Excavations at Iona Abbey 2018 Data Structure Report

Ewan Campbell & Cathy MacIver

Excavations at Iona Abbey 2018

Data Structure Report

National Grid References (NGR): Site B NM 28659 24586 (centred) Site D NM 28681 24389 (centred) Scheduled Monument No. 12968 Canmore No. 21664 OASIS No. universi22-323685 Prepared by: Dr Ewan Campbell Cathy MacIver

Illustrations by: C. MacIver

Date of Fieldwork: 05/05/2018-02/06/2018

Date of Report: 30/08/2018

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Contents

Page Abstract .............................................................................................................................................................................. 6 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 7

1.1 Project Background ....................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2 Site Location and Description ........................................................................................................................ 7 1.3 Archaeological and Historical Background .................................................................................................... 8 1.4 Summary of the landscaping around Site B – St Mary’s Cathedral Church................................................... 9

2 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Personnel .................................................................................................................................................... 11 2.2 Excavation ................................................................................................................................................... 11 2.3 Sampling ..................................................................................................................................................... 12 2.4 Objectives .................................................................................................................................................... 12

3 Excavation Results ................................................................................................................................................. 12 3.1 Site B (site code HY18B) ............................................................................................................................. 13 Summary of 2017 results .......................................................................................................................................... 13 2018 results: Early medieval – medieval deposits .................................................................................................... 14 Medieval deposits ..................................................................................................................................................... 19 Abbey demolition and re-construction ....................................................................................................................... 21 Twentieth-century landscaping ................................................................................................................................. 27 Synthesis and phasing .............................................................................................................................................. 33 Finds ......................................................................................................................................................................... 33 Discussion ................................................................................................................................................................ 37 3.2 Site D (site code HY18D) ............................................................................................................................ 40 Lynchet [420] ............................................................................................................................................................ 45 Ditch [408]................................................................................................................................................................. 45 Interior....................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Finds ......................................................................................................................................................................... 47 Discussion ................................................................................................................................................................ 49 Post-excavation strategy........................................................................................................................................... 49

4 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................ 51 5 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................ 52 6 References .............................................................................................................................................................. 52 Appendix 1: List of Contexts .......................................................................................................................................... 55 Appendix 2: List of Samples .......................................................................................................................................... 62 Appendix 3: List of Finds ............................................................................................................................................... 64 Appendix 4: List of Photos ............................................................................................................................................. 72 Appendix 5: List of Drawings ......................................................................................................................................... 81 Appendix 6 Wet-sieving results ................................................................................................................................... 83

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List of Illustrations

Illus 1: Site Location

Illus 2: The Abbey buildings pre-1870s consolidation and landscaping from the south-west, showing

heaps of collapsed masonry and the high level of the ground to the south of the Abbey church

Illus 3: The church from the south-east during the 1870s consolidation, showing piles of sorted stone

from clearance work

Illus 4: Sketch of profiles across Site B (Abbey church to left, boundary wall to right, wall [501] in middle),

showing the sequence of landscaping activities

Illus 5: West- and south-facing section of Thomas’s Cutting 11d with radiocarbon dates

Illus 6: New resistivity survey of abbey, compared to GPR survey.

Illus 7: West facing section of Thomas’ Cutting 11d with newly exposed stone setting [514] overlain by

charcoal-rich layer (211)

Illus 8: Post-excavation plan of the medieval contexts at the full extent of 2018 excavation

Illus 9: Wall [501] fully exposed in northern extension

Illus 10: Northernmost extension, showing charcoal-rich layer (528) to left, cut by wall robbing trench

[538], with clay-bonded eastern extension to the wall [549]

Illus 11 Cobbling (537) exposed after removal of masons’ yard deposits, looking east

Illus 12: North extension with L-shaped stone structure [525] and landscaped terrace edge [547]. Note

location of display board

Illus 13: Window tracery of Carsaig Sandstone SF590, broken during manufacture and embedded in floor

of masons’ yard (532)

Illus 14: Sleeper beam slot [535] for south wall of masons’ yard building, looking east

Illus 15: Surface of (529), compacted chips of Carsaig sandstone and stone

Illus 16: 20th-century mortar-mixing surface (541) and mortar line (522) overlying robbed out wall

Illus 17: Early 20th –century features with masons’ yard timber beam-slot [535], stone chippings deposits

(532) and shell deposit (510)

Illus 18: Plan of the modern levelling and landscaping features

Illus 19: East facing section of north extension demonstrating turf immediately overlying medieval

structure [525]. Note how the shelly deposit (510) overlaps the terrace cut [547].

Illus 20: Levelled surface of (504) under modern turf

Illus 21: East facing section of main trench and north extension

Illus 22: South facing section of west extension and main trench

Illus 23: Detailed south facing section of main trench, north-east end

Illus 24: East facing section of west extension

Illus 25: East facing profile demonstrating depth of modern overburden onto medieval deposits

Illus 26: Early medieval copper alloy nail-headed pin SF570

Illus 27: Silver penny of Alexander III SF618

Illus 28: Box hasp or clasp SF623

Illus 29: Chape with wood inside SF570

Illus 30: Copper alloy leatherworker’s needle (note angular point) SF615

Illus 31: Re-used ashlar block SF574, and chamfered block SF 558 (right) with mullion SF590 and stone

chips

Illus 32: Early medieval features in terraced area to south of nave, with features exposed in 2018, 1957

(curving wall) and 1908 (drain, curving wall, early foundations).

