical.

Hovering in strong crosswinds

When hovering or flying low and slow, a strong quartering

crosswind may cause disturbed air generated by the main rotor to

flow across the tail rotor.

This may cause a loss of tail rotor effectiveness which results in

an uncontrollable yaw.

74

HAZARDS

WAKE TURBULENCE

Aircraft generating lift upon take off until touchdown create

invisible swirling air masses that spin downstream, horizontally, of

the aircraft wingtips.

These cylindrical counter-rotating vortices can be avoided by

learning to envision their location and adjusting your flight path.

Hazards associated with waketurbulence encounters include:

Aircraft structural damage

Inability to stop aircraft roll caused

by entering the wake vortex

To avoid wake turbulencegenerated by other aircraft:

During landing - Remain at or above the leading aircraft's

flight path and land beyond its touchdown point.

During take off - Observe the preceding aircraft's rotation

point. Take off before that point and climb above the preceding

aircraft's flight path.

75

HAZARDS

WAKE TURBULENCE

Points to remember

The heaviest aircraft generate the strongest wake turbulence

vortex and pose the greatest danger to aircraft.

Light aircraft are the most vulnerable to wake turbulence.

Encounters with wake turbulence are most dangerous close to

the ground during take off and landing when less altitude is

available for recovery.

During final approach, fly at or above and upwind of the

leading aircraft's path of flight.

On approach, use the spacing ATC advises to avoid wake

turbulence. Runway length can serve as a guide in judging

distance.

The most hazardous wake turbulence situation is during a calm

or no wind condition where wing tip vortices persist longer on the

final approach or departure path.

76

HAZARDS

WIRE STRIKES

Wire strikes commonly occur

During take off and during approach

During low flight over lakes and rivers

Flight between high terrain points, such as:

Below the crest of hilltops

Through river valleys

Down canyons

Through mountain passes

To reduce the wire strike hazard:

Don't intentionally fly at low altitudes unless absolutely

necessary due to mission requirements.

If crossing wires during low level flight, cross them at the poles

or supporting structures.

When flying near transmission towers, watch out for the guy

wires extending diagonally down from the tower.

Inform the local FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)

of any airport wire hazard you notice which is not listed as a

hazard in the Airport Directory.

77

HAZARDS

THUNDERSTORMS

Avoid all thunderstorms by at least 20 miles.

Never fly under a thunderstorm even if it's not raining and VFR

conditions exist underneath. Severe turbulence, wind shear or

microbursts could be lurking below the cloud bases.

Don't take off or land during an approaching thunderstorm.

Low level wind shear or a sudden wind shift may be encountered.

Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter:

Establish the reduced airspeed power setting for turbulence

penetration recommended by your aircraft manual to lessen

structural aircraft stresses.

Maintain a constant attitude and let your altitude vary with the

up and down drafts to reduce structural stresses on your aircraft.

Set cockpit lights to high intensity to reduce temporary

blindness from lightening flashes.

Once in a thunderstorm, don't turn back. Aircraft structural

stresses are increased by turning. The preferred way out of a

thunderstorm is straight ahead.

78

HAZARDS

UNFAVORABLE WEATHER

A major cause of VFR fatal accidents is continued flight into

unfavorable weather.

When making a go-no-go preflight decision in evaluating

marginal weather, keep in mind that conditions between weather

reporting stations may be lower than reported at those stations.

You may encounter areas of reduced ceilings and visibilities

because weather is seldom uniform - even over short distances.

This is especially true in remote locations with longer distances

between weather reporting stations.

And be aware that a forecast may be quite inaccurate and it is

wise to compare current weather trends with forecast information

to determine the validity of the forecast.

Cockpit visibility may be lower than reported visibility due to

glazing of the windscreen as well as the slant range effect of

looking down at the ground at an angle. And, cockpit visibility is

further reduced by rain, drizzle or snow obscuring the windscreen.

Also, flying toward the sun in haze or dust conditions severely

reduces flight visibility.

79

HAZARDS

INADVERTENT IFR

The best possible thing you can do to be prepared for the

eventuality of inadvertent IFR is to get some "hood time."

Learn to fly your helicopter by reference to the instruments

only, and practice basic instrument flight maneuvers to maintain

proficiency in aircraft control.

If you suddenly go inadvertent IFR, your main objective is to

fly the helicopter!

Do not let any other actions or distractions prevent you from

keeping the helicopter in stable, "wings-level" flight.

If you immediately and inadvertently lose visual reference with

the ground and you are IFR qualified and equipped:

Control the aircraft - Transition to the flight instruments.

Climb - Climb to an altitude to clear all terrain and obstacles.

Call - Call for ATC assistance on 121.5 Emergency Frequency and

squawk 7700 on your transponder, if so equipped.

80

HAZARDS

VERTIGO

(SPATIAL DISORIENTATION)

Which way is up?

