ipt study notes - chromatic (2010)
TRANSCRIPT
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Study Notes
Project Management
Project Management is a planned and ongoing process that guides all the
development tasks and resources throughout a projects development
A Project Plan organises the project by specifying who will do the task, what
has to be done, how the task is done, what resources are required, and what
is to be expected
PROJECT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Active Listening: Listening to people is the main source of critical
information required for a project to run smoothly. Listening is not the same as
hearing; to listen requires attention and involvement
Mirroring: Involves repeating back some of the speakers key words indicating that you are interested and would like to know and understand more
Paraphrasing: Listener uses their own words to explain what they think the
speaker just said. The listener reflects feelings as well as meaning in their
response
Summarising: Listener confirms their understanding in the speakers mind,
and hence helps to bring the conversation to an end
Clarifying: Listener asks questions or makes statements that encourage the
speaker to provide more detailed explanations
Motivational: Encourage the speaker and reinforce in their mind that you are
indeed listening and are interested in what they have to say Conflict Resolution: Need to manage conflict so that issues are resolved
appropriately for all concerned, and in the best interests of the project
Negotiation Skills: Negotiation should be a friendly exchange where
differences are argued logically and in a reasoned manner. This can even
prevent situations leading towards conflicts
TEAM BUILDING SKILLS
Tuckman Stages of Team Development:
1. Forming Team members are only just getting to know each other
2. Storming People are beginning to feel comfortable with each other 3. Norming Team members now recognise their differences
4. Performing The team is now operating as an effective, productive unit
Team Building building a team of two or more people with complimentary
skills, behaviours and personalities who are committed to achieving a common
goal
Advantages The people within the team are much more productive, and the
systems they develop are of higher quality
Disadvantages Financial loss, employment loss and missed opportunities
unable to meet deadlines, produce quality work and operate within financialconstraints
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Operational: to determine whether a system will be usable by the target
customers. The users must be able to effectively use, or to operate, the system
Technical: to determine what hardware and software (Information
Technology) is currently being used, and then to determine whether the
hardware and software tobuild the system exists
Scheduling: to determine the time frame in which a system must be
developed. To determine whether it will be able to be completed within the
specified time frame, it is useful to use project planning tools, such as Gantt
Charts
Traditional (Structured): AS the name suggests, involves very structured,
step-by-step stages, which each must be completed before proceeding to the
next step. 1. Understanding the problem, 2. Planning, 3. Designing, 4.
Implementing, 5. Testing, Evaluating and Maintaining
Outsourcing: Involves using another company to develop parts of the system,
or even the complete system Prototyping: A CIRCULAR approach to systems development, and new
prototypes of the system are constantly being made in a loopbefore
implementation: Designing > Testing/Evaluating > Understanding the
Problem > Designing. The prototypes eventually evolve to a point where
they become the final solution, and are essentially ready to move out of the
loop, and for the next stage - implementation
Customisation: An existing system is customised to suit the needs and
requirements of the new system. In reality most business systems are
customised versions of existing systems
Participant: Means that the same people who will use and operate the final
system develop the system
Agile: An approach that places emphasis on the team developing the system
rather than following a predefined structured development process
3) DESIGNING SOLUTIONS/DESIGNING
Design Tools:
System Flowcharts are a diagrammatic way or representing both the flow of
data and logic through an information system
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Data Flow Diagrams describe the path data takes through a system. No logic,and no attempt is made to indicate the timing of events
Context Diagrams are used to represent entire information systems
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A Data Dictionary contains a comprehensive description of each field in
one of the databases associated with the information system. It commonly
includes (4): field name, data type, field size, and a description of the purpose
Storyboards give a general overview of the information system. They are
used to document the screens used in a system, and the flow between them.
Storyboards emphasise the user interface of a system rather than the functions
performed by the system
Linear Storyboard: modules are arranged in a sequence
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The new system can be developed from a PROTOTYPE
Screen Designs for input and output of data must be created
The Technical specifications of hardware must be identified before hardware
is bought and installed
Purchasing application software that is readily available may satisfy the
software requirements of the new system
IF however this does NOT meet exact requirements, then custom software
will need to be written by programmers
The new system MUST be tested before implementation!
Test Data is prepared to test any potential problem
Documentation of the new system is required, which includes a written
description of the development and operation of the information system
User Documentation provides direction for any person using the system, and
is also necessary to include. It can be in the form of on-screen help, or a user
manual
4) IMPLEMENTATION/IMPLEMENTING
Direct: This method involves the old system being completely dropped and
the new system being completely implemented at the same time
Parallel: This method involves operating both systems for a period of time,
which allows for any major problems faced with the new system to be
encountered and corrected without a loss of data
Phased: This method involves the gradual introduction of the new systemwhilst the old system is progressively discarded
Pilot: This method involves the new system being installed for a small number
of users. These users learn, use and evaluate the new system. Once the new
system is deemed to be performing satisfactorily then the system is installed
for use by everyone
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Training Techniques
Traditional Group Training Sessions: The training is performed by a trainer
to a group of people onsite, or at separate premises. The trainer can be a
member of the system development team, or an outsourced specialist
Peer Training: One or more users undergo intensive training in regard to the
operation and skills needed by the system
Online Training: Online tutorials and help systems allow users to learn new
skills at their own pace, and as they are needed
Operation Manuals: Printed operation manuals contain proceduralinformation which describes step-by-step instructions specific to the new
system
5) TESTING, EVALUATING AND MAINTAINING
Testing
Acceptance Tests: Formal tests conducted to verify whether or not a system
meets its requirements:
1) Volume data: Ensures the system performs within its requirements when
processes are subjected to large volumes of data
2) Simulated data: Tests the performance of systems under simulated
operational conditions, allowing an evaluation of the systems performance to
be completed under a variety of scenarios
3) Live data: Takes place once a system has been installed to ensure that the
system is operating as expected, and that it operates under real conditions
Evaluation/Evaluating
Evaluation is the process of examining a system to determine the extent to
which it meets its requirements
Evaluation is ONGOING
IF the new system is not performing, chances will need to be made, AND the
SDLC will start again!