Illus 33: South facing section of interior deposits exposed in 2017, with kubiena tins

Illus 34: The raised area enclosed by the ditch – backfilled Trench D to the left background

Illus 35: Excavating Site D trench, with the Sound of Iona and Ross of Mull in background

Illus 36: Resistivity survey of the field, with enclosure in red, trench locations, monastic vallum ditches in

yellow, and site of well (Tobar Odhráin).

Illus 37: Lidar image of field (© HES), with transcription of enclosure, showing relationship to raised area.

OS Mastermap data from Digimap

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Illus 38: Plans of the abbey detailing the evolution of the stone boundary wall over time

Illus 39: 1769 estate map showing the field (Site D is located near the 2 of no. 12) showing runrig cultivation, the roadway and St Mary’s chapel © HES

Illus 40: South west facing section (above) and north east facing section (below) of ditch

Illus 41: Plan of trench with main features: (415) boulder setting; [408] ditch cut; pit [418]; and lynchet

[420]

Illus 42: SF402 possible handle

Illus 43: SF434 Grass-marked base of handmade pottery Illus 44: Gradiometer survey of field (Ovenden 2012), with enclosure in red. Note internal anomalies and

pipe trench

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Abstract

This report details the findings of excavations in 2018

around Iona Abbey and in the field to the south,

following on from work in 2017.

The excavation examined two sites. At Site B a cutting

from Charles Thomas’ excavations near the Abbey

was reopened to expose and investigate a substantial

drystone wall identified in 1957. This had been

examined in 2017 but the full extent of the wall was not

exposed and its nature was unclear. One larger trench

was opened around the 2017 excavation with

extensions to the north and west. This open area

excavation aimed to clarify the nature of the structure

and expose a wider area across the stone building.

The excavation allowed for more detailed sampling of

early medieval deposits butted against the drystone

wall, and a better understanding of the poor

preservation of the wall to the north and west. Only

modern deposits were excavated at Site B in line with

SMC conditions. This broadened understanding of the

depth of post-medieval landscaping, demolition and re-

construction processes occurring at the Abbey from

the 1870s onwards, and informed future conservation

of the monument. A scatter of early and late medieval

finds was recovered from disturbed deposits.

Excavation also took place at Site D in the field to the

south of the Abbey. Here a small trench was opened to

investigate a sub-rectangular ditch anomaly identified

on geophysics, enclosing a low natural mound and

lying outside the monastic vallum. The aim was to

characterise and date this feature. Pottery was

recovered suggesting a late medieval date, but its

function remained unclear.

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1 Introduction

1.1 Project Background

A programme of archaeological work was proposed in 2017 which involved targeted excavation at

three locations around the Abbey. This work developed from a Historic Environment Scotland

sponsored project to bring Charles Thomas’ 1956-63 excavations at Iona Abbey to publication

(Campbell & Maldonado 2016; forthcoming). The only parts of Thomas’ excavations previously

published relate to the Iron Age fort of Dun Bhuirg (Ritchie & Lane 1980) and the structures on Tòrr an

Aba (Fowler & Fowler 1988). The main focus of the 2017 excavations was to answer specific

questions raised by Thomas’ excavation, mainly through scientific analysis and dating of exposed

sections in Thomas’ old trenches. The project fitted into the national research framework priorities

(ScARF 2012), as well as those of a new research framework for Argyll which was in preparation at

the time (Campbell & Batey 2017), and ongoing work in preparing an Iona Research Strategy initiated

by the Glasgow Iona Research group in the University of Glasgow in 2016. Thomas’ excavations are

important both for the interpretation of this iconic site which is of international importance, but also

because of their influence on Thomas’ thinking, expressed in a series of ground-breaking works on

early medieval monasticism (Thomas 1971a; 1971b, 1981). The Scheduled Monument Consent

(SMC) granted by HES allowed re-excavation of Thomas’ trenches at Sites A and B, but at Site B

restricted the additional areas that could be investigated (illus 8), and stipulated that excavation should

cease at the level of the walltop to avoid disturbing any early medieval deposits. Accordingly, in 2017

archaeologists from the University of Glasgow received permission to re-excavate Site A and Site B,

applying a full range of modern excavation and analytical techniques in order to address specific

problems raised by his excavations, and thereby to enhance the value of that work (Campbell &

MacIver 2017; illus 1)

The 2017 excavations were initially intended to be investigated over the course of one season, but the

results from Site B were of such importance that further work was proposed to elucidate the nature of

the stone structure, and to establish the nature of the sub-rectangular enclosure in the field to the

south. In 2018 the Scheduled Monument Consent (SMC) granted by HES allowed re-excavation of

Thomas’ trench, the 2017 trench and further extensions to the north and west at Site B. The consent

stipulated that excavation should cease after modern deposits were removed to avoid disturbing any

medieval or earlier deposits. A separate consent was granted for excavation at Site D – a small trench

across a sub-rectangular ditched enclosure identified on geophysical surveys in the field to the south

of the Abbey.