When flying in low visibility with poor surface reference, a

pilot is vulnerable to vertigo.

Poor surface reference occurs

When the horizon is obscured

At night - especially over rural areas where

ground lights and stars can blend together

On over-water flights

During a whiteout condition caused by snow

The spatially disoriented pilot may place the helicopter in a

dangerous attitude. If this occurs, follow the recovery sequence

listed below:

Unusual attitude recovery sequence

Center ball (step on the ball)

Level the helicopter attitude

Adjust the power setting

Adjust the airspeed

81

HAZARDS

COMMON IFR ILLUSIONS:

This disorientation is caused by a number of illusions sending

false signals to the brain, such as:

A sensation of banking when your helicopter is level.

A desire to bank your helicopter in the opposite direction

upon leveling, after banking.

A perception of straight and level flight or of climbing

when in a turn.

Upon recovery from a steep climbing turn, a feeling of

turning in the opposite direction.

A sensation of diving during recovery from a turn.

Confusion in attempting to mix visual cues and aircraft

instrument cues.

Other subtle causes of vertigo are

Reflections from outside lights.

Reflected light from the anti-collision rotating beacon.

(discussion continued on next page)

82

HAZARDS

TO PREVENT VERTIGO:

Do not continue VFR flight into deteriorating weather

conditions.

Be trained and proficient in aircraft control by reference to

instruments only.

Use flight instruments in association with visual references

when flying at night or in reduced visibilities.

Maintain night currency.

Obtain a complete weather briefing and watch for deteriorating

weather conditions.

Do not swivel your head to look around any more than

absolutely necessary in low weather conditions. Do not tune

radios during turns.

Believe your instrument indications. They are more reliable

than your sensations.

The importance of the effects of vertigo cannot be over-

emphasized.

Spatial disorientation can be so overpowering that even

instrument rated pilots may sometimes have difficulty controlling

their aircraft even when they know vertigo is affecting them.

83

HAZARDS

LOW LEVELINADVERTENT IFR

If you immediately and inadvertently lose visual ground

reference during low level flight and you are only VFR qualified

and/or equipped:

Enter autorotation with slight forward cyclic to re-establish

visual contact with the ground, if sufficient altitude and terrain

clearance permit.

Do not perform a 180 degree turn withoutvisual ground reference when at low altitude.

Do not slow your airspeed to the point where the pitot system

no longer registers your airspeed.

Other problems associated with low level VFR flight in poor

weather conditions include the inability to see and avoid other

aircraft and radio towers.

Although not at all recommended, if you must follow a road for

navigation in low weather, fly on the right side of the road.

Hopefully, any other aircraft following the road coming the

other way will be on his right side, as well.

84

HAZARDS

TRAPPED ON TOPOF AN OVERCAST

If you are VFR rated do not fly over a widespread overcast or

broken layer of clouds (more than five-tenths coverage).

However, flying over a scattered cloud layer may be practical at

times to take advantage of more favorable winds, smoother air,

improved visibility, or for terrain clearance.

Flight above scattered clouds is recommended only if weather

conditions are improving or stable.

If the clouds below you increase in coverage immediately

descend below the cloud deck (remain VFR) or turn around.

If you find yourself stuck on top of an overcast, call ATC or

flight service and explain your situation.

Delay in requesting assistance reduces the amount of fuel

available for regaining visual ground contact.

Use your helicopter's maximum endurance power setting to

conserve fuel.

ATC will help you find an area of improved weather to allow

safe descent below the cloud deck.

85

SEARCH AND RESCUE

PRE-DEPARTURE CHECKLIST

Mission objective __________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Requesting agency __________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Key rescue personnel _______________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Type of downed aircraft or situation

requiring aid

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Number of victims involved _________________

____________________________________________

Condition of victims _______________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Type of clothing worn by victims, or other

identifying characteristics ________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

86

SEARCH AND RESCUE

PRE-DEPARTURE CHECKLIST

Assumed location of accident _______________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Course and distance to rescue site _________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

ETD ________________________________________

ETE ________________________________________

ETA ________________________________________

Terrain and elevations along the route

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

En route hazards - towers, wires, etc.

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

Fuel requirements, refuel location _________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

87

SEARCH AND RESCUE

PRE-DEPARTURE CHECKLIST

Obtain a detailed weather briefing for

Departure point

Enroute flight

Rescue site

Drop-off point

Receive as a minimum

Adverse Conditions and Synopsis

Current Weather for departure, enroute and

destination

Forecast Weather for departure enroute and

destination

Winds Aloft and any Pilot Reports

Other information pertinent to the mission____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

88

POST FLIGHT INSPECTION

Left side skid, skid shoe, crosstubes and saddle

Left side engine deck

Tail rotor drive shaft, tail rotor and gearboxes

Right side engine deck

Engine oil level

Transmission oil level

Hydraulic fluid level

Right side skid, skid shoe, crosstubes and saddle

Main rotor system and blades - condition, and main rotor blades tied down

Main rotor oil levels

Short shaft assembly

General aircraft condition

Aircraft publication completed - flight signed off

Hours logged

Discrepancies noted

89

THE HUMAN ELEMENT

A PEP TALK

The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) reports that

nearly 80 percent of all general aviation accidents are related to or

caused by pilot error. The same basic mistakes are made year after

year.

