ISLAM

THE FIRST TRANS-

REGIONAL CIVILIZATION

CURRENT MUSLIM WORLD

PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA

• The Arabian peninsula

– Largely deserts with mountains, oases

– Fertile areas in the southern mountains around Yemen

– Nomadic Bedouin

• Lived in the desert-covered peninsula for millennia

• Kept herds of sheep, goats, and camels

• Organized in family and clan groups

• Importance of kinship and loyalty to the clan

• Many tribes seem to have been matrilineal with some rights for women

• Post-classical Arabia

– Romans (Byzantines) and Persians had client kingdoms in area

– Active in long-distance over land trade

• Trade from Damascus to Mecca/Medina to Yemen

• Trade across desert to Persian Gulf and along coast

• Part of Red Sea trade system; links between Yemen and Abyssinia

• Trade includes gold, frankincense and myrrh

– Religion was polytheist

– Groups of Jews in Arabia; Monophysite Christians in cities

TRADE ROUTES c. 500 CE

PHYSICAL MAP OF ARABIA

MUHAMMAD’S EARLY LIFE

• Muhammad ibn Abdullah

– Born in a Mecca merchant family, 570 C.E.

– Difficult early life: orphaned, lived with uncle

– Married a wealthy widow, Khadija, in 595

– Became a merchant at age 30, exposed to various faiths

• Muhammad's spiritual transformation

– At age 40, he experienced visions

• There was only one true god, Allah ("the god")

• Allah would soon bring judgment on the world

• The archangel Gabriel delivered these revelations to Muhammad

• Did not intend to found a new religion, but his message became appealing

• The Quran

– Followers compiled Muhammad's actual revelations after his death

– Quran ("recitation"), became the holy book of Islam

– Suras are chapters; organized from longest to shortest

– A work of magnificent poetry

• The Hadith

– Sayings attributed to Muhammad; not included in Quran

– Three levels from most accurate/likely to highly suspect

THE HIJRA (FLIGHT)

• Conflict at Mecca

– His teachings offended others, especially ruling elite of Mecca

– Attacks on greed offended wealthy merchants

– Attacks on idolatry threatened shrines, especially the Kaa'ba

• The hijra

– Under persecution, Muhammad, followers fled to Medina, 622 C.E.

– The move, known as hijra, was starting point of Islamic calendar

• The umma

– Organized a cohesive community called umma in Medina

– Led commercial adventure

– Sometimes launched raids against Mecca caravans

– Helped the poor and needy

• The "seal of the prophets"

– Referred himself as "seal of the prophets," - final prophet of Allah

– Held Hebrew scriptures and New Testament in high esteem

• Referred to followers as “Peoples of the Book”

• If they did not threaten umma, were to be protected

– Determined to spread Allah's wish to all humankind

CONQUEST

OF ARABIA

• Muhammad's return to Mecca – Conquered Mecca, 630

– Imposed a theocratic government dedicated to Allah

– Destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques

• The Kaa'ba – The Kaa'ba shrine was not destroyed

– In 632, Muhammad led the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Ka'ba

• The Five Pillars of Islam – Obligations taught by Muhammad, known as the Five Pillars

– The Five Pillars bound the umma into a cohesive community of faith

– Profession of faith, prayer, tithing, pilgrimage, fasting at Ramadan

• Islamic law: the sharia – Emerged during the centuries after Muhammad

– Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life

– Drew laws, precepts from the Quran

– Drew traditions from Arabic culture, Hadith

– Through the sharia, Islam became a religion and a way of life

6TH

CENTURY ARABIA

SYMBOLS OF ISLAM

EXPANSION OF ISLAM

• The caliph

– Upon Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy")

– Became head of state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander

– First four called Orthodox caliphs because they were original followers

• The expansion of Islam

– 633-637, seized Byzantine Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia

– 640's, conquered Egypt and north Africa

– 651, toppled Sassanid dynasty

– 711-718, conquered Hindu region of Sind; Iberia, NW Africa

– Success due to weakness of enemies, vigor of Islam

• Dar al Islam – The Islamic world where the Sharia is in force, Islam dominates

– Dar el Harb is the land of the unbelievers, or non-Muslims

• The Shia and Sunnis

– The Sunnis ("traditionalists") accepted legitimacy of early caliphs

• Were Arab as opposed to Islamic

• Did not feel caliphs had to be related to Muhammad

– The Shia sect supported Ali (last caliph and son in law of Muhammad)

• A refuge for non-Arab converts, poor; followers in Irag, Iran

• Felt caliphs should be directly related to Muhammad

– Two sects struggled over succession; produced a civil war, murder

SPREAD OF ISLAM

UMAYYAD

DYNASTY

• The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.)