1.2 Site Location and Description

Iona Abbey is situated on the east coast of the Isle of Iona, a small island lying off the west coast of

Mull, in the Inner Hebrides. The site is very well documented with a full account of the monuments,

historical background and location published as a separate volume of the Inventory of the monuments

of Argyll (RCAHMS 1982). As far as the present project is concerned Site B lies within the Property in

Care (PIC) boundary, while Site D is within the larger Scheduled Monument area in a field owned by

the National Trust for Scotland (illus 1). All the sites lie within a Conservation Area.

Geologically, the Abbey lies at the junction of three very distinct geological formations. To the west,

Site A (excavated in 2017) lies on the craggy outcrops of Lewisian (Scourian) gneiss (c 2800 million

years old) which make up most of the island. Sites B and D lie on the raised beaches of Late

Devensian age. A major fault runs north-south through the Abbey complex, with partly

metamorphosed flagstones of Torridonian/Moinian age (c 1000 million years old) to the east, beneath

the raised beach deposits. These rocks outcrop along the shoreline below the Abbey and provided

building material. There are traces of quarrying where these flagstones have been levered out of the

outcrops. The Ross of Mull granite, a much later Caledonian period (c 420 million years old) intrusion,

forms the opposite shore on Mull, but numerous large glacially transported boulders of this distinctive

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red granite litter the shore and raised beach on Iona, and were also used as early building material.

They also formed the bases of several of the High Crosses such as St Martin’s, St Matthew’s and St

Oran’s.

Illus 1: Site Location

1.3 Archaeological and Historical Background

The historical and archaeological background of Iona Abbey has been extensively discussed, and it is

not necessary or indeed possible to review this material here. Excellent accounts are to found in the

Inventory for Iona (RCAHMS 1982) and a popular summary by Ritchie (1997). More detailed recent

discussion of the documentary evidence and the archaeology can be found in papers by Aidan

MacDonald (1997, 2001) Jerry O’Sullivan (1994a, 1994b, 1999) and Finbar McCormick (1992, 1993,

1997), with wider discussion by Tomas Ó Carragáin (2010). As far as the present report is concerned,

the key points are that an early medieval monastery was founded around AD 563 by the Irish monk

Columba (Gaelic Colum Cille) and by the seventh century Iona was the centre of a monastic network

stretching across Scotland, Ireland and northern England. Iona became one of the leading intellectual

and artistic centres in northern Europe by the eighth century, with the production of illustrated

manuscripts such as the Cathach of Columba and the Book of Kells, the development of the ringed

High Cross of characteristically Celtic type, and the production of a range of theological and other

literary outputs. The Life of Columba by Adomnán, the ninth abbot of Iona (Sharpe 1995), written at

the end of the seventh century, gives a great deal of incidental detail of life in the early monastery. A

series of Norse raids are documented from the late eighth century, but the monastery survived and

became a centre of Culdee monks until the late 12th century, though almost no records survive of this

period. The site was then replaced by an independent Benedictine community in 1203, when the

present layout of Romanesque monastic buildings was commenced. The Abbey was extensively

redesigned and enlarged in the 15th century and survived until the Reformation when it fell mostly into

ruin. The east part of the church was partially renovated as a Cathedral of the Isles in the early 17th

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century, but again fell into ruin. The cathedral church was renovated by the Duke of Argyll around

1900, and from the late 1930s the other monastic ranges were rebuilt by the Iona Community, an

ecumenical movement concerned with social justice, which occupies the buildings at the present day.

The buildings are owned by the Iona Cathedral Trust, but were placed in State care in 2000 and are a

Property in Care managed by Historic Environment Scotland. The surrounding land is mainly owned

by the National Trust for Scotland.

1.4 Summary of the landscaping around Site B – St Mary’s Cathedral Church

After the Reformation of 1560 the Abbey buildings became derelict, but the eastern parts of the church

were briefly rebuilt in the 1630s as a cathedral of the diocese of the Isles. By the mid 18th century

sketches show that the nave walls were reduced to about half their present height (RCAHMS

1982)(illus 2). The poor state of the ruins and robbing of the stonework by islanders was commented

on by early travellers, and the Duke of Argyll was persuaded to enclose the ruins. A wall was built on

the line of the present PIC rectangular boundary in 1757, and rebuilt in 1791. The western wall of this

enclosure was converted into a ha-ha in 1840 (later this was completely removed), and the PIC walls

have been rebuilt several times in more recent times, as the site developed as a major tourist

destination (illus 36). The church walls were cleared and consolidated in 1874-9 (illus 3). The eastern

parts (1902-04) and then the nave (1908-10) were rebuilt and roofed by the Duke of Argyll. Work by

the Iona Community rebuilding the cloisters and other monastic buildings took place from 1938-65. At

present there is a considerable build-up of soil along the southern boundary wall relative to the field to

the south. This is partially the result of a series of renovations and landscaping activities in modern

times which can be reconstructed from drawings, photos, and accounts, and can be summarised as

follows (illus 4):

1560-1630 partial demolishing of nave walls for rebuilding of east end

1630- 1760 further collapse and robbing of walls

1760, 1791 south wall of enclosure built (using fallen masonry), robbing discontinued, ground

level at south wall of nave was then around the top of the buttress chamfer (about

1m above present ground level)

1870s major clearance and sorting of fallen masonry, initial levelling of ground southwards,

with an additional metre-wide clearance around south wall of Abbey (to a level about

0.2 m above present ground level). Construction debris and activities associated

with the consolidation of the eastern parts of the church in 1874-9

1904-10 rebuild and roofing of the nave, further clearance work to a distance of 8m from the

walls creating the present terrace escarpment. The material removed was used to

level the area south of this, filling in hollows. During this work a building ‘running

north-south with rounded corners’ (Anon 1914) was uncovered in the area of Site B.