Accident causes include

Flying technique errors

Thinking errors

Decision errors

Attitude errors

According to one study, 68 percent of these accidents are

caused by carelessness and recklessness.

You, as a general aviation pilot, represent a significant part of

the aviation community. And it is important to remember that the

vast majority of aviation accidents are attributable to lapses in

human performance.

How can you maintain a high level of performance?

By maintaining the proper attitude.

90

THE HUMAN ELEMENT

Attitude is all important in the process of practicing safe

operating procedures.

Avoid complacency - a major cause of accidents. Resist &

fight it.

Stay alert when things are going well. Remember, something

can always go wrong.

Avoid shortcuts in procedures.

Do not fly with minimal information or inadequate preflight

planning.

Understand that your proficiency level varies from one flight

task to another.

Recognize your strengths and your weaknesses.

Maintain open communications with your flying partners to

prevent misunderstandings in the cockpit.

Be willing to accept criticism and give it, constructively, so that

you and others can mutually benefit and continuously learn.

Do not allow peer pressure to push you into doing things that

you would not ordinarily do.

91

THE HUMAN ELEMENT

You can maintain your flying proficiency and mental skills in a

number of ways:

Keep your emergency training up to date to enable you to

overcome an emergency you otherwise would not be able to

handle.

Stay ahead of your aircraft and anticipate problems.

Always have more than one alternative course of action when

planning and conducting a flight.

Periodically review your aircraft operator's manual.

Read accident reports, safety bulletins. and pilot magazines, and

apply those lessons learned by other's experiences.

Maintain currency & flying proficiency.

Always use precision and care with the proper flying technique.

Keep safety paramount in mind.

And -- Always leave yourself an out!

92

THE HUMAN ELEMENT

Know your aircraft and its:

Limitations

Performance

Systems

Switches

Endurance

Loading

Emergency procedures

Know YOUR limitations and adhere to them.

Don't hesitate to ask questions about things you do not

understand.

Above all, constantly practice professionalism, maintain the

proper attitude, and strive for excellence during each and every

flight.

Regardless of whether you fly for hire, for business purposes, or

just for pleasure, always fly like a true professional.

93

Explanatory note of the list of

METAR & TAF abbreviations

on the following pages:

METAR: Routine Weather Report

TAF: Routine Aviation Terminal Forecast

This decoder allows you to translate METAR & TAF terms.

The abbreviations defined by quotation marks are examples of how

an element is spoken. The numerical values are an arbitrary choice

in creating the example. Simply substitute the numbers contained

in the METAR or TAF element you are translating and use the

same words contained in the example.

Following each definition you will notice page references. In

the book entitled, The METAR & TAF Quick Reference Manual,

these page references will lead you to much more in-depth

information by providing examples or a further explanation of the

term.

The METAR & TAF Quick Reference Manual is published by

Find-it Fast Books.

List of METAR Abbreviations

$ indicates maintenance needed on ASOS system, 44

- light intensity, 25

+ heavy intensity, 25

/ indicator that visual data follows;

/ separator between temperature and dew point data, 14, 32

00000KT calm wind [wind speed less than one knot], 19, 51

A2985 "altimeter two niner eight five", 34

ACC altocumulus castellanus, 30, 42

ACFT MSHP aircraft mishap, 16, 42

ACSL altocumulus standing lenticular cloud, 30, 42

AO1 automated station without precipitation discriminator, 18, 37

AO2 automated station with precipitation discriminator, 18, 37

ALP airport location point, 39

AMD TAF AMD - Amended forecast, 48

APRNT apparent

APRX approximately

ASOS automated surface observing system

AUTO fully automated report, no human backup, 8

B began, 39, 40

BC patches [spoken as "patchy", a descriptor], 25

BCFG patchy fog [patches of fog], 25

BECMG "a gradual change" [in forecast conditions, see page 54, 55

for a complete explanation]

BKN broken [5/8 to 7/8 sky cover], 29, 31

BKN000 between 5/8 to 7/8 of the sky is obscured [spoken as

"broken clouds less than five zero"]10, 28, 41

BKN030 "ceiling three thousand broken", 29, 31

BKN040CB "ceiling four thousand broken, cumulonimbus", 29, 30

BKN050TCU "ceiling five thousand broken, towering cumulus", 29, 30

BKN030 V OVC "broken layer at three thousand variable to overcast", (V) 31, 41

BL blowing [a descriptor], 25, 27

BLDU blowing dust, 25

BLPY blowing spray, 25

BLSA blowing sand, 25

BLSN blowing snow, 25, 27

BR mist [visibility 5/8SM to 6SM], 10, 25, 27

BR HZ mist haze [visibility is 5/8 SM or more], 9, 10, 25, 27

C center [referring to runway designation]

CA cloud to air lightning, 38, 39

CAVOK ceiling and visibility OK [not used in U.S.]