Technical Performance Monitoring aims to evaluate the continuing
achievement of the systems evolving requirements some old requirements
may go down in priority over time, or even become irrelevant
Financial Performance Monitoring is largely about evaluating the accuracy
of the real economic situation against the economic predictions made in the
feasibility study
Maintenance/Maintaining
Maintenance is any modification to the system by making minor
improvements
Maintenance may involve installation of new hardware and software
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Involves: 1. Regular Maintenance, 2. Repairs when faults occur
For each modification, the SDLC commences AGAIN!
This occurs because it is necessary to ensure the modification works correctly
with all parts of the existing system, and also to ensure all documentation is
updated (Any changes MUST be documented!)
Examples of Maintenance:
Perform regular backups of the systems data, and ensure these backups are
secured in a safe location
Maintain hardware by carrying out all recommended cleaning, as well as other
maintenance tasks
Protect against viruses by ensuring virus protection software is used and
updated
An OPERATIONSManual is created to detail the procedures which the
PARTICIPANTS must follow in using the new system
The Operations Manual should (3):
1) Be in a user-friendly format
2) Have clear and concise instructions
3) Contain Screen Dumps
Communication Systems
Communication systems enable people and systems to share and exchange
data and information electronically
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
IPT Presentation Level 7) Application Layer, 6) Presentation Layer
IPT Communication and Control Level 5) Session Layer, 4) Transport
Layer, 3) Network Layer
IPT Transmission Level 2) Data Link Layer, 1) Physical Layer
MAC Address: A hardware address that uniquely identifies each node on a
network
The message is created at the source using some type of software application
When a message is prepared for transmission, it descends the stack of
protocols from the Application Level, down to where it is ready for physical
transmission by the hardware operating at the IPT transmission level
The main task of the transmitter is to represent individual bits as a wave
this wave is the signal that is actually transmitted through the medium
Transmission occurs as a signal travels through the medium
To accurately decode a signal requires the receiver to sample the incomingsignal using precisely the same timing used by the transmitter during encoding
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During transmission data packets may pass through many different links, and
it is likely that packets forming part of a single file will travel over quite
different paths from the transmitter to the receiver
As messages descend the stack prior to transmission, many protocols calculate
checksums or CRC values for error detection and correction, and include
them within their header or footers
Many protocols restrict messages based on user names and passwords, and
others go a step further by encrypting messages during transmission
Protocol: A formal set of rules and procedures that must be observed for two
devices to transfer data efficiently and successfully
Handshaking: The process of negotiating and establishing the rules of
communication between two or more devices
HTTP: Operates within the PRESENTATION LAYER (layer 6), and is the
primary protocol used by web browsers to communicate and retrieve web
pages from web servers TCP: Operates within the TRANSPORT LAYER (layer 4), and together with
IP, it is responsible for the transmission of most data across the internet. Its
PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY is to ensure messages are delivered correctly
IP: Operates within the NETWORK LAYER (layer 3), and is the protocol that
causes data packets to move from sender and receiver
Each device on the internet must have at least one unique IP address, for
example: 140.123.54.67
Ethernet: Operates at DATA LINK LAYER (layer 2) and the PHYSICAL
LAYER (layer 1), and because it operates at a physical level, it must be built
into the various hardware devices used to transmit and receive
Bits Per Second: The number of bits transferred each second the speed of
BINARY data transmission
Baud Rate: The number of signal events occurring each second along a
communication channel
Bandwidth: The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies in a
transmission channel, expressed in Hertz (Hz)
Parity bit check: Seven bits represent the normal ASCII character set when
an eight-bit byte is used in a computer. The eighth bit can be used to checkwhether that byte has been received correctly by counting the number of 1s
making it odd or even.
Example of ^: If the number of 1s is three, which is odd, we add 0 as the
parity bit to maintain odd parity checking: 01010010
Checksums: All the 1s and 0s in a block of data are summed to make a total
and the receiver calculates a checksum value. If the sent value does not agree,
then an error is detected. The position of the error is unknown
Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC): The checksum number is substituted
into a formula, and a 16-bit remainder is calculated. Once it has reached its
destination, the received checksum is put through the same process. If the
remainder produced is identical to the one received, then it has been correctlyreceived
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EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Internet: The internet is a worldwide packet switched public network based
on the internet protocol
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): is the network of the world's
public circuit switched telephone networks
An Intranet is a private network maintained by a company or government
organization, and is based on the Internet Protocol
Extranets are an extension of an intranet to allow access to customers and
other users outside the organization
Teleconferencing is the live exchange of information among several people
and machines remote from one another, but linked by a single
telecommunications system
A rotary dial telephone is activated by rotating the numeric dial instead of
activating push buttons. Its an old fashioned and traditional telephone
A fax is a telecommunications technology used to transfer copies ofdocuments using affordable devices operating over the telephone network
Voice mail is a computerised method of storing and forwarding spoken
messages
Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP) refers to communications services that
are transported via the Internet rather than the public switched telephone
network(PSTN)
E-mail is a method of exchanging digital messages. E-mail systems are based
on a store-and-forward model in which e-mail computer server systems
accept, forward, deliver and store messages on behalf of users E-mail uses two different APPLICATION level protocols SMTP, and
either POP or IMP
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME): The protocol used to code
non-textual data and attachments into ASCII so that it can be transmitted
within e-mail messages
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): The protocol used to send e-mails
from an e-mail client, to an SMTP server, and also to transfer e-mail between
SMTP servers
Automatic Teller Machines (ATM): is a computerised telecommunicationsdevice that provides the clients of a financial institution with access to
financial transactions in a public space without the need for a cashier or a bank
teller
Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS) works through the
customers card details being swiped in a magnetic strip reader, and this then
allows the direct transfer of the necessary funds from the customers account
into the retailers account
Internet Banking: allows customers to pay bills, transfer money between
accounts and perform various other functions from the comfort of their home
or office
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Trading over the Internet has become very popular as individuals and small
businesses are able to sell items worldwide with little initial startup costs.
