Ethics: Etymology and General BackgroundEthics: Etymology and General Background

Ethics comes from the Latin word Ethics comes from the Latin word ethicusethicus which which means characteristic spirit of a community, people or means characteristic spirit of a community, people or system.system.

Ethics comes from the Greek word Ethics comes from the Greek word ethosethos which which means moral principle, character, habit or custom. means moral principle, character, habit or custom.

These terms - These terms - ethicusethicus and and ethosethos - - were further were further developed and eventually today the term developed and eventually today the term ethosethos is is used to refer to:used to refer to:

distinctive characterdistinctive character spirit spirit attitude attitude of a group of people.of a group of people.

Ethics is a branch of philosophy.Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It is concerned with right or wrong, good or It is concerned with right or wrong, good or

bad, appropriate or inappropriate, moral or bad, appropriate or inappropriate, moral or immoral, ethical or unethical actions; vice or immoral, ethical or unethical actions; vice or virtue. virtue.

It involves questions about duty, obligation, It involves questions about duty, obligation, responsibility, individual and societal rights.responsibility, individual and societal rights.

Definition of Ethics:Definition of Ethics: The term The term Ethics Ethics has a number of different meanings. It has a number of different meanings. It

refers to:refers to: A code of moral principles or a set of moral values A code of moral principles or a set of moral values

held by an individual or a group of people. For held by an individual or a group of people. For example, medical ethics is a code which regulates and example, medical ethics is a code which regulates and guides the behavior of doctors in their dealings with guides the behavior of doctors in their dealings with each other and with patients.each other and with patients.

The The philosophical studyphilosophical study of the of the moral valuemoral value of of human human conductconduct and of the and of the rules and principlesrules and principles that ought to that ought to governgovern it. it.

Ethics is a science of morals related to human Ethics is a science of morals related to human behavior based on certain ideals and norms of a certain behavior based on certain ideals and norms of a certain society, race, community or people.society, race, community or people.

Terms Related to Ethics:Terms Related to Ethics:

1. Morality 1. Morality Ethics sometimes is used synonymously with morals.Ethics sometimes is used synonymously with morals. Morals is from the Latin Morals is from the Latin moralismoralis meaning mores, customs or meaning mores, customs or

manners.manners. MoralsMorals refer to the conduct itself; it is concerned with the refer to the conduct itself; it is concerned with the

domain of practices.domain of practices. EthicsEthics however, refer to however, refer to the study of the moral conductthe study of the moral conduct; the ; the

theoretical examination of morality. Therefore ethics is also theoretical examination of morality. Therefore ethics is also known as moral philosophy.known as moral philosophy.

A A moralistmoralist will strongly hold to certain values they consider will strongly hold to certain values they consider worthwhile without asking why.worthwhile without asking why.

An An ethicistethicist will undertake the systematic questioning and will undertake the systematic questioning and critical examination of the underlying principle of morality critical examination of the underlying principle of morality without blind pre-conceptions.without blind pre-conceptions.

2. Virtues2. Virtues The quality or practice of moral excellence or The quality or practice of moral excellence or

righteousness.righteousness. Any of the cardinal/root virtues for example, Any of the cardinal/root virtues for example,

prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance.prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance.

3. Noble character / nobility3. Noble character / nobility The state or quality of being morally or spiritually The state or quality of being morally or spiritually

good.good.

Major Concerns of Ethics:Major Concerns of Ethics:

• The nature of ultimate values i.e., The nature of ultimate values i.e., ethicalethical principlesprinciples..

• The standards by which human actions can be The standards by which human actions can be judged as right or wrong i.e., judged as right or wrong i.e., ethical ethical judgmentsjudgments..

Scope of Ethics (Scope of Ethics (Branches of Branches of Ethics)Ethics) 1. 1. Descriptive EthicsDescriptive Ethics To report/describe the actual moral principles To report/describe the actual moral principles

that govern the behavior of individuals in a that govern the behavior of individuals in a certain society, i.e., what the society considers as certain society, i.e., what the society considers as good or bad without making any judgment or good or bad without making any judgment or evaluation of those principles and ways of evaluation of those principles and ways of behavior.behavior.

Its study is usually carried out by Its study is usually carried out by anthropologists, sociologists, historians and anthropologists, sociologists, historians and psychologists.psychologists.