CB cumulonimbus cloud, 29-30, 42, 52

CBMAM cumulonimbus mammatus cloud, 30, 42

CB S MOV E "cumulonimbus south moving east", 29, 30, 42

A-1

List of METAR Abbreviations

CC cloud to cloud lightning, 38, 39

CCSL cirrocumulus standing lenticular cloud, 30, 42

CCSL OVR MT E “standing lenticular cirrocumulus over the mountain[s] East”

30, 42

CG cloud to ground lightning, 38, 39

CHI cloud height indicator

CHINO sky condition at secondary location not available, 43, 44

CIG ceiling, 8, 29

CIG 004V008 "ceiling variable between four hundred and eight hundred", 8, 29

CIG 010 RY20 "ceiling one thousand at runway two zero", 38

CLR clear [0 or 0 below 12,000 feet sky cover], 29

CONS continuous [lightning-more than 6 flashes/minute], 38, 39

COR correction to a previously disseminated observation/forecast, 18, 48

DR low drifting [a descriptor], 10, 25

DRDU low drifting dust less than 6 ft high, 10, 25

DRSA low drifting sand less than 6 ft high, 10, 25

DRSN low drifting snow less than 6 ft high, 10, 25

DS dust storm, 25

DSIPTG dissipating

DSNT distant, 36

DU widespread dust, 13, 25

DVR dispatch visual range

DZ drizzle, 8, 25, 27

DZB drizzle began, (B) 39, 40

DZE drizzle ended, (E) 39, 40

E east or ended, 39, 40

FC funnel cloud, 9, 25, 37

+FC tornado or waterspout, 13, 25, 37

FEW few clouds [> 0 but £ 2/8 sky cover], 9, 29

FEW000 from 0 to 2/8 of the sky is obscured [spoken as "few clouds less than

five zero"], 10, 28, 41

FEW040 "few clouds at four thousand", 29

FEW050CB "few clouds at five thousand, cumulonimbus", (CB) 29, 30

FEW060TCU "few clouds at six thousand. towering cumulus", (TCU) 29, 30

FG fog [visibility less than 5/8 statute mile], 9, 25, 29

FG BKN000 "fog obscuring five to seven-eights of the sky", 28

FG FEW000 "fog obscuring zero to two-eights of the sky", 28

FG SCT000 "fog obscuring three to four-eights of the sky", 28

FIBI filed but impractical to transmit

FM "after" - [a rapid change in forecast conditions see page 54 for a

complete explanation]

FRQ frequent [lightning-about 1 to 6 flashes/minute], 38, 39

A-2

List of METAR Abbreviations

FROPA frontal passage, 20, 37, 38

FT feet

FU smoke, 12, 25

FU SCT010 "scattered layer of smoke aloft at one thousand", 25, 41

FZ freezing [a descriptor], 25

FZDZ freezing drizzle, 9, 25, 27

FZDZB freezing drizzle began, 25, (B) 39, 40

FZDZE freezing drizzle ended, 25, (E) 39, 40

FZFG freezing fog [ice fog], 9, 25

FZRA freezing rain, 9, 25

FZRAB freezing rain began, 25, (B) 39, 40

FZRAE freezing rain ended, 25, (E) 39, 40

FZRANO freezing rain sensor not available, 43

G gust, 9, 19, 50, 51

GR hail, 9, 25, 40

GRB hail began, (B) 39, 40

GRE hail ended, (E) 39, 40

GR 1 1/2 "hailstones one and one-half inches in diameter", 40

GS small hail and/or snow pellets, 12, 25, 40

GSB small hail or snow pellets began, (B) 39, 40

GSE small hail or snow pellets ended, (E) 39, 40

HLSTO hailstone

HZ haze, 9, 25, 27

IC ice crystals or in-cloud lightning, 10, 38, 39

INCRG increasing

INTMT intermittent

KT knot[s], 19, 50, 51

L left [referring to runway designation]