Trading over the internet has created systems such as eBay and PayPal
Virtual Organisation: an organisation whose members are geographically
separated
NETWORK COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS
Client-server architecture: servers provide specific processing services for
clients. Clients request the service, and wait for a response while the server
processes their request
Authentication: the process of determining is someone is who they claim to
be
Physical Topology: the physical layout of devices on a network, and how the
cables and wires connect these devices
Logical Topology: show how data is transmitted and received between
devices REGARDLESS of their physical connections Bus Topology: One of the simplest designs in networking, where a common
cable (known as the bus) connects all the nodes in a bus topology. All nodes
on the network receive data transmitted on a bus network, but only the node to
which it is ADDRESSED accepts and processes the data
+ Easy to expand the network and add new nodes
- If one node fails, the rest of the network will fail
Star Topology: All nodes connect to a central node via their own dedicated
cable. Today the star topology is used on almost all LANs
+ Each node has its own cable, and can easily be removed without
affecting any other nodes
- Lots of cabling, if the central node fails the whole system fails
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Ring Topology: Each node connects to exactly two other nodes. Data packets
circulate the ring in just one direction - meaning each node receives the datafrom one node, and then transmits the data to another node. It is the least
commonly used topology in LANs today
+ Least data collisions as data packets circulate the ring in one direction
- If one node fails, then the entire ring is broken, and data stops
transferring
Mesh Topology: Include more than one physical path between the pair of
nodes. This is the primary topology of the internet, where IP data packets can
travel different paths from the transmitter to the receiver
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Hybrid Topology: Hybrid topologies use a combination of connected bus,
star and ring topologies. Hybrid topologies are the primary topology of most
organisations networks
Converting analog data to digital data is done using an analog to digital
converter (ADC), and converting digital data to analog data is done using a
digital to analog converter (DAC)
NETWORK HARDWARE
Twisted Pair: Consists of a pair of shielded copper wires twisted together.Electrical interference is minimised, and makes it less vulnerable to signal
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loss. Suited for very high bit rates over short distances, and lower bit rates
over longer distances
Coaxial Cable: Was designed to transmit analog broadcast TV from antennas
on Television sets, support high frequencies, and provide extra protection from
electromagnetic interference. There are two types:
1) Thinnet Max Distance 185M
2) Thicknet Max Distance 500M
Optic Fibre Cable: Able to support far higher data transfer rates over much
greater distances than either twisted pair OR coaxial cable. Completely
immune to outside electrical interference, and the majority of major
communication links connecting major cities and continents use optical fibre
Optic Fibre Cables consist of a light-transmitting glass core surrounded by a
reflective cladding layer
Wireless Transmission Media: Use the atmosphere as the medium to carry
electromagnetic waves between nodes E.g. 1 Terrestrial Microwave Used to relay wireless signals over large
distances
E.g. 2 Satellite Use microwaves to carry digital signals from and to both
ground based stations, and also between satellites
E.g. 3 Wireless LANs Communicate using microwaves with frequencies
in the vicinity of 2.4 GHz
E.g. 4 Bluetooth Communication system for short-range transmission, and
operates within the vicinity of 2.4 GHz. It was designed to replace cables that
connect portable devices
E.g. 5 Infrared Used over short distances, these infrared waves occur withfrequencies of above microwaves and below invisible light in communication
systems
E.g. 6 Mobile Phones Automatically adjust the power of their transmitters
based on the signal level received from their current base station - reducing
electromagnetic radiation, and extending battery life
Network Interface Card (NIC): converts data in between the computer into a
form suitable for transmission across the network
Repeater: Any device that receives a signal, amplifies it and then transmits
the amplified signal down another link increasing the physical range of
transmission media
HUB: Amplifies the packet of data, and it simply amplifies and retransmits
the packet to all attached nodes
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Bridge: Separates a network into different segments at the data link layer
Switch: An intelligent device for connecting nodes on a LAN. The message is
directed to the intended receiver
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Gateway: Connects two networks together
Wireless Access Points: The central nodes on wireless LANs, and these
central nodes broadcast to all wireless nodes within the coverage area
Modulation: The process of encoding digital information onto an analog
wave
Demodulation: The process of decoding modulated analog wave back into its
original digital signal
ADSL Modems: Use existing copper telephone lines to transfer broadband
signals
Cable Modems: Connect to the internet via coaxial cables; usually the same
cable that transmits cable TV stations
Servers: Provide specific processing services to other nodes (clients)
Fault Tolerance: The ability of a system to continue operating despite the
failure of one or more of its components
File Servers: Manages storage and retrieval of files, and also application
software in response to client requests
Print Servers: Controls access to one or more printers for many clients
Database Servers: A database server executes SQL statements on behalf of
the client applications, and database management system software (DBMS)
provides the connection to the database, and ensures the rules defined for the
database are maintained
Mail Servers: Use two different protocols SMTP, and either POP or IMAP,
and these protocols run on servers associated with these protocols. E-mail
clients, such as Microsoft Outlook, must communicate using these protocols
Web Servers: Essentially a web server provides services to web browsers
they retrieve web pages and transmit them back to the requesting client web
browser
Proxy Servers: Sits between the clients and real servers, and tries to perform
the request itself without bothering the real server
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NETWORK SOFTWARE
Network Operating Systems (NOS): Installed on one or more servers where
it provides various services to secure and support the networks resources and
users one vital service being the authentication of users based on their
usernames and passwords
Network Administrators: The personnel responsible for the ongoing
maintenance of network hardware and software
Task 1 Adding and Removing Users: Each new user has an individual
account created that includes their username and password, together with the
details of any assigned policies and privileges
Task 2 Assigning Printers: It makes sense to assign printers to
workstations rather than users, as users will have access to a printer that is
physically close to the workstations where they are currently logged on
Task 3 Assigning file access rights: Also known as PERMISSIONS. File
access rights determine the processes a user can perform on a file or directoryat the file level:
Directory (Folder) Permissions (6): Full Control, Modify, Read and Execute,
List Folder Contents, Read, Write
File Permissions (5): Full Control, Modify, Read and Execute, Read, Write
Task 4 Installation of software and sharing with users: It is the network
administrator who must ensure that software applications are installed on
individual client workstations - making them available for use by any user that
logs onto the workstation. NOS are able to automate this process saving
considerable time for network administrators
Task 5 Client installation and protocol assignment: Every network will
have a different specific set of steps for installing new clients, and it is
commonly the network administrator who performs these installation steps.
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For example: 1) Ensuring the new machine has a compatible NIC installed,
and 2) Ensuring the clients operating system is compatible with the NOS etc.
ISSUES
Internet Fraud: Some kind of deception that includes false statements that
intentionally aim to cause another person to suffer a loss (e.g. Spam, Phishingand Identity Theft)
Power and Control: Those who control access to information are placed in a
position of power over the users whose access they control. Not only can
access be restricted, but the activities of users can also be MONITORED (e.g.