2. 2. Explanatory EthicsExplanatory Ethics To explain the behavior of human beings.To explain the behavior of human beings. To find out the motives/causes for the actions.To find out the motives/causes for the actions. To identify whether actions have To identify whether actions have non-moralnon-moral, ,

immoral immoral or or moral moral motives.motives. To identify and explain various factors whichTo identify and explain various factors which

lead to people’s actions.lead to people’s actions.

3. 3. Predictive EthicsPredictive Ethics To predict human behavior.To predict human behavior. Prediction is based on the knowledge of the laws Prediction is based on the knowledge of the laws

that govern the behavior of individuals and society. that govern the behavior of individuals and society.

4. Prescriptive Ethics4. Prescriptive Ethics It deals with what we ought to do and what we ought not to It deals with what we ought to do and what we ought not to

do.do. It is to construct a consistent system of moral norms which is It is to construct a consistent system of moral norms which is

valid for all mankind.valid for all mankind. It is similar to It is similar to Normative Ethics Normative Ethics whichwhich describes certain describes certain

rules to be adopted and standards for conduct or general rules to be adopted and standards for conduct or general theories about what one ought to do. theories about what one ought to do.

e.g. normative grammar of a language describes how its e.g. normative grammar of a language describes how its author thinks that the language should be spoken or written.author thinks that the language should be spoken or written.

5. Normative Ethics (prescriptive & justifactory)5. Normative Ethics (prescriptive & justifactory) Justifactory deals with “Why?” Different theories attempt to Justifactory deals with “Why?” Different theories attempt to

answer this question. The principle of behavior may be answer this question. The principle of behavior may be justified by its consequences (i.e. happiness or satisfaction), justified by its consequences (i.e. happiness or satisfaction), by its being in accordance with God’s commands etc.by its being in accordance with God’s commands etc.

6. Control Ethics6. Control Ethics It controls man’s behavior to act in the right way.It controls man’s behavior to act in the right way. It aims at -- preserving good moral character.It aims at -- preserving good moral character.

-- protecting individuals from wrongdoings.-- protecting individuals from wrongdoings. -- improving and developing good ethical-- improving and developing good ethical

values. values. There are various methods that can be used to control actions: There are various methods that can be used to control actions: • Coercive i.e. enforcement by the law.Coercive i.e. enforcement by the law.• Through strengthening faith and through education (i.e. Through strengthening faith and through education (i.e.

giving reasons for the prescribed acts).giving reasons for the prescribed acts).• Training agents to make ethical judgments, moral decisions Training agents to make ethical judgments, moral decisions

and solve ethical problems.and solve ethical problems.

7. Applied Ethics7. Applied Ethics It is the application of ethical theories to practical ethical It is the application of ethical theories to practical ethical

problems. For example, to apply the ethical theory of problems. For example, to apply the ethical theory of Utilitarianism to the problem of abortion.Utilitarianism to the problem of abortion.

8. Meta-Ethics/Analytical Ethics8. Meta-Ethics/Analytical Ethics It systematically studies the meanings of It systematically studies the meanings of

ethical terms and ethical concepts and of ethical terms and ethical concepts and of judgments used in normative ethics, their judgments used in normative ethics, their functions, and the means of supporting functions, and the means of supporting normative judgments.normative judgments.

It tries to ask questions like the following:It tries to ask questions like the following:What is the meaning of the word good or bad?What is the meaning of the word good or bad?How can we justify actions to be good or bad?How can we justify actions to be good or bad?How can we distinguish between the moral How can we distinguish between the moral

and the immoral?and the immoral?

Ethics as a branch of Ethics as a branch of philosophyphilosophy• What is philosophy?What is philosophy?• It is generally regarded as the most It is generally regarded as the most

abstruse and abstract of all subjects and abstruse and abstract of all subjects and far removed from the affairs of ordinary far removed from the affairs of ordinary life.life.

• Despite this general notion, nearly all of us Despite this general notion, nearly all of us have some philosophical views, whether have some philosophical views, whether we are aware of them or not.we are aware of them or not.

• Although we are vague about what Although we are vague about what philosophy is, the term appears frequently philosophy is, the term appears frequently in our conversations. in our conversations.

• ““Philosophy” is derived from the Greek term Philosophy” is derived from the Greek term meaning “love of wisdom”.meaning “love of wisdom”.

• Different meanings of “philosophy”:Different meanings of “philosophy”:--An attitude towards certain activities. eg. When --An attitude towards certain activities. eg. When

one says, “I disapprove of your philosophy of one says, “I disapprove of your philosophy of doing business.”doing business.”