1940-65 creation of a metalled roadway along southern boundary wall for access to the Iona

Community workers accommodation located to the east of Site B, Clearance of the

Road of the Dead in 1963, and installation of gravel paths along the south wall of the

nave and elsewhere. East wall of Reilig Odhráin extended to meet south wall of

Abbey precinct in 1962. In 1980, extension to Reilig Odhráin completed.

2000-2018 new entranceway and hut built, paths changed, information boards installed.

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Illus 2: The Abbey buildings pre-1870s consolidation and landscaping from the south-west, showing

heaps of collapsed masonry and the high level of the ground to the south of the Abbey church

Illus 3 The church from the south-east during the 1870s consolidation, showing piles of sorted stone

from clearance work

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Illus 4: Sketch of profiles across Site B (Abbey church to left, boundary wall to right, wall [501] in

middle), showing the sequence of landscaping activities

2 Methodology

2.1 Personnel

The project director was Dr Ewan Campbell (Archaeology, University of Glasgow) and site director

was Cathy MacIver (AOC Archaeology). A small but very experienced team included Derek Alexander

(Head of Archaeological Services, National Trust for Scotland); Peter Yeoman (Yeoman Heritage);

Jamie Barnes, Aurime Bockute and Heather Christie (University of Glasgow post-graduate students);

and Joss Durnan (HES). Geophysics was undertaken by Leonie Teufel.

2.2 Excavation

The excavation took place from 5th May to 2nd June 2018. The weather was mixed in the first week

with several stormy days with high winds and heavy rain. The last few weeks were a period of

exceptionally dry and hot weather for the island. All excavation was undertaken by hand due to the

sensitive nature of the site. Spoil was stored in one tonne builders’ bags to keep the site tidy and

prevent damage to the lawns. All contexts were recorded in plan and section as appropriate by

measured drawing, by digital photography and by written description on pro forma sheets. The trench

location and the locations of all artefacts was recorded in three dimensions using a total station.

Trenches were tied into the OS grid and OS datum with the total station, using the established HES

survey pegs. Detailed, individual plans of all trenches were drawn, at significant stages of excavation,

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at a scale of 1:20. All sections were drawn in detail at a scale of 1:10. All drawings were annotated

with site feature numbers, site code, scale, date and name(s) of staff. Colour digital photographs were

taken of all stages of work, recording the general location of works, plus detailed coverage during and

on completion of the excavation. All photographs had a suitable scale visible. All photographs were

listed in a full photo register (describing content, orientation and date). Description of all excavated

material is expressed in terms of archaeological features, each of which is assigned a unique three-

digit number. The numbering also references the site code and any individual trench number. Each

discrete feature is described on a site pro forma, which covers stratigraphic relationships, finds,

physical description, location, drawing references and interpretation. All artefacts were retrieved as

special finds and recorded spatially in three dimensions. They were treated in full accordance of

standard guidelines for conservation in the field. These records are presented in the appendices to

this report. On Site B, some features and contexts first exposed and recorded in 2017 were re-

numbered (from numbers running from 200-300) using the 2018 sequence of numbering (numbers

from 500 upwards).

On site B an initial trench of 6 x 6m was laid in the expectation that the stone wall represented an

apsed building, and this trench would be sufficient to establish the form of the building. As this turned

out not to be the case, the excavation was expanded with a slightly smaller 5 x 5m trench to the west,

and then a smaller area to the north, covering a total area of 78 sq m.

A subsidiary geophysical survey work took place in the field to the west of McLean’s Cross, outside of

scheduled areas, and is reported on separately (Teufel 2018).

2.3 Sampling

Bulk soil samples (small 5 litres; medium 10 litres; large 20 litres) were taken from well-sealed

deposits and potentially-informative deposits to recover dating evidence as well as palaeobotanical

remains. Several of the samples in Charles Thomas’ cutting at Site B were from previously excavated

sections rather than excavated deposits and were therefore spot samples (1 litre).

The bulk of the soil samples were wet sieved and the results are presented in App 6. The retrieved

artefactual material has been incorporated in the site finds. Sub-samples and residues have been

retained. The waterlogged samples from the base of the were floated but produced no identifiable

material.

2.4 Objectives

The principle objectives of the archaeological excavation on Site B were:

To establish whether the stone structure is a church or other building

To establish the nature and extent of the modern landscaping in this area to enable better understanding and management of the Abbey grounds, and to guide any future work by establishing the nature and extent of the pre-modern deposits.

To understand the apparently unrepresentative geophysical data from this area

To sample deposits for post-excavation work, including environmental analysis and dating

The principle objectives of the archaeological excavation on Site D were:

To investigate the nature of the geophysical anomaly

To establish the date and function of the site

3 Excavation Results

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Throughout this report the standard use of brackets is used to indicate different types of recording

numbers: (xxx) = deposits; [xxx] = negative features and structures; <xxx> = samples; finds are

labelled SFxxx. For consistency in terminology ‘early medieval’ is used to refer to the period from the

6th -century Columban monastery up to the establishment of the Benedictine monastery around 1200;

and ‘later medieval’ the period from 1200 to the early 17th-century abandonment of the cathedral.