Internet Filtering, Employers can watch internet sessions of employees etc.)
Removal of Physical Boundaries: In cyberspace, ones physical location is
of little or no relevance, and individuals and organisations can trade across the
globe (e.g. Virtual organisations and communities are created as needs arise)
Interpersonal Issues: Electronic communication systems have changed the
way many people have formed relationships. Ideas delivered electronically canoften appear less forceful and caring when compared to face-to-face
communication (e.g. Online Dating Sites)
Work and Employment Issues: Electronic communication systems have
changed the way many people work and where they complete their work.
They have provided the means for many people to work from home, or
virtually any other location. Most research shows that people who work from
home are more productive, and work longer hours. However, working from
home can also present problems as people must find the balance between work
and their personal lives
Multimedia Systems Multimedia systems combine different types of media into interactive
information systems
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MULTIMEDIA AND PRINT
Mode of Display Print media is hard copy, Multimedia can be implemented
for computer use
Interactivity The user is able to make an immediate response to what is
happening in multimedia
Dynamic Nature Once a book is published, it cannot change. A multimedia
product can change either by the user (preferences), or the author (edit, newversions)
Ease of Distribution Multimedia is easy to distribute between other
computers, making it very convenient. Printing requires scanning the
document onto the computer using a scanner
CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH OF THE MEDIA TYPES
Text and Numbers: Two most common methods of digitally representing
texts are ASCII and EBCDIC
In multimedia systems, both texts and numbers are displayed as IMAGES
using FONTS Raster Fonts: store a bitmap of each character
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Outline Fonts: describe characters using mathematical descriptions
Hyperlinks: The organisation ofhypertext and hypermedia is based on
hyperlinks. In everyday usage, the word hypertext has taken the same meaning
as hypermedia!
Hypertext: Bodies of text that are linked in a non-sequential manner
Hypermedia: Extension of hypertext to include links to a variety of different
media types, e.g. Sound and Images
Within Multimedia systems, hyperlinks are routinely constructed to transfer
the user to other parts of the PRESENTATION
Audio: All waves have two essential components frequency and amplitude
Frequency: measured in HERTZ (Hz) and is the number of times per second
that a COMPLETE WAVELENGTH occurs
Amplitude: measured in DECIBELS (db) and determines the volume or
level of sound. Very low amplitude waves cannot be heard, whereas very highlevels can damage hearing
Sampled Audio: The level of an audio signal recorded at precise intervals
Individual Notes: Represented digitally as a series of individual notes
Images: Two different techniques for representing images BITMAP and
VECTOR
Bitmap: Represent each element or dot in the picture separately. Each dot
(pixel) can be a different colour represented by a binary number
8 Bits are required for EACH PIXEL (1 byte = 8 bits)
Vector: Represent each portion of the image mathematically, just like
OUTLINE FONTS
Each shape within the vector image is a separate object, and can be altered
without affecting other objects
Animation: Displaying a sequence of images one after another
Cel-based animation: A sequence of images (cel) with small changes
between each cel an illusion of movement is created
Path-based animation: A line (path) is drawn for each character to follow
the character moves along the line when the animation is playing
Animated Gifs = Cel-Based and Flash .SWF Format = Both (Animation isorganised as VECTOR images)
Morphing: smooth and progressive transformation of one image into
another e.g. Transforming a photo of you into a LION
Video: Combines image and sound data together to create information for
humans in the form ofmovies
Like in animation , the illusion of movement is created by displaying images
one after another in sequence
HARDWARE FOR CREATING AND DISPLAYING MULTIMEDIA Video Cards: An interface between the system bus and a screen
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Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): Specialised vacuum tube in which images are
produced when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): Electrical and Optical device used to display
digits, characters and images (Uses Light)
Plasma: Plasma is the fourth state of matter and it is formed when Gas is
heated (like Gas is formed when liquid is heated). Plasma Televisions consist
of this matter, and what is displayed in each pixel on the Plasma Television is
determined by the way this matter is being manipulated
Touch Screen: A computer display screen that is sensitive to human touch,
allowing a user to interact with the computer by touching pictures or words on
the screen (3 Types: Resistive, Surface Wave, Capacitive)
Digital Projectors: Use a strong light source to project images onto a screen
Sound Card: A device that converts digital sound into analog sound, and
vice versa
Speakers: Analog devices that convert an alternating current into sound
waves Headsets: A combination of a microphone and a speaker in a single device
Head-up Displays: A transparent screen where the user can view critical
information while keeping their head up and looking forward at what is going
on in front of them
Optical Storage: Retrieving data from an optical disk can be split into two
processesspinning the diskas the read head assembly is moving in, or
through reading and translating reflected light into electrical signals
SOFTWARE FOR CREATING AND DISPLAYING MULTIMEDIA
Presentation Software e.g. Microsoft PowerPoint Word Processors Including sound and video, such as through => embedding
and linking
Authoring Software e.g. Adobe Flash CS3 Professional
Animation Software e.g. Xara3D
HTML Editors and Web Browsers e.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer
EXAMPLES OF MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS
Education and Training e.g. Multimedia Tour of IE 7 Tabbed Browsing
Leisure and Entertainment e.g. MMO Games, Action Games
Provision of Information e.g. Information Kiosks
Virtual Reality and Simulation e.g. Aircraft Flight Simulators
EXPERTISE REQUIRED
Content Provides Provide content which is ready to be used
System Designers Work through the stages of the SDLC (e.g. Identify the
purpose, make decisions on the most feasible solution etc.)
Project Managers Develop the project plan and ensure it is followed during
development
Writers Produce textual content in multimedia systems, and create storylines
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Video Production Personnel Includes at least a director, camera operator,
sound engineer and a few actors. These videos are then used in presentations
Audio Production Personnel Specialise in the recording and editing audio,
including voice, music and special effects. These sounds are then used in
presentations
Illustrators and Animators Artists who draw figures and scenes
Graphic Designers Improve the readability of multimedia by enhancing the
visual appeal of the presentation
Technical Personnel Ensure the final system will operate correctly on the
users machines
INFORMATION PROCESSES
1) ORGANISING
Organising can be seen in multimedia systems in STORYBOARDS:
A storyboard is an illustrated scene-by-scene layout of the multimedia
presentation. There are 4 main types:
Linear Storyboard: sequential movement through the project
Hierarchical Storyboard: top down approach - users have multiple choices at
some stages
Non-Linear: the user can choose the path of the navigation through the
project NO restrictions!