LTG lightning, 38, 39

LWR lower

M minus, less than, 23, 24, 32

M1/4SM "visibility less than one quarter", 22

M10/M12 "temperature minus one zero, dew point minus one two", 32

M15/ "temperature minus one five, dew point missing", 32

M1000FT "R-V-R less than one thousand", 23

MAX maximum

METAR routine weather report provided at fixed intervals, 14-16

MI shallow [a descriptor], 11, 25

MIFG shallow fog, 12, 27

MIN minimum

MOV moved/moving/movement, 40

MT mountains

A-3

List of METAR Abbreviations

N north

N/A not applicable

NCDC National Climatic Data Center

NE northeast

NIL part-time TAF not issued yet, See 49 for a complete explanation

NIL AMD SKED AFT [closing time]Z appears at end of part-time TAF

See 49 for a complete explanation

NOSPECI no SPECI reports are taken at this station, 43

NSW no significant weather [be sure to read about this!], 45, 51

NW northwest

00000KT "wind calm", 19, 50, 51

OCNL occasional [lightning-less than 1 flash/minute], 38, 39

OHD overhead, 30, 40

OVC overcast [8/8 sky cover], 10, 29, 31

OVC008 "ceiling eight hundred overcast", 29, 31

OVC020CB "ceiling two thousand overcast, cumulonimbus", (CB) 29, 30

OVC010TCU "ceiling one thousand overcast, towering cumulus", (TCU) 29, 30

P "more than" indicated greater than the highest reportable value, 23, 24

P6SM "visibility more than six" [statute miles], 51

P6000FT "more than six thousand" [RVR], 23, 24

PCPN precipitation

PK WND peak wind, 11, 20

PK WND 27050/25 "peak wind two seven zero at five zero occurred at two five

past the hour", 20

PK WND 32045/1735 "peak wind three two zero at four five occurred at one

seven three five", 20

PL ice pellets, 10, 25

PLB ice pellets began, (B) 39, 40

PLE ice pellets ended, (E) 39, 40

PNO precipitation amount not available, 43

PO dust/sand whirls [dust devils], 25

PR partial [a descriptor], 10, 25

PRFG partial fog, 10, 25

PRES pressure

PRESFR pressure falling rapidly, 11, 34, 42

PRESRR pressure rising rapidly, 11, 34, 42

PROB30 "slight chance" [10% to 29% probability], 53

PROB40 "chance" [30% to 50% probability, see page 53 for a full explanation]

PWINO precipitation identifier sensor not available, 43

PY spray, 12, 25

R right [referring to runway designation]

RA rain, 25, 26, 27

+RA heavy rain, 26, 27

A-4

List of METAR Abbreviations

-RA light rain, 25, 26, 27

RAB rain began, (B) 39, 40

RAE rain ended, (E) 39, 40

RA FG rain, fog, (RA FG) 25, 27, (FG) 9

RAPL rain, ice pellets, 10, 25

RASNDZ rain, snow, drizzle, 25, 26, 27

RTD Routine Delayed [late] forecast, 48

RV reportable value

RVR Runway Visual Range, 11, 23, 24

RVRNO RVR system values not available, 23, 43

RY runway

S south

SA sand, 11, 25

SCSL stratocumulus standing lenticular cloud, 12

SCT scattered [3/8 to 4/8 sky cover], 11, 29, 30

SCT000 between 3/8 & 4/8 of the sky is obscured [spoken as "scattered clouds

less than five zero"], 10, 28, 41

SCT V BKN "scattered layer variable to broken", 41

SCT010 V BKN "scattered layer at one thousand variable to broken", (V) 31, 41

SCT035 "three thousand five hundred scattered", 11, 29, 30

SE southeast

SFC surface

SFC VIS 1 "surface visibility one", 21, 38

SG snow grains, 12, 25

SGB snow grains began, (B) 39, 40

SGE snow grains ended, (E) 39, 40

SH shower[s][a descriptor], 12, 25

SHGR hail showers, (SH) 12, 15, (GR) 9

SHGS small hail shower or snow pellet showers, (SH) 12, 25, (GS) 12

SHPL ice pellet showers, (SH) 12, 25, (PE) 10

SHRA rain showers, (SH) 12, 25, (RA) 25, 26

SHSN snow showers, (SH) 12, 25, (SN) 12, 25

SKC sky clear [reported by manual stations], 29

SLP sea-level pressure, 11, 34, 42

SLP142 "sea-level pressure one zero one four point two hectopascals",

(SLP) 11, 34

SLPNO sea-level pressure not available, 34, 42

SM statute miles, 21, 51

SN snow, 12, 25, 27

+SN heavy snow, 12, 25, 27

-SN light snow, 12, 25, 27

SNB snow began, (B) 39,40

SNE snow ended, (E) 39, 40

A-5

List of METAR Abbreviations

SNGS snow, snow pellets (SN) 12, 25, (GS) 12, 40

SNINCR snow increasing rapidly, 25

SPECI an unscheduled weather report when certain criteria have

been met, 15, 16, 22, 24, 31

SQ squall[s], 12, 25, 26

SS sandstorm, 11, 25

STN station

SW southwest

TAF Routine Aviation Terminal Forecast, 45, 47, 48

TCU towering cumulus, 29, 30, 42

TCU OHD "towering cumulus overhead", 29, 30, 42

TEMPO an "occasional" condition in a forecast [see page 55 for a

complete explanation]