--Being “philosophical.” When we mean taking a --Being “philosophical.” When we mean taking a long-range detached view of certain immediate long-range detached view of certain immediate problems i.e., we should not be over-concerned problems i.e., we should not be over-concerned with the events of the moment, but should try with the events of the moment, but should try instead to place these in perspective.instead to place these in perspective.

--As an evaluation or interpretation of what is --As an evaluation or interpretation of what is important or meaningful in life.important or meaningful in life.

--Usually people tend to think of philosophy as --Usually people tend to think of philosophy as some extremely complex intellectual activity. some extremely complex intellectual activity.

Different notions of who philosophers are Different notions of who philosophers are and what they do:and what they do:

• Philosophers are considered as people who Philosophers are considered as people who devote themselves to contemplation of the devote themselves to contemplation of the problems of the world in an abstract problems of the world in an abstract manner and arrive at views or theories manner and arrive at views or theories that sound wonderful but can hardly be of that sound wonderful but can hardly be of much practical value.much practical value.

• They are ultimately responsible for the They are ultimately responsible for the general outlook and the ideals of certain general outlook and the ideals of certain societies and cultures. eg. Karl Marx for societies and cultures. eg. Karl Marx for the Communist party.the Communist party.

The Philosophical EnterpriseThe Philosophical Enterprise• Philosophers are engaged in considering Philosophers are engaged in considering problemsproblems

that are of importance to all of us, directly or that are of importance to all of us, directly or indirectly. Through careful, indirectly. Through careful, critical examinationcritical examination, they , they have tried to have tried to evaluateevaluate the information and beliefs we the information and beliefs we have about the have about the universe universe and the world of and the world of human human affairsaffairs. From this investigation, they have tried to . From this investigation, they have tried to work out some work out some generalgeneral, , systematicsystematic, , coherentcoherent and and consistentconsistent picture of all that we picture of all that we know and thinkknow and think..

• This sort of understanding has provided an This sort of understanding has provided an outlookoutlook or or frameworkframework in which the ordinary person can place his in which the ordinary person can place his own more limited conception of the world and human own more limited conception of the world and human affairs.affairs.

• It has provided as well a It has provided as well a focusfocus through which we can through which we can see our own see our own rolesroles and and activitiesactivities, and determine if , and determine if they have any they have any significancesignificance..

• Through such an examination and evaluation, we Through such an examination and evaluation, we may all be better able to assess our ideals and may all be better able to assess our ideals and aspirations, as well as understand better why we aspirations, as well as understand better why we accept these and whether we ought to.accept these and whether we ought to.

• Philosophers from the time of ancient Greece Philosophers from the time of ancient Greece believe that it is necessary to scrutinize these believe that it is necessary to scrutinize these views to see if they are views to see if they are rationally defensiblerationally defensible. .

• We are willing to accept without question reported We are willing to accept without question reported scientific discoveriesscientific discoveries, certain , certain traditional beliefstraditional beliefs and various and various viewsviews based upon our personal based upon our personal experiences.experiences.

• The philosophers, however, insist upon subjecting The philosophers, however, insist upon subjecting all this to intensive critical examination in order to all this to intensive critical examination in order to discover if these views and beliefs are based upon discover if these views and beliefs are based upon adequate adequate evidenceevidence, and if a reasonable person , and if a reasonable person may be justified in adhering to them.may be justified in adhering to them.

• Socrates the Greek philosopher said at his trial in Socrates the Greek philosopher said at his trial in 399 B.C. the reason why he philosophized was that:399 B.C. the reason why he philosophized was that:

““THE UNEXAMINED LIFE WAS NOT WORTH LIVING.”THE UNEXAMINED LIFE WAS NOT WORTH LIVING.”• He found that nearly all of his contemporaries spent He found that nearly all of his contemporaries spent

their lives pursuing various goals eg. fame, wealth, their lives pursuing various goals eg. fame, wealth, pleasure without ever asking themselves whether pleasure without ever asking themselves whether these are important.these are important.

• Unless they raised such a question, and seriously Unless they raised such a question, and seriously sought the answer, they would never be able to sought the answer, they would never be able to know if they were doing the right thing. Their entire know if they were doing the right thing. Their entire lives might be wasted pursuing useless or even lives might be wasted pursuing useless or even dangerous goals. dangerous goals.