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Composite: aspects of all three types (shown above) are incorporated
2) COLLECTING
Collecting can be seen in multimedia systems through collecting the raw
analog data, and then converting it into digital data
Flatbed Scanner: Collect light as their raw analog data, and transform it intobinary digital data Also involves ANALYSING, ORGANISING AND
PROCESSING
Digital Camera: Combine image collection with audio collection, and have
transformed the photographic process since recording has been replaced by
electronic and digital processes
Microphone: Collects data in the form of sound waves, and converts these
waves into electrical energy
Video Camera: Combine image collection with audio collection, using
traditional mechanical and chemical processes
Analog to Digital Conversion: Repeatedly sample the magnitude of incomingelectrical current, and convert these samples to binary digital numbers
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3) STORING AND RETRIEVING
Storing and retrieving can be seen in multimedia systems through the number
of different file formats which are used to store information in multimedia
production:
Note: There is NO compression in Vector Images (e.g. PDF, SWF, WMF
etc.) => ONLY in Bitmap Images
AUDIO: MP3 (lossy), MIDI (lossless or none), WAV (either, or none)
VIDEO/ANIMATION: AVI (usually lossy), MPEG (lossy), Animated GIF
(lossless), FLV (lossy)
BITMAP IMAGE: JPG (lossy), TIFF (lossless), BMP (lossless), GIF
(lossless)
4) PROCESSING
Processing can be seen in multimedia systems through the creation of the final
multimedia presentation using a suitable software application
Software such as Microsoft PowerPoint would be used to produce slideshow
presentations, and can combine, manipulate and link multimedia content
(processing is the manipulation of data), e.g.:
1) Import existing content into the application (through a library, or a
collection of media created by the application)
2) Create screens, add and format content, and create hyperlinks
3) Create the final file or files for distribution and display
ISSUES
Copyright: Copyright laws are used to protect the legal rights of authors of
original work
Integrity: It is common in multimedia systems to have content derived from a
variety of sources, and makes the job of verifying the correctness of
presented information more difficult. As a result, it is important to reference
all data to ensure its accuracy
Emerging Trends: Virtual worlds is a good example an online simulated
environment where people take on another persona using avatars
Information Systems and Databases - *Syllabus Notes
Information systems
Characteristics
Organisation of data into meaningful information
Analysing information to gain knowledge
Types & purposes
Transaction processing systems (TPS)
Collects, stores & modifies transactions of an organisation Provides data to other systems
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E.g. credit card systems, EFTPOS, POS terminals
Management information systems (MIS)
Takes data & organises it into information reports (usually from TPS)
Provides information on the performance of an organisation
E.g. Execute information systems (EIS) strategic issues
Decision support systems (DSS)
Takes data (usually from TPS, MIS & external sources) to assist in decision
making
Provides analysis tools, information & models
E.g. in statistical analysis, stock market, trade figures
Office Automation System (OAS)
Manages vast quantities of data within an organisation
Improves efficiency, effectiveness in completing administrative tasks
Software & communication technology e.g. voicemail, word processors,
spreadsheets
Database Information Systems
School databases
Environment
School community (students, staff, parents)
Authorities e.g. BOS, government
Any organisation, business, or individual that receives information generated
by the school or supplies data for the system
Purpose
To maintain the efficient operation of the school, personnel, resources &
administration tasks
To provide information on student enrolments, subject selections &
assessments for both school staff & educational authorities
Data/Information
Information on people, resources & processes
Equipment registers, finance & purchase orders, library loans, staff
information, timetables, student marks & grades
Participants
Office & library staff who enter data
Teachers
Information technology
Computers
Barcode readers
Scanners
Software- spreadsheet applications
RTA systems
Environment
Drivers, instructors, examiners
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Vehicle owners, vehicle inspectors
Gov departments e.g. NSW department of transport
Police & courts
Purpose
To manage registration of all drivers & motor vehicles in NSW
To provide information to drivers/applicants on matters such as licensing,
vehicle registration etc as well as statistical information to government &
other authorities
Data/information
Drivers details contact, payment, driving history, license information
Vehicle owner details registration numbers, payment, inspection records
Participants
Data entry operators
Administration staff at offices
Inspectors
Police department- traffic branch
Information technology
Computers
Cameras
Barcode scanners
Networking between computers
Video stores systems
Environment
Customers & staff
Suppliers
Other chain stores, head office
Purpose
To keep accurate records of the stock (rental & sales)
To collect data for further analysis by store management
Data/Information
Customer details (current loans, overdue items)
Rental records (in stock/on loans)
Saleable item records (videos, snacks)
Rental/Sales figuresParticipants
Staff who check out videos & other products, process returns, authorise orders
for new stock
Head management
Information technology
Computers
Barcode scanners
WAN link from head office (update new rental titles)
DB management & sales software
Network communication software
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Organisation
Non-computer methods of organising
Examples
Filing cabinet e.g. small businesses
Telephone books
Card catalogues e.g. libraries
Reference books e.g. encyclopaedias
Advantages
No specific skills or training required
Inexpensive
Highly portable & lightweight
Dont require power supply/batteries
Disadvantages
Access/organisation is usually by one method (e.g. alphabetical)
Inflexible layout
1 person only can access at one time
Easily misplaced
Computer-based methods of organising
Examples
Flat file systems
Database management systems
Hypermedia
Advantages
Easily exchanged between applications & over networks
Easily edited
Much faster processing
Large storage of data
Disadvantages
Costly
Exchange of data on a network creates security & confidentiality problems
Logical organisation of flat file databases
Single table of data stored as a single file
All rows (records) are composed of the same sequence of fields (attributes)
Allows you to use & manage 1 database at a time
Files
Block of data which is divided into a set of related records
Records
Collection of facts about one specific entry in a database
Organised in rows
Divided into 1 or more related fieldsFields
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Specific category of data in a database
Made up of characters
Organised in columns (attributes)
Key fields
Used to uniquely identify a record in each file
Used to sort & retrieve information
Usually, each key holds a unique item that applies to only one record
Convenient- when sorted not all data has to be read/retrieved
Characters
Single unit of data used in a database
E.g. letter or symbol
Logical organisation of relational databases
Organises data using a series of related tables, linked by common keys
Draws information from one or more additional filesSchemas
Organised plan of the entire database
Shows how & where data is found, description of data, data relationships
Entities- specific title of which attributes are detailed under e.g. customer,
orders
Attributes- Defined property of an entity e.g. CustID, Firstname
Field names, same as fields in a flat file database
Relationships- the way entities relate to each other
One to many: one record in the 1st entity relates to many records in the 2nd
entityOne to one: one record in the 1st entity relates to 1 record in the 2nd