– New caliph won civil war; murdered Ali; established dynasty

– Established capital city at Damascus in Syria

– Ruled for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy

• Policy toward conquered peoples

– Dhimmis were the conquered Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians

– Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam

– Even the converts did not enjoy wealth, position of authority

• Umayyad decline

– Caliphs became alienated from Arabs by early 8th century

– By the mid-century, faced strong resistance of the Shia faction

– The discontent of conquered peoples also increased

– Umayyad family slaughtered; only one son escaped to Spain

– Formed breakaway Umayyad Dynasty in Spain

ABBASID DYNASTY

• Abu al-Abbas

– A descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims

– Seized control of Persia and Mesopotamia during 740's

– Shattered Umayyad forces at a battle in 750; annihilated the Umayyad clan

• The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.)

– Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy

– Empire still growing, but not initiated by the central government

• Abbasid administration

– Relied heavily on Persians, Persian techniques of statecraft

– Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad, newly built city

– Governors ruled provinces; Ulama, qadis (judges) ruled local areas

• Harun al-Rashid (786-809 C.E.)

– Represented the high point of the dynasty

– Baghdad became metropolis, center for commerce, industry, and culture

• Abbasid decline

– Struggle for succession between Harun's sons led to civil war

– Governors built their own power bases, regional dynasties

– Local military commanders took title of Sultan

– Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty

– A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945

– Later, the Seljuk Turks controlled the imperial family

AN URBAN CIVILIZATION

• Arab Urban History

– Pre-Islamic Arabs were both urban, bedouin

• Mecca, Medina, Yemeni cities, cities of Palmyra, Arab Petropolis

• Center of the city was a market place often shared with religious center

• Cities designed with human-environment interaction in mind

• Nomads came to city to trade, city often settled by whole tribes

• Arabs had settled in cities in Syria, Iraq, Jordan

– Arabic cities linked to wider world through merchants, trade

– Arab cities exposed to Jews, Persians, Monophysites, Sabeans

• Arabic Empire and Urban Growth

– Islam as a culture requires mosque, merchant: very urban in outlook

• Capital moved from Mecca to Damascus by Umayyads

• Arabs founded military cities on edges of desert to rule empire

– As empire grew, needed something more permanent

• Abbasids moved capital from Damascus, Kufa to Baghdad

• Other designed for purpose cities include Fez, Cairo, Tunis

– Increasing agricultural production contributed to growth of cities

• Cities: centers for administration, industry, trade, education, faith

• Many different ethnic minorities settled in Muslim cities (quarters)