• Most of us have some kind of ‘philosophy’, but we Most of us have some kind of ‘philosophy’, but we have not done any philosophizing to see if it is have not done any philosophizing to see if it is justified.justified.

• The philosophers, insist upon bringing to The philosophers, insist upon bringing to light what our implicit light what our implicit beliefsbeliefs are, what are, what assumptionsassumptions we make about our world, we make about our world, ourselves, our values. They insist these ourselves, our values. They insist these can only be accepted by can only be accepted by reasonablereasonable and and intelligentintelligent men if they can meet certain men if they can meet certain tests set up by the tests set up by the logical mindlogical mind..

• Rather than merely possessing an Rather than merely possessing an organized organized mass of opinionsmass of opinions, the , the philosopher feels that these must be philosopher feels that these must be inspected, scrutinized and organized into a inspected, scrutinized and organized into a meaningful and coherent system of viewsmeaningful and coherent system of views..

Difference between ordinary man and Difference between ordinary man and philosopher in ethics:philosopher in ethics:

• Ethics to philosophers is a theoretical study i.e., it is concerned Ethics to philosophers is a theoretical study i.e., it is concerned with with ethical theoriesethical theories. These theories deal with such questions . These theories deal with such questions as “How ought men to behave?” “What is the good life for as “How ought men to behave?” “What is the good life for man?” etc. For example, Hedonism. This is an ethical theory man?” etc. For example, Hedonism. This is an ethical theory which contends that the good life is ultimately one of pleasure.which contends that the good life is ultimately one of pleasure.

• Reason for studying these theories is because they have Reason for studying these theories is because they have important consequences for living, for understanding human important consequences for living, for understanding human nature and to study their advantages and defects. Philosophers nature and to study their advantages and defects. Philosophers attempt to construct satisfactory answers to such questions.attempt to construct satisfactory answers to such questions.

• But, ethics originates in everyday life. It is not a But, ethics originates in everyday life. It is not a purely academic study having no connections with purely academic study having no connections with the daily lives of men.the daily lives of men.

• Every man who is reflective and who is troubled by Every man who is reflective and who is troubled by certain situations in his daily life is a philosopher of certain situations in his daily life is a philosopher of ethics to that extent.ethics to that extent.

• Reflections of human problems are the raw materials Reflections of human problems are the raw materials of which ethical theories are made. For example, a of which ethical theories are made. For example, a man believes that he should not take a human life, man believes that he should not take a human life, and suppose he also believes that he has an obligation and suppose he also believes that he has an obligation to defend his country against foreign enemies. What to defend his country against foreign enemies. What should he do when his country is at war? should he do when his country is at war?

• If he refuses to fight for his country, then he goes If he refuses to fight for his country, then he goes against his belief that he has a duty to do so. On against his belief that he has a duty to do so. On the other hand, if he does fight for his country, in the other hand, if he does fight for his country, in the course of doing so he may take human life. the course of doing so he may take human life. What should he do in the circumstances? How can What should he do in the circumstances? How can he decide? Reflections such as these which engage he decide? Reflections such as these which engage ordinary men are the raw materials of which ethical ordinary men are the raw materials of which ethical theories are made.theories are made.

• The difference between the reflections of the The difference between the reflections of the ordinary man and the reflections of the philosopher ordinary man and the reflections of the philosopher is that the philosopher’s are more systematic and is that the philosopher’s are more systematic and more general.more general.

• The ordinary man tries to solve a particular problem The ordinary man tries to solve a particular problem and try to do this by deciding on a particular course and try to do this by deciding on a particular course of action in the relevant circumstances.of action in the relevant circumstances.

• The philosopher The philosopher generalizesgeneralizes; he does not only ; he does not only ask: what is the right course of action for this ask: what is the right course of action for this man in these circumstances? But rather: what man in these circumstances? But rather: what is the good life for all men? What is the goal is the good life for all men? What is the goal for which all men should strive? Is it the for which all men should strive? Is it the accumulation of pleasure? Is it happiness? Is accumulation of pleasure? Is it happiness? Is it identical with doing one’s duty?it identical with doing one’s duty?

• Like the ordinary man, the philosopher begins Like the ordinary man, the philosopher begins his consideration of ethics by his consideration of ethics by reflecting about reflecting about common situationscommon situations, but he goes beyond , but he goes beyond these to discussions of a more general sort.these to discussions of a more general sort.

• It is this sort of It is this sort of abstract speculation abstract speculation which which constitutes ‘constitutes ‘ethical theoryethical theory.’.’