Many to many: each record in the 1st entity relates to many records in the 2nd
Tables
Implementation of entities
Attributes
Records
Linking tables
- Primary key: uniquely identifies a record (field or combination of fields)- Foreign key: Attribute of a table that is a primary key of another table
Data modelling tools (for organising databases)
Data dictionaries
Describes characteristics of data- metadata
Field name
Data type
-Alphanumeric: letters/numbers/symbols
-Numeric: numbers & numeric symbols
-Boolean/logical: true/false, yes/no
-Date data: dd/mm/yy
-Time data: hh/mm
Data format Field size- number of characters allowed in the field
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Description- explains contents of the field
Example- illustrates content
Schematic diagrams
Graphical tools that help define the database
E.g. ERD determines data to be included/excluded
Normalisation
Reduces data redundancy by removing repeating fields or reorganising data
where needed, hence improving performance
Avoids inconsistencies among values
Analysing data to create the most efficient database structure
Logical organisation of hypermedia
Storage/linking of media & documents
May contain text, numbers, images, audio, animation & video
Each document is independent & can be retrieved electronically using
hypertext
Nodes & links
Nodes: Computer that has destination of the link
Links: Links nodes in a hyper document- associated with bookmarks &
anchors
Uniform resource locators (URL)
Address of file/resource on the web
Protocol: allows access to web pages based on hypertext- http
Domain name: address of specific computer where resource is located
www.whatever.com
File path: path followed to the file being retrieved
HTML tags (hypertext markup language)
Metadata- information about data
Indicates how parts of a document are displayed & navigated
Viewed as pages in web browsers
Tools for organising hypermedia
Storyboards
Series of frames, each representing a different action or screen image
Consists of navigation paths, information & graphics
Linear: sequential path
Hierarchical: choices branch off into further choices, based on navigation
Non-linear: no structure- free navigation
Composite: mix of all layers
Webpage creation software
Allows text, graphics & sounds to be hyperlinked
HTML tags inserted automatically by the software
Storage & retrieval
Database management systems (DBMS)
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Software application that allows the entry, manipulation & storage of data in a
database
Handles access to the database- establishes & maintains data security by
restricting access to authorised personnel
Carries out validation & verification of data
Independence of data from the DBMS
Access of data
Sequential
Each record must be accessed in a linear progression, from 1 st to last
E.g. accessing data on magnetic tape
Direct
Data is accessed in any order i.e. without accessing previous data items
E.g. storing data on disc & logical location of data within a database
StorageOnline
Storage device permanently positioned
Available immediately to connected computers
E.g. hard drive, CD & DVD juke boxes
Offline
External devices used to store data
Cannot be accessed until storage media is mounted into a drive
E.g. USB, CD ROM, DVD, memory cards, magnetic tape
Storage media
Hard discs
Stores data magnetically on precision aluminium or glass platters
Direct access
CD-ROMs
Data is read & written using laser technology
Direct access
Cartridges
Magnetic tape encased in a cartridge
If it is linear -> sequential
If it is non-linear -> direct
Magnetic tape
Stores large amounts of data inexpensively
Used for backup
Sequential access
Erasable, reusable
Encryption/decryption
Encryption
Process of encoding data -> maintains confidentiality & security
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Algorithm or key is required to encode the data
Involves manipulations of bit patterns
Decryption
Process of decoding data -> receiver can translate
Reverse algorithm or key is required to decode the data
Asymmetric
Requires public key for encryption & a private key for decryption
Symmetric
Same key required for encryption & decryption e.g. DES
Backup & security procedures
Storing/copying data to another permanent storage device
Physical security measures- locking rooms/buildings
Usernames & passwords
Encryption/decryption
Restricting access using DBMS views
Record locking
Centralised & distributed databases
Centralised
Accessed through a single DBMS server
Single database
All users connect directly to DBMS
Decentralised/distributed
Set of connected databases stored on multiple computers
Appears as 1 large database to users
Tools for database storage & retrieval
Searching & sorting
Carried out on a field alphabetically, numerically or chronologically ->
relevant information is extracted
Query by example (QBE)
Operator enters criteria against a field
Records meeting specific conditions are displayed
Structured query language
Specialised language designed to search a database
Manipulates display of data in a search- more specific
Commands
- Select: fields i.e. data to be displayed- From: tables i.e. source of data- Where: criteria i.e. query- Order by: fields i.e. order in which fields are to be displayed
Tools for hypermedia search & retrieval
Free text searching
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Technique for searching a computer based document or database for
characters or words
Search engine searches all words and tries to match search words supplied by
the user
Search engines
Indexing- databases of indexed websites that can be searched using keywords
Search robots- programs that facilitate indexing by accessing websites &
gathering information
Metadata
Reporting on data found in hypermedia systems
Web browsers
Stand alone applications
Media players
Other information processes for databases
Displaying
Reporting- formatted & organised presentation of information
E.g. mailing labels, invoices, sales summaries & telephone lists
Constructing different views of a database for different purposes e.g. form-
used to enter, view & edit data
Issues related to information systems & databases
Acknowledgement of data sources
Permission from source to use data before publication
Data source acknowledged
Ensures justification of outputs e.g. results from surveys
Provides a mechanism for tracking & auditing data -> determines accuracy of
data
Requirements of source organisation
Legal requirements- copyright
Gives company credibility
Access to, ownership & control of data
Limited access to authorised personnel only -> control over data
Prevents: unauthorised access, alteration/destruction of data or programs,
unauthorised use of resources & release of information
Freedom of Information Act (Federal)
Allows individuals to obtain access to information held as records by the
government, request amendments to records, appeal against decisions not to
grant access to information or to amend personal records
Information such as school, health, superannuation records (personal)
government policy documents, research materials, product testing records
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Agencies/public bodies- unis, public hospitals, ministers, government
departments
Exempt information- personal affairs of another person/business, the
economy, law enforcement
Privacy principles
Protects an individuals personal information e.g. health, racial, criminal,
financial
Security measures to prevent unauthorised access into the system & the
release of personal information
Organisations/corporations must abide by these principles to maintain legal
compliance and ethical reputation
Accuracy & reliability of data
System must be able to resist user mistakes, system malfunctions, deliberate &
accidental alteration Error detection & correction methods
Data bias- the way the data is collected, interpreted & manipulated
Accuracy of data sources e.g. Wikipedia very unreliable, BOM reliable
Quality of data
Data must be fit for its intended use i.e. to fulfil the needs of its users as well
as suitability for applications
Data matching to crosslink data across multiple databases
Current & emerging trends (organisation, processing, storage/retrieval)Data warehouses
Stores raw data which is collected electronically from a variety of sources
Data may be available for sale to interested parties -> privacy issue e.g.