3.1 Site B (site code HY18B)

Summary of 2017 results

The 2017 excavations re-exposed a well-built curving drystone wall standing to a height of 0.9m, with

a slightly battered outer face, which had been excavated by Thomas in 1957 (illus 5). An extension

trench to the north and east showed that the wall curved round in a semi-circular arc, but it could not

be established if this was an apse or another form of structure within the confines of the excavated

area. One initial interpretation, as a Romanesque apsed church, perhaps associated with Queen

Margaret’s recorded renovation of the site in the eleventh century, had to be revised when radiocarbon

dating showed the wall to have been constructed before the late 8th century (SUERC-75776; 1289 ±

31; cal AD 665-770). This date was obtained from a layer of iron-working debris (208) which butted

against the wall (illus 5).

Illus 5: West- and south-facing section of Thomas’s Cutting 11d with radiocarbon dates

Soil micro-morphology showed that the dated material had been dumped directly from a furnace,

confirming the dating material is contemporary (Elliott 2018). Dates from what appeared to be a buried

soil beneath the wall (213) gave a bronze-age date (SUERC-75762; 3015 ± 31; 1390-1130 cal BC).

However, the soil micromorphology study showed that this peaty layer was not a buried soil but

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indicated it was an anthropogenic burnt deposit showing human activity in the area at this date (Elliott

2018, 119). The western part of the wall appeared to have been partially robbed out, and a series of

deposits sealing the wall were dated to the 10/12th centuries (SUERC-75781, 1029 31; cal AD 950-

1040; SUERC-75777, 940 31; cal AD 1025-1160), showing it was out of use and partially robbed by

this period, and before spreads of medieval construction and destruction debris were deposited over

the ruined building.

These results have confirmed the unique nature of this structure. No other stone built structures are

known at this early date in a Scottish monastic context and it has always been assumed (on the

authority of Bede) that all buildings were in wood or turf ‘in the Irish mode’. Accordingly, it was

proposed to return to the site to try to establish the nature of the stone structure in more detail to

enhance our understanding of the early medieval monastery. Recent geophysical surveys (resistivity

and GPR) did not produced any clear evidence of the continuation of the wall (Ovenden 2016; 2018)

(illus 6), and investigation of the possible reason for this was also an aim of the 2018 work.

Illus 6: New resistivity survey of Abbey in 2018, compared to GPR survey of 2016.

2018 results: Early medieval – medieval deposits

In 2018 Thomas’ trench was reopened to obtain further samples and refine the section drawings in

light of initial post-excavation results from the 2017 work (details in Campbell and MacIver 2017). The

west-facing section of Cutting 11d was redrawn in more detail and additional samples acquired from

(211) and (233) under the 2017 SMC conditions. During cleaning of the section for photographs it was

found that the lower charcoal-rich layer (211) overlay a patch of close-set cobbles [514], possibly the

remains of a hearth, measuring c. 0.5m wide (illus 5, 7), which was just clipped by Thomas’ trench.

Context (211) represents material that had built up against the drystone wall [501] shortly after it was

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constructed, so is a prime candidate for dating. As the layer is below the layer dated to AD 665-770,

this has the potential to narrow the date range for the construction of the wall.

Illus 7: West facing section of Thomas’ Cutting 11d with newly exposed stone setting [514] overlain by

charcoal-rich layer (211)

The wall

The drystone wall [501] identified in 1957 in Cutting 11d was composed of roughly coursed large

blocks of undressed flagstone with small pinning stones. The majority of the stones were local

Torridonian flags with a few rounded granite slabs. The lowest course was composed of megalithic

stones up to 0.7m x 0.55m with upper courses composed of smaller more angular stones. Only the

outer edge was faced, and the wall had the appearance of a revetment, though there were traces of

an inner face amongst the highest stones preserved in the section running northwards. The wall

curved through Thomas’ cutting and in 2017 it was confirmed that it had been truncated to the west

where a large modern pit had removed its upper courses if not its entire extent. During the 2018

excavations it was established that after the wall curved round to the north it then ran in a straight line

oriented roughly north-south for at least another metre (illus 8, 9). This would appear to remove the

possibility that the wall was part of an apsed church building. Beyond this point the wall appeared to

have been robbed and was obscured by a series of deposits (522, 515, 541, 543) (illus 9) which could

not be excavated as their date could not be established. Further to the north large slumped stones

remained but were clearly disturbed – possibly by modern activity – though the eastern edge of the

wall cut remained well defined in the northern extension [538] (illus 10). The cut appeared to truncate

a black layer (528) which resembled the slag-rich context (208) which butted the wall in Thomas’s

section and was dated to the 7/8th centuries last year. Some stones appeared to be in situ along the

edge of [538] but others were disturbed by robbing. This robbing pre-dated the landscaping terrace

[547]. During the 1900’s rebuilding, the architect Chalmers recorded the presence in this area of ‘a

large early building… it ran north-south and was constructed not with gables but with rounded ends’

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(Anon 1915, xx-xxi). It seems likely then, that wall [501] was exposed by Chalmers and possibly

partially robbed at that time, though disentangling this robbing and the medieval robbing was not

possible given the SMC restraints. Assuming this northern section is the same wall (and it continues

the line of (501) directly), the structure measures at least 6m north-south. In the small extension to the

north opened to establish the line of the wall, a patch of stone with clay bonding (538) appeared in an

east-west extension to the wall and ran into the wall itself. Within the small area exposed it was

impossible to establish if this represented part of a subsidiary building, or possibly an entranceway or

buttress, but it seemed to confirm speculation in 2017 that wall (501) had been clay-bonded in the

courses above the revetment, due to the presence of apparent clay-bonded tumble (505, 506) to the

east of the wall. It is noticeable that the wall runs directly north-south (0° N) here, whereas the

southern section runs at an angle 10 degrees south of east-west (260° N), which might mitigate

against it being building rather than a revetted platform, or else that it is a complex structure of

different phases.