TS thunderstorm [implies showery precipitation, if occurring,

a descriptor]12, 25, 26, 27

TSB thunderstorm began, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (B) 39, 40

TSE thunderstorm ended, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (E) 39, 40

TSGR thunderstorm, hail, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (GR) 9, 25 ,40

TSGS thunderstorm, small hail/ice pellets, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27,

(GS) 12, 25, 40

TSNO thunderstorm information not available, 43

TSPL thunderstorm, ice pellets, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (PE) 10, 25

TSRA thunderstorm, rain, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (RA) 25, 26, 27

TSSN thunderstorm, snow, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (SN) 25, 26, 27

TWR tower

TWR VIS 2 "tower visibility two", 21, 38

UNKN unknown

UP unknown precipitation, 13, 25, 26, 51

UPB unknown precipitation began, (B) 39,40

UPE unknown precipitation ended, (E) 39, 40

UTC Coordinated Universal Time, 18, 49

V variable, 19, 24, 31, 38, 41

VA volcanic ash, 25, 37

VC in the vicinity, 13

VCBLDU blowing dust in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (BLDU) 8, 25

VCBLSA blowing sand in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (BLSA) 8, 25

VCBLSN blowing snow in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (BLSN) 8, 25, 27

VCDS dust storm in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (DS) 25

VCFC funnel cloud in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (FC) 9, 25

VCFG fog in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (FG) 9, 25

VCPO dust devils in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (PO) 25

VCSH showers in the vicinity, (VCSH) 13, (SH) 12, 25, 26, 27

VCSS sandstorm in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (SS) 11, 25

VCTS thunderstorms in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, 40

A-6

List of METAR Abbreviations

VIRGA precipitation that is observed but not reaching

the ground, 13, 41

VIS visibility, 21, 22, 38

VIS2V3 "visibility variable between two and three", 21, 38

VIS E 2 "visibility east two", 22, 38

VIS N 1 "visibility north one", 22, 38

VIS S 3 "visibility south three", 22, 38

VIS W 4 "visibility west four", 22, 38

VISNO visibility at secondary location not available, 43, 44

VIS 1 RY22 "visibility one, at Runway two two", 22, 38

VR visual range

VRB variable, 13,20, 21, 50, 51

VRB03KT "wind variable at three", 20

VV indefinite ceiling [vertical visibility], 29, 52

VV003 "indefinite ceiling 300" [vertical visibility 300 feet], 29, 52

VV/// indefinite ceiling height not available

W west

WS windshear, 52

WS020/17040KT "Low level wind shear at two thousand, wind

one seven zero at four zero", 52

WND wind, 19, 20

WSHFT windshift, 13, 20, 37, 38

WSHFT 35 "windshift at three five", 13, 20, 37, 38

WSHFT 20 FROPA "windshift at two zero due to frontal passage",

13, 20, 37, 38

Z zulu [Coordinated Universal Time], 18

A-7

NOTAM CONTRACTIONS

AAWF Auxiliary Aviation Weather Facility

ABN airport beacon

ABV above

ACC area control center (ARTCC)

ACCUM accumulate

ACFT aircraft

ACR air carrier

ACT active

AD aerodrome (airport) (also a Notam keyword)

ADJ adjacent

ADZD advised

AFD airport facility directory

AGL above ground level

AIRSPACE airspace (also a Notam keyword)

ALS approach lighting system

ALT altitude

ALTM altimeter

ALTN alternate

ALTNLY alternately

ALSTG altimeter setting

AMDT amendment

AMGR airport manager

AMOS Automatic Meteorological Observing System

AP airport – replaced by AD on 1-28-08

APCH approach

AP LGT airport lighting

APP approach control

APRON apron – paved strip in front of and around airport hangars (also a Notam keyword)

ARFF aircraft rescue and fire fighting

ARR arrive, arrival

ASOS Automatic Surface Observing System

ASPH asphalt

ATC air traffic control

ATCCC Air Traffic Control Command Center

ATIS automatic terminal information service

AUTH authority

AUTOB Automatic Weather Reporting System

AVBL available

AWOS Automatic Weather Observing/Reporting System

AWY airway

AZM azimuth

BA FAIR braking action fair

BA NIL braking action nil

BA POOR braking action poor

BC back course

BCN beacon

BERM snowbank/s containing earth/gravel

B-1

NOTAM CONTRACTIONS

BLW below

BOW Bowmonk Decelerometer

BRD Brakemeter-Dynometer

BND bound

BRG bearing

BYD beyond

C center

CAAS Class A Airspace

CARF central altitude reservation function

CAT category

CBAS Class B Airspace

CBSA Class B Surface Area

CCAS Class C Airspace

CCLKWS counterclockwise

CCSA Class C Surface Area

CD clearance delivery

CDAS Class D Airspace

CDSA Class D Surface Area

CEAS Class E Airspace

CESA Class E Surface Area

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CGAS Class G Airspace

CHAN channel

CHART Chart (FDC NOTAM keyword)