medical records, credit cards etc
E.g. real estate agency may buy information from council
Data mining
Process of searching through data, trying to match any patterns e.g. customers
with common interest
Security issue e.g. centralising personal information into 1 warehouseOnline analytical processing (OLAP)
Provides statistical evidence to corporations -> assists in decision making
Transaction Processing Systems - *Syllabus Notes
4.1 Characteristics of TPSsA Transaction Processing System is a system that collects, stores, modifies and
retrieves the transactions of organisations. A transaction is an event that generates or
modifies data that is eventually.
4 main characteristics
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Components of TPS
o Purpose : What is its overall aim
o Data : Raw facts
o Information Technology: Hardware and Software
o Processes:
o Participants: People involved in the operation of a system
Batch Processing
o Batch Transaction Processing involves collection and storage of data
as a batch. The batch is then processed later at a scheduled time (i.e.
there is a time
delay)o Transactions
will be stored
(usually on
magnetic tape or
paper) until it is
convenient or
economical to
process them
Real Time Processing
(e.g. airline reservationsystems and banking
TSs)
o Real Time transaction processing is the immediate processing of data
o It provides instant confirmation of a transaction but does not require
access to an online database.
o Two main concerns
Concurrency
Ensures that no two users can change the same data at
the same time
e.g. if a ticket is starting to be reserved by an airline
agent, another agent cannot tell another passenger its
available
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Atomicity
Ensures that all the steps involved in a transaction are
completed successfully as a group. If any step fails no
other should be completed.
E.g. in a bank transfer, if the withdrawal succeeds, the
transfer must also succeed, otherwise the entire
transaction is abandoned.
Differences in Batch and Real Time
o Each transaction in real time is unique; it is not part of a group
o Real time requires the master file to be available more often for
updating
o Real time has fewer errors as data is validated and then entered
immediately
o With batch, errors can occur when data is organised and storedo More computer operators are required in real time
Data validation in TPSs
o Data validation involves checking of data as it is entered into a system
o Data validation is critical in transaction processing as inaccurate data
will have dire consequences on the completion of a transaction
o Methods of Validation
Range check (e.g. Date of birth from 1900 to current)
List check (e.g. drop down boxes)
Type check (e.g. Integer/Boolean)
Check digit (perform addition arithmetic, obtain chckdigt) Historical Significance of transaction processing systems as the first type
of information systems
o TPSs were used during the 1950s(UNIVAC was first one)
o These formed the basis for further development of TPSs
o Manual transaction systems are business systems that operate without
the use of machines
o Computerisation of manual transaction systems provided large benefits
4.2 Types of TPSs Users/Participants/People
o Users are people that receive an output from the TPS
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o Participants are people that conduct the information processing
o People from the environment are becoming participants as they
directly enter transactions and perform validation
Different types
o Web based
o Non Web based
o On-line Real Time
o Batch
Examples of RT systems
o Reservation system
o Point of Sale terminals
o Library loan system
Examples of Batch systems
o Cheque clearance
o Bill generation
o Credit card sales transactions
Systems that appear real time (respond as the transaction occurs) but are
actually updating in batch (EG Credit card transaction)
4.3 Storing and retrieving in TPSsA TPS requires an efficient method for the storage and retrieval of data. Data is
normally stored in a database or data warehouse and requires well designed backup
and recovery procedures.
Storage of digital data in databases and files
o A database is an organised collection of data
Hierarchical: Series of levels with a top down structure
Network: Series of nodes connected by branches
Relational: Uses related tables to build relationships
o Database Design Features
Good data placement: Place frequently accessed data close
Short transactions: short transactions enables quick processing
Real time backup: Do backups at low access times
High normalisation: Keep redundant data to a minimum
Archiving historical data: Archive rarely used data
Good hardware configuration: Good hardware = quick responseo A file is a block of data, which, in databases, is divided into related
records, fields and characters
Retrieval of stored data to conduct further processing (printing invoices)
Systems to store paper records of transactions
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Data backup (copy of data used to rebuild a system) and recovery
o Grandfather, Father, Son
Grandfather, father, son is a traditionalsystem of backups that stores the latest
backup and the two previous ones.
Each time a new backup is made it
becomes the son, and the previous
Son becomes the Father and the
previous Father becomes the
Grandfather and the previous
Grandfather is either archived or
recycled.
o Off site storage
Offsite refers to a location which is physically separated from
the main system, and hence, off-site storage is storage of data
on magnetic disks or Removable hard disks at an Employee
house etc.
o Secure on-site storage
On-site refers to a location is that is physically close to the
system, and hence, Secure on-site storage refers to the storageof data through the use of hard disks etc.
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Secure On site storage provides faster access to the backup data
but requires extra precaution and is more risky than off site
storage.
o Full and partial backups
A Full Backup involves copying all files. It is usually done
weekly or monthly
A partial backup involves copying files that have been created
or changed since the last backup, which reduces the backup
time tremendously and therefore can be done daily.