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Illus 8: Post-excavation plan of the medieval contexts at the full extent of 2018 excavation

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Illus 9: Wall [501] fully exposed in northern extension

Illus 10: Northernmost extension, showing charcoal-rich layer (528) to left, cut by wall robbing trench

[538], with clay-bonded eastern extension to the wall [549]

Burials

Underlying the undifferentiated topsoil (507) in the south east corner of the trench was a very indistinct

grave cut [513], see only in section (illus 5). This burial was initially identified in 1957 when Charles

Thomas’ team truncated two skeletons in his Cutting 11d. The burials were dated to the 10-11th and

11-12th centuries in 2017. The grave-cut for the burials [513] became visible this year in the west

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facing section after heavy rain, but was very shallow and the grave must have been truncated by

modern landscaping. The presence of a burial so close to the current ground surface and so shallow in

depth demonstrates the substantial landscaping and changing ground surfaces in this area over time.

At some point this grave must have been cut into a deep build up of soil to the south of the abbey, a

traditional place for monks to be buried. The original depth of this grave is unclear but it is likely to

have been several feet deep at a minimum. Later material above the grave cut had been removed in

the past – leaving only c. 0.15m depth of cut in situ, and then subsequently the ground has been built

back up with c. 0.3m of modern deposits. The grave cut was recorded and covered over – no further

excavation was carried out in this south-east corner of the trench as fragments of human remains

which may have been in situ burials started to appear at this level, though no grave cuts could be

identified. An iron spike (SF512, illus 5) was found lying just above the legs of skeleton, but it was not

clear whether this was in the modern soil or the grave-cut. It was not orientated parallel to the skeleton

so if it is not from the modern soil and is associated with the grave it may have been a coffin nail.

Redknap (1977, fig 7, 11) recorded coffin nails from burials around Columba’s shrine chapel, and one

of these plank coffins has been recently dated to the same period as the Site B burials (cal AD 890-

1020; SUERC-80639).

Medieval deposits

The 2017 trenches were reopened (with the exception of the furthest east extent of Trench 2c and the

recent stone-pit in Trench 2b) to expose the continuation of the wall. Most of the area from 2017 was

already excavated to the top of the wall head so no further excavation took place other than in the

northern edge where modern deposits remained to be investigated and removed (illus 8). The 2018

work stripped a larger area of modern topsoil and levelling deposits in order to attempt to establish the

plan of the structure. Initially, on the assumption that it was an apsed church, a 6 x 6 m square was

investigated. An extension of 5m x 5m was later opened to the west and an extension of 5m x c.2m

was opened to the north with a further 1 x 1m extension in the NE corner when it became clear that

the structure was not a church. Each extension left a 0.5m baulk between it and the main trench. The

northern section of baulk between main trench and west extension was eventually removed to

establish links between the stratigraphy of the two areas.

Overall, removal of modern deposits revealed a complex series of deposits and structures, which

probably spanned a long period, but mostly post-dated the destruction of the wall [501]. Across the

trench medieval deposits were encountered and left unexcavated as the Scheduled Monument

Consent conditions only allowed removal of modern deposits. In the west extension a spread of firm

dark brown mottled sand (534) with orange patches and speckles of mortar and shell was visible over

most of the trench (illus 8) after removal of modern deposits. This layer contained visible fragments of

green-glazed pottery, animal bones and some charcoal. The fragments of pottery were all lying flat on

the surface of the deposit, perhaps indicating that they were more or less in situ trampled deposits

rather than mixed and redeposited material. This material was at a similar horizon to a spread of rough

cobbling (537) composed of small rounded and angular stones, and a compact clay patch (542) in the

northwest corner of the west extension (illus 11). The cobbling formed a rough surface c. 2m by 1.5m

which extended up to the large hollow under the baulk between main trench and western extension,

and appeared to dive under (534) to the west. Initially this cobbling was interpreted as part of the

overlying mason’s yard deposits, perhaps a foundation for the masons’ banker (bench). However, it

appears to be an earlier feature, though perhaps reused as flooring for the mason’s building as the

stones were infilled with stone-dust. At the southern extent of this layer the ground sloped away and

deeper deposits of modern overburden had to be removed. A band of truncated material rich in specks

of mortar (530) was visible running east–west. During cleaning several interesting finds including an

Alexander III silver penny (SF618, illus 27) and a copper needle (SF615, illus 30) came out of this area

which implied it was an area where medieval deposits had been disturbed.

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Illus 11: Cobbling (537) exposed after removal of masons’ yard deposits, looking east

In the south west corner of the trench a small thin lens of charcoal-rich greyish silt (545) was visible.