CHG change or modification

CIG ceiling

CK check

CL center line

CLKWS clockwise

CLR clearance, clear/s, cleared to

CLSD closed

CMB climb

CMSND commissioned

CNL cancel

CNTRLN centerline

COM communications (also a Notam keyword)

CONC concrete

CPD coupled

CRS course

CTAF common traffic advisory frequency

CTC contact

CTL control

DALGT daylight

DATA Data (FDC NOTAM keyword)

DCMSN decommission

DCMSND decommissioned

DCT direct

DEGS degrees

DEP depart, departure

DEP PROC departure procedure

DH decision height

DISABLD disabled

DIST distance

B-2

NOTAM CONTRACTIONS

DLA delay or delayed

DLT delete

DLY daily

DME distance measuring equipment

DMSTN demonstration

DP departure procedure

DP dew point temperature

DRFT snowbank/s caused by wind action

DSPLCD displaced

DTW dual tandem wheels – on aircraft

DW dual wheel – on aircraft

E east

EB eastbound

EFAS en route flight advisory service

ELEV elevation

ENG engine

ENRT en route

ENTR entire

ERD Electronic Recording Decelerometer

EXC except

FAC facility or facilities

FAF final approach fix

FAN MKR fan marker

FDC flight data center

FICON field condition

FI/P flight inspection permanent

FI/T flight inspection temporary

FL flight level

FM from

FNA final approach

FPM feet per minute

FREQ frequency

FRH fly runway heading

FRI Friday

FRZ flight restricted zone

FRZN frozen

FSS (automated) flight service station

FT foot or feet

GC ground control

GCA ground control approach

GCO ground communication outlet

GCP ground check point

GOVT government

GP glide path

GPS Global Position System

GRVL gravel

HAA height above airport

HAT height above touchdown

HDG heading

HEL helicopter

HELI heliport

HIRL high intensity runway lights

HIWAS hazardous inflight weather advisory service

HLDG holding

HOL holiday

B-3

NOTAM CONTRACTIONS

HP holding pattern

HR hour

IAF initial approach fix

IAP instrument approach procedure (FDC NOTAM keyword)

ID identification

IDENT identify, identifier, identification

IF intermediate fix

ILS instrument landing system

IM inner marker

IMC instrument meteorological conditions

IN inch, inches

INBD inbound

INDEFLY indefinitely

INFO information

INOP inoperative

INSTR instrument

INT intersection

INTL international

INTST intensity

IR ice on runway/s

KT knots

L left

LAA local airport advisory

LAT latitude

LAWRS Limited Aviation Weather Reporting Station

LB pound/s

LC local control

LOC local, locally, location

LCTD located

LDA landing distance available

LDA localizer type directional aid

LGT light or lighting

LGTD lighted

LIRL low intensity runway lights

LLWAS low level wind shear alert system

LM compass locator at ILS middle marker

LDG landing

LLZ localizer

LNAV Lateral Navigation – WAAS

LO compass locator at ILS outer marker

LONG longitude

LORAN Long Range Navigation

LPV vertical approach minima – WAAS

LRN Long Range Navigation

LSR loose snow on runway/s

LT left turn

MAG magnetic

MAINT maintain, maintenance

MALS medium intensity approach light system

B-4

NOTAM CONTRACTIONS

MALSF medium intensity approach light system with

sequenced flasher indicator lights

MALSR medium intensity approach light system with

runway alignment

MAPT missed approach point

MCA minimum crossing altitude

MDA minimum descent altitude

MEA minimum en route altitude

MED medium

MIN minute/s

MIRL medium intensity runway lights

MKR marker

MLS microwave landing system

MM middle marker

MNM minimum

MNT monitor, monitoring, monitored

MOC minimum obstruction clearance

MON Monday

MRA minimum reception altitude

MSA minimum safe altitude or minimum sector altitude

MSAW minimum safe altitude warning

MSG message

MSL mean sea level

MU mu meters

MUM Mark 4 Mu Meter

MUD mud

MUNI municipal

N north

NA not authorized

NAV navigation/navigation aids (also a Notam keyword)

NB northbound

NDB non-directional radio beacon

NE northeast

NGT night

NM nautical miles

NMR nautical mile radius

NONSTD nonstandard

NOPT no procedure turn required

NR number

NTAP notice to airmen publication

NVG night vision goggles

NW northwest

O other aeronautical information (a Notam keyword)