• Mosque at center surrounded by suk, square, in decreasing social order

HARUN AL RASHID

& BAGHDAD

CHANGED ECONOMICS

• Merchants, pilgrims, travelers exchanged foods across empire

• Exchange and spread of food and industrial crops

– Indian plants traveled to other lands of the empire

– Staple crops: sugarcane, rice, new varieties of sorghum and wheat

– Vegetables: spinach, artichokes, eggplants

– Fruits: oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes

– Industrial crops: cotton, indigo, henna

• Effects of new crops

– Increased varieties and quantities of food

– Industrial crops: basis for a thriving textile industry

– Foodstuffs increased health, populations of cities

• Agricultural experimentation

– Numerous agricultural manuals

– Agricultural methods and techniques improved

– Improved irrigation

A VAST TRADE ZONE

• Camels and caravans

– Overland desert trade traveled mostly by camel caravan

– Caravanserais (motel, corrals) in Islamic cities

– Trading goods usually luxury in nature

• Maritime trade based on technological borrowing

– Arab, Persian mariners borrowed

• Compass from the Chinese

• Lateen sail from southeast Asian, Indian mariners

• Astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners

– Organization and dominance of trade

• In North Africa across Sahara, down Nile, SW Asia, to India

• Eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabia Gulf down coasts

• Many cities grew rich from trade

• Entrepreneurs often pooled their resources in group investments

• Different kinds of joint endeavors

• Banks

– Operated on large scale and provided extensive services

– Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks

• Exchange of Ideas included Islam, technology, culture

ISLAMIC TRADE

OTHER ISLAMIC REGIONS

• Al-Andalus – Iberian Peninsular largely conquered by Muslim Berbers 711 – 714

– Claimed independence from the Abbasid dynasty

– Participated in commercial life of the larger Islamic world

– Products of al-Andalus enjoyed a reputation for excellence

– Cordoba was a center of learning, commerce, architecture

– After death of Abd al Rahman III broke up into petty kingdoms

– A unique blended culture • Arab, Latin, German, Islamic, Christian, Jewish

• Very tolerant and integrated society

– Warred for 700 years with Christian kingdoms in north

• North Africa – Strong followers of Shia, broke with Abbassids

– Berbers followed many puritanical Shia like movements

– Eventually Fatimids conquered Egypt, formed rival caliphate

• Central Asia – Largely Turkish, Persian and Islamic but not Arabic

– Tended to be distant from Baghdad and more tolerant

– Integrated into trans-Eurasian trade network

MUSLIM SPAIN & THE

RECONQUISTA

TURKS & ISLAM

• Early Turkic Tribes

– Originated in Central Asia, Mongolia

– The Götürk Empire arose c. 6th century

• Confederacy of tribes united under khans

• Remained nomadic but adopted Syriac script

• Some conversion to Christianity, Buddhism

– Turkish tribes Turks migrated

• Towards Iran, Russian Steppes

• Became the Khazars and Seljuks

• The Seljuk Turks

– The Sultanate

• Converted to Sunni Islam while in Central Asia

• 1037: group migrated into Iran, set up a sultanate

• 1055: captured Baghdad and later Jerusalem

• 1071: defeated Byzantines at Manzikert and occupied Anatolia

– Sultans and Mameluks

• Sultans were military commanders – left Abbasid caliphs as figureheads

• Mameluks were slave soldiers – Turkish slaves formed military aristocracy

• Large numbers settled Anatolia producing a flowering of Turkish culture

WOMEN’S CHANGING STATUS

• Pre-Islamic Arab Women

– Arabs as nomads allowed women many rights

– Women often poets, tribe leaders

– Some evidence of matrilineal tribes

• The Quran and women

– Quran enhanced rights, security of women

– Forced husbands to honor contracts, love women

– Allowed women to own property, protected from exploitation

• What produced the change

– Foreign Contacts changed the perspective

• Adopted veiling from Mesopotamia, Persia

• Isolation from India through purdah, harem

– Muslim rights for women

• Often weaken through Hadith, traditions

• Often reduced, ignored

• Patriarch beliefs reinforced by conquest

• Yet Quran, sharia also reinforced male domination

• Role of Hadith, Arab traditions reinforced male domination

IMAGE OF WOMEN

ISLAMIC CULTURAL TRADITION

• Quran, sharia were main sources to formulate moral guidelines

• Constant struggle between what is Arabic and what is Islamic – Use of Arabic script as only language of Islam strengthened trend

– Persians, Turks, Indians, and Africans struggled for acceptance

• Promotion of Islamic values – Ulama, qadis, and missionaries were main agents

– Education also promoted Islamic values

• Sufis – Islamic mystics, effective missionaries

– Encouraged devotion by singing, dancing

– Led ascetic, holy lives, won respect

– Encouraged followers to revere Allah in own ways

– Tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs

• The hajj – The Kaa'ba became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity

– Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values

ISLAM & OTHER CONTACTS

• Persian influence on Islam – After Arabs most prominent of Muslims, resisted Arabization

• Cultural traditions often borrowed heavily by Islam

• Became early followers of Shia

– Government and regionalism • Many advisors (vizer is Persian word) to Caliphs were Persian

• Cultured, diplomatic language of Abbassid court became Persian

– Literary achievements • Omar Khayyam was greatest of Medieval Muslim poets

• The Arabian Nights largely in a Persian style

• Turkish influences – Central Asian nomads converted to Islam, developed literary culture

– Invaded SW Asia and made caliphate dependent on Turkish nomads

– Formed military might, leadership of late Abbassid state

• Indian Influences – Purdah and harem borrowed from Hindus

– "Hindi numerals," which Europeans called "Arabic numerals"

• Greek Influences – Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle; Greek math

– Effort of harmonizing two traditions met resistance from Sufis

THE CRUSADES

• Religiously sanctioned wars

– Muslim Jihad has its Christian counterpart

• Early Islam sanctioned Holy Wars, initially Christianity did not

• Muslim conquest of largely Christian lands changed tradition

– Christian Reconquista in Iberia

• Christian knights sanctioned by Church fought Muslims

• Warfare in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, Crete preceded 11th century

• “The Crusades”

– A Changed Situation in Southwest Asia

• Turkish conquests changed situation

– They conquered Holy Land

– Arabs had permitted pilgrimage, Turks curtailed it

• The Byzantine Empire

– Byzantines in Schism with West asked Pope for help

– Pope saw chance to reunite churches and end schism

• Church calls for crusades, offers indulgences

– More than nine crusaders • Initial one conquered Holy Land and set up crusader states

• Next crusades all called to defend conquests

– Opened up West to Islamic contacts but had not impact on Islam

EGYPT DURING PERIOD

• Arab Conquest of Egypt

– Conquered c. 639 CE when Coptic Christians opened borders to Muslims

– Arabs ruled through governors but did not seek conversions

– Umayyad and Abbasid rule weakened and local sultans took great power

– Over-taxation led to revolts and settlement of Arab tribes as soldiers

• Fatimid Egypt

– Arab Shia Muslim dynasty of Egypt 909 – 1171

– Rulers belonged to Ismaili branch of Shia Islam

– Proclaimed themselves Caliphs

– Established Cairo

• Ayyubid Egypt

– A Sunni Dynasty of Kurdish origins 1171 – 1341

– Saladin dissolves Fatimid rule, proclaims himself sultan

– Spends early part conquering Holy Land, Hejaz, North Africa

– Warred with Crusaders but established an amicable relationship

• Lifestyles

– A period of toleration between Muslims, Jews, Coptic Christians

– A time of great prosperity where Egypt was a center of interactions

– Conversion was slow but gradual: Arabic replaced Coptic as main language