This lay over a very compact level yellow sandy deposit (544) which ran in a strip east-west. This latter

had the appearance of rammed material for a wall foundation. Its northern edge runs parallel to the

southern face of wall [501] but its stratigraphic relationship to the wall could not be established as this

area was disturbed by the modern stone-pit [219] excavated in 2017, and another, [533], excavated in

2018. Lapping up over this on the north edge was an orange brown deposit with charcoal flecks

(546), similar to (534) and likely another medieval deposit. These deposits were not excavated as they

were interpreted as medieval deposits or features.

In the main trench, most of the deposits exposed in 2017 were left in situ, namely the wall [501]; the

spread of tumble and clay [505, 506] and the deposits inside the structure (221, 222). In the northwest

corner of the main trench an orange brown sandy deposit was revealed (517). During cleaning to

ascertain the extent of this layer an early medieval copper alloy nail-headed pin (SF 570) was found

(illus 26). The layer was not excavated, but it lay at the same level as (221), a context inside the wall

[501] which overlay a disarticulated human femur which produced an early medieval date in 2017

(SUERC-75783; 973 ± 31 BP; cal AD 1020-1220), and it appeared to overly the wall [501]. In the

south-east corner, removal of undifferentiated dark topsoil deposits uncovered the burials described

above. The deposits revealed in the north-east corner are described below.

In the north extension of the trench several features of interest were exposed just below the turf.

These included an L-shaped rectilinear rough stone setting [525] aligned at an angle to wall [501] (illus

12). This was composed of a mix of roughly-set rounded and angular stone with several vertical

stones near the corner. Within this setting there was pea gravel (526) which extended outwith the

trench. Although this appeared to be part of a structure, its nature was unclear as the walls were fairly

insubstantial, and its date could not be established without excavation.

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Illus 12: North extension with L-shaped stone structure [525] and landscaped terrace edge [547]. Note

location of display board

Abbey demolition and re-construction

During the excavation of the layers overlying the medieval deposits several layers were identified

related to post-medieval construction and demolition activities on the site. In the western extension

most of the trench was covered with a yellow sandy deposit (529, 532), which was found to be made

up of angular chips of Carsaig Sandstone, mixed with stone dust and was clearly the build up of debris

from a masons’ yard. Carsaig Sandstone was used in the medieval period and in modern

reconstructions on Iona as the material for ashlar blocks and decorative window tracery (Albornoz-

Parra et al 2015). Fragments of tracery (SF590) and ashlar blocks were found embedded in this

material (illus 13).

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Illus 13: Window tracery of Carsaig Sandstone SF590, broken during manufacture and

embedded in floor of masons’ yard (532)

The southern edge of (532) was demarcated by a linear cut [535] running roughly east–west,

measuring c. 5m long by 0.28m wide by 0.10m deep, with a U-shaped profile and undulating base.

This was only present in the western extension of the trench and was interpreted as the foundation

slot for a sleeper beam related to a hut or lean-to structure (illus 14).

Illus 14: Sleeper beam slot [535] for south wall of masons’ yard

building, looking east

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The beamslot was filled with a mix of blackish brown sandy material with some clusters of angular

stones and modern mortar, possibly representing the position of upright timbers. Some iron nails in the

slot were probably in situ from the decay of the timber structure. The lack of sandstone dust extending

beyond the sleeper beam shows the stone masons’ activity was bounded with the structure, which

must have measured a minimum of 5 x 4 m. As no return was noted in the eastern trench, the east

side of the structure was either probably open-ended, as would be suitable for a mason’s yard due to

the dust produced, or else the return was obscured by the baulk. Overlying (532) was a very regular

hard-packed surface with frequent small angular stones, Carsaig sandstone and sandy matrix (529),

apparently formed by compacting the upper surface of (532) (illus 15). This levelling deposit extended

across the western extension and covered a similar footprint to the sandstone dust spread (532). It

could represent a later resurfacing of this area within the structure represented by the sleeper beam,

or a resurfacing after this structure has gone out of use. Within the material were a copper alloy chape

or ferrule (SF560), with wood remains inside, and a copper alloy keyring (SF562), both of these

probably associated with mason’s tools.

Illus 15: Surface of (529), compacted chips of Carsaig sandstone and yellow stone dust

To the south of these features there was a large pit filled with rough large angular stones [533]. This

pit was roughly sub-rectangular in plan and measured c. 1m by 2.5m (illus 18). It was cut into (534)

and other medieval deposits and filled with a dark brown sandy soil (531) with frequent large rounded

stones up to 0.4m by 0.3m. These stones were all irregular boulders and seem to be material

discarded as unsuitable for re-use in the reconstruction of the Abbey church. It bears some similarity in

function to the nearby stone pit [219] excavated in 2017 which had truncated the continuation of the

drystone wall [501]. That pit was not re-excavated in 2018.