Partial backups are broken up into;
Differential: All the files that have changed since the
last full backup
Incremental: All the files that have changed since the
last full or partial backup
Backup Procedure Advantages Disadvantages
Incremental Faster, uses less space The full backup and thedaily backup has to be
loaded to restore all the data
Differential The full backup and only the
last daily backup have to be
loaded to store all the data
Slower than incremental,
each backup needs more
space
o Recovery testing
Recovery testing is the process of testing a backup after is has
been made by restoring files into a temporary directory
Backward recovery undoes unwanted changes
Forwards recovery beings with the backup copy and processesall transactions from the partial backups in order through to the
current.
o Suitable media
Storage media ranges from floppy disk to magnetic disks, to
CDs, DVDs, Hard disks and Zip disks etc
Even though magnetic tape is slow and sequential, it is
inexpensive and often used for backups
See table 4.5 Page 164 Jacaranda for more information
o Specialised backup software
Specialised backup software provides considerable control overthe backup and restoration processes by;
Combining full and partial backup procedures
Providing backups of selected files
Selecting files for backup by date/size/type
Providing optimal compression
Providing unattended backup
Scheduling backups, Encrypting backups, Logging
backups
o Transaction logs
Transaction logs record events that have occurredo Documenting backup and recovery procedures
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Recovery
o Mirroring
o Roll back
A roll back is the process of converting the current system back
to its old system, or going from a son backup and loading a
father.
Data warehousing
o A data warehouse is a database that stores large amounts of
information from
o Data mining is the process of analysing large amounts of data to reveal
hidden patterns or relationships
o
Updating in batch systems (no considerable user interaction)
o Historical significance
Paper record systems were collected in batch and transactions
were updated on a fixed basis.
When punched cards/tape was only available, updating was
considerably timely and expensive
o Limitations of batch processing
Usually time consuming due to the use of sequential storage
o Technology required
Hardware includes large storage capacity media (must be
sequential)
Software does not have to allow for online work or a simple
user interface as only well trained and experienced participants
use it.
o Steps in batch update
All changes are made to the transaction file and stored
The transaction file is sorted by a key field in the same
sequential order as the master file
The files are matched by the key field and the relevant records
in the master file are updated
o Suitable applications
Updating in on-line real time systems (requires considerable user
interaction)
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o Relevance and impact
o Technology required
Hardware includes large storage capacity media (must be direct
access so response time is very quick
Software must enable online work for multiple simultaneous
use (provide access to an online database)
Software must include a user friendly interface as many
participants will use it
o Steps in on-line real time processing
Read the key field from the transaction file record
Using a mathematical procedure or algorithm (such as the hash
storage calculation), the location of the same record in the
master file is found
If the master record Is being used, wait until it is finished
Update the master record by overwriting with the old record
o Notes
Requires considerable interaction with the user
Requires user friendly software (possibly online help)
Requires real time data validation
Requires direct access storage to access data quickly
4.4 Other information processes in TPSs Collecting
Collecting from a TPS involves generating the transaction data
o
Hardware MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition)
MICR systems are used by banks to read account
numbers on cheques
Characters are printed using magnetic ink that contains
magnetised particles
ATM (Automatic Teller Machine)
An ATM is a banking terminal for common transactions
Barcode Readers
Barcode readers are used in retail industries to collected
product information and point of sale The reflected light off the barcode lines identifies the
prod.
o From forms (Form: a document used to collect data from a person)
Paper Form: Written on to provide data and then processed
Onscreen Form: Usually completed for data entry to populate
DBs
Web Form: For users wanting to purchase products off the
internet
o Screen design for online data collection
Drop down menus, radio buttons, command buttons, checkboxes
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Use of colour, alignment, white space, images etc
Analysing data, in which output produced is used as input in other
systems
The results of processed transactions are stored in a database and are analysed in waysto meet the information needs of users.
o Decision support systems
DSSs assist people in making decisions by providing
information, models and other analysis tools.
For example, a business may use a TPS to process its sale
transaction, and then use a DSS to summarise its sales by
date/region/product. This information will then be used for
decisions
Data mining is used in DSSs to find relationships and patterns
in data stored in a databaseo Management Information Systems
MISs provides information about basic facts such as sales
performance, payroll, and budgets.
The MIS shares the data from a TPS, which is then manipulated
to create reports (Scheduled reports, forecast reports, on
demand)
4.5 Issues related to TPSsBoth positive and negative issues arise from TPSs
Changing nature of worko Automation of jobs once performed by clerks
Automation of jobs refers to the use of information technology
to perform tasks once done by people
Workers are required to learn new skills and complete ongoing
trainingor face being replaced by a more skilled worker
This can either result in extra stress on workers or increased
happiness
Information systems can expand the scope and significance of a
users job or they can reduce it (affects meaning of work)
o
Shifting of workload from clerks to members of the public TPSs allow every user with access to a terminal to enter and
retrieve data, which is what a clerk would have done
Need for alternative procedures when the TPS is unavailable
o Blackouts or breakdowns can completely disable some TPSs and
businesses must plan for such times.
o Non-computer procedures must be in place, and these must have been
checked and tested
Bias in data collection
Bias means that data is unfairly skewed to a particular result or direction.
o When establishing the system and deciding what data to collect
Data collection methods should be specified carefully
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Loaded questions must be avoided in questionnaires or web
forms
o When collecting the data
Adhere to protocols established earlier.
random sampling does not apply to web surveys as not
everyone has the internet
Importance of data in transaction processing
o Data security
Data security protects a systems data against accidental or
deliberate damage
Passwords and biometric methods (fingerprints etc)
Encryption
Firewalls
o Data accuracy
Data accuracy is the correctness of the data (extent to which it
is free of errors)
Errors can occur;
Data collection errors : Poor handwriting/badly worded
questions
Data entry errors: Typos
Out-of-date errors: Persons data changes (move etc)
Mismatching errors: Data relates to a similar person,
maybe with a different name
o Data integrity
Data integrity is the reliability of data, it involves accuracy,
currency and relevance of the data
In real time transaction processing, data integrity is achieved
when the ACID test is passed
Atomicity: All steps of a transaction are completed
together
Consistency: Correct programming, such as always
debiting and crediting the correct account
Isolation: Ability for transactions to be processed at the
same time as others, but still behave independently
Durability: Changes become permanent when
committed
Control in transaction processing and the implications for participants
o Controlling transaction processing starts with collecting and includes
the way the TPS manipulates the data and the way errors are corrected .
o People should not become completely dependent on a TPS. They need
to maintain control over their organisations operations
o Due to the immense volume of data errors are caused, and if no control
measures are taken these errors will be unnoticed and have dire effects
on the transaction, the transaction system and the organisation.
Current and emerging trends in transaction processing
End of Study Notes
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By Chromatic