OBSC obscured, obscure, obscuring

OBST obstruction, obstacle (also a Notam keyword)

ODP Obstacle Departure Procedure (FDC NOTAM keyword)

OM outer marker

OPR operate, operator, operative

B-5

NOTAM CONTRACTIONS

OPS operation/s

ORIG original

OTS out of service

OVR over

PAEW personnel and equipment working

PAX passenger/s

PAPI precision approach path indicator

PAR precision approach radar

PARL parallel

PAT pattern

PCL pilot controlled lighting

PERM permanent

PJE parachute jumping exercise

PLA practice low approach

PLW plow, plowed

PN prior notice required

PPR prior permission required

PRN psuedo random noise

PROC procedure

PROC NA procedure not authorized

PROP propeller

PSR packed snow on runway/s

PTCHY patchy

PTN procedure turn

PVT private

RAA Remote Airport Advisory

RAIL runway alignment indicator lights

RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

RAMOS Remote Automatic Meteorological Observing System

RAMP ramp – The paved area of an airport between the terminal building and the taxiways,

used to park aircraft loading and unloading (also a NOTAM keyword)

RCAG remote communications air to ground facility

RCL runway center line

RCLL runway center line lights

RCO remote communications outlet

REC receive or receiver

REIL runway end lights

RELCTD relocated

REP report

RLLS runway lead-in light system

RMNDR remainder

RMK remark/s

RNAV area navigation

ROUTE Route (FDC NOTAM keyword)

RPLC replace

RQRD required

RRL runway remaining lights

RSR en route surveillance radar

RSVN reservation

RT right turn

RTE route

B-6

NOTAM CONTRACTIONS

RTR remote transmitter/receiver

RTS return to service

RUF rough

RVR runway visual range

RVRM runway visual range midpoint

RVRR runway visual range rollout

RVRT runway visual range touchdown

RWY runway (also a Notam keyword)

S south

SA sand, sanded

SAT Saturday

SAWRS Supplementary Aviation Weather Reporting Station

SB Southbound

SDF simplified directional facility

SE southeast

SFC surface

SFH Surface Friction Tester-hi pressure tire

SFL Surface Friction Tester-lo pressure tire

SFL sequence flashing lights

SIMUL simultaneous or simultaneously

SIR packed or compacted snow and ice on runway/s

SKED scheduled or schedule

SKH Skiddometer-hi pressure tire

SKL Skiddometer-lo pressure tire

SLR slush on runway/s

SN snow

SNBNK snowbank/s caused by plowing (windrow/s)

SNGL single

SPD speed

SSALF simplified short approach lighting with

sequence flashers

SSALR simplified short approach lighting with

runway alignment indicator lights

SSALS simplified short approach lighting system

SSR secondary surveillance radar

STA straight-in approach

STAR Standard Terminal Arrival

SUN Sunday

SVC/S service/services (also a Notam keyword)

SVN satellite vehicle number

SW southwest

SWEPT swept or broom/ed

T temperature

TACAN tactical air navigation aid (both azimuth and DME)

TAR terminal area surveillance radar

TDWR Terminal Doppler Weather RADAR

TDZ touchdown zone

TDZ LGT touchdown zone lights

TEMPO temporary or temporarily

TFC traffic

TFR temporary flight restriction

TGL touch and go landings

THU Thursday

B-7

NOTAM CONTRACTIONS

TIL until

THN thin

THR threshold

THRU through

TKOF takeoff

TM Traffic Management

TMPA Traffic Management Program Alert

TODA take-off distance available

TORA take-off run available

TRMNL terminal

TRNG training

TRSN transition

TSNT transient

TUE Tuesday

TVOR Terminal VOR

TWR airport control tower

TWY/S taxiway/s (also a Notam keyword)

U unverified aeronautical information (a Notam keyword)

UAS unmanned air vehicles

UAV unmanned air vehicle

UFN until further notice

UNAVBL unavailable

UNLGTD unlighted

UNMKD unmarked

UNMNT unmonitored

UNREL unreliable

UNUSBL unusable

VASI visual approach slope indicator system

VDP visual descent point

VER Vericom (VC3000)

VFP Visual Flight Procedure (FDC NOTAM Keyword)

VIA by way of

VICE instead/versus

VIS visibility

VMC visual meteorological conditions

VNAV Vertical Navigation – WAAS

VOL volume

VOR VHF omni-directional radio range

VORTAC VOR and TACAN (collocated)

W west

WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System

WB westbound

WED Wednesday

WEF with effect from or effective from

WI within

WIE with immediate effect

WKDAYS Monday through Friday

WKEND Saturday and Sunday

WND wind

work... work in progress

WPT waypoint

WSR wet snow on runway/s

WTR water on runway/s

WX weather

B-8

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