Elsewhere in the main trench there was evidence of further activity related to the demolition debris and

reconstruction of the abbey in the 19th and 20th centuries. At the same height as the wall head [501]

there was a distinct spread of hard packed small angular stones and mortar, some adhered onto larger

stones in the matrix (541) (illus 16). This was largely visible in the north east corner of the main trench

with small fragments of similar mortar to the west of the wall. A coherent band of mortar adhered to

larger building stones (522) was immediately to the south of this. This material represented an area of

mortar mixing on the site, related to the reconstruction of the abbey. The mortar inclusions were

mainly shell and small pea gravel – like the later mortar used in the repairs to the abbey. Overlying this

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in the north east corner of the trench was a spread of dark blackish-brown mottled material with

patches of charcoal (515). This layer contained cragganware pottery fragments, wheel-thrown pot and

small angular inclusions of Carsaig sandstone related to later activity on the site. Between these layers

was a localised patch 1m by 1.5m across forming a thin series of lenses of crushed and whole shell

related to mortar production (516). A similar localised lens 0.02m thick was also identified in the north

west of the northern extension

Illus 16: 20th-century mortar-mixing surface (541) and mortar line (522) overlying robbed out wall

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Illus 17: Early 20th –century features with masons’ yard timber beam-slot [535], stone chippings deposits (532) and shell deposit (510)

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Illus 18: Plan of the modern levelling and landscaping features

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Twentieth-century landscaping

During and subsequent to the demolition, clearance and reconstruction of the abbey there were

phases of landscaping to fill in the hollows and make up ground to produce the relatively level lawns

that are visible on the site today.

Overlying the re-construction debris in the west of the trench was a thick layer of topsoil. To the east

there were more hollows and scoops evident which had been subsequently filled with material. One

substantial hollow in the middle of the trench was filled with a thin layer of soil (519) and pea gravel

(520) indicating the hollow had been open long enough for minimal soil formation to occur. At the base

of the hollow there was a chamfered block of sandstone (SF558) identical to blocks in the squinch

arches in the cloisters, indicating the deposit was construction debris. Overlying this was a spread of

mortar-speckled material (511) filling the hollow to the past ground level. It consisted of loose to firm

disintegrating mortar within a matrix of mid greyish brown silt with occasional limpet shell. Some

stones with mortar attached to them suggested a post-demolition deposit. To the east of this a spread

of shell rich midden material (510) was present, composed of a loose greyish brown deposit with

frequent shell (almost all limpet and whelk). Small fragments of angular stone and inclusions of slate

and modern ceramic were present. The deposit extended from north of the wall [501] and overlapped

the edge of the terrace created around 1910 [547] (illus 19), showing it was a late feature. The deposit

was concentrated to the east and extended into the mortar-filled hollow at the west edge of the main

trench but did not continue, suggesting it was a localised dumped deposit.

Illus 19: East facing section of north extension demonstrating turf immediately overlying medieval

structure [525]. Note how the shelly deposit (510) overlaps the terrace cut [547].

In the north-east part of the trench where the wall [501] was no longer visible at the same height as

elsewhere there was a spread of mixed loose material (543) which lapped up over (541) to the east –

this was cleaned off to reveal several more wall stones. Beyond this, in the northern extension, a dark

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spread of material with modern glass in the upper areas (539) with a very straight north–south aligned

edge [538] was visible. This was interpreted as the robbed out wall edge of [501]. Some large wall

stones were identified beneath this layer, but it was not fully clear if they were in situ wallstones or

robber backfill. The eastern edge to this cut was very indistinct and it was not clear if the modern cut

continued so excavation was halted.

This northern extension of the trench also investigated the scarp that had been created by

landscaping in 1904-1910. In the area between it and the Abbey wall a large amount of collapse and

demolition material had been cleared out (illus 3), creating a lower area of ground. The abrupt edge of

this cut [547] was investigated and demonstrated that spreads of levelling material such as (518)

which contained modern glass and frequent angular stones, and (510), the shell rich layer, draped

over this cut, showing that the final levelling took place after the clearance of the terrace. These post-

1900 deposits varied in thickness from 0.2m to 0.6m (illus 25). The pathway alongside the modern

display board contained spreads of gravel that had been impacted by pedestrian traffic into the

underlying early medieval deposits, making excavation difficult here. The robber trench cut [538] was

not visible cut through (518) or immediately below this, so it is possible that the robbing took place

before landscaping in this area. In the northern area of the site, to the north west of the trench edge a

display board has recently been inserted. It appears that this had been laid directly into or onto early

medieval deposits, including the rectilinear structure [525] (illus 12).

A spread of mixed material was evident across the main trench, overlying the other deposits related to

building work on the abbey and later landscaping. The surface height of this deposit (504), (507) and

(508) was recorded to demonstrate it was a continuous levelled landscaping deposit likely to relate to

the final landscaping work on this area of the site (illus 19-23). It consisted of a compact dark brown

sandy silty with small angular stones and frequent inclusions of shell, becoming increasingly

concentrated to the east. It was clearly formed by raking the underlying mixed dumps of material to

produce a level surface for establishment of a regular lawn. It contained animal bone, Ballachulish

slate and 19th-century porcelain. Over this was thick turf.

Illus 20: Levelled surface of (504) under modern turf (2017 trench in right corner)

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Illus 21: East facing section of main trench and north extension

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Illus 22: South facing section of west extension and main trench

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Illus 23: Detailed south facing section of main trench, north-east end

Illus 24: East facing section of west extension

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Illus 25: East facing profile demonstrating depth of modern overburden onto medieval deposits

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Synthesis and phasing

The archaeological deposits encountered in the 2018 season can be grouped into four broad phases:

Early Medieval

The early medieval deposits forming the initial activity on the site were visible in the deeper section of

the trench where Charles Thomas’ cutting was re-excavated, and where the dry stone wall was still in

situ. These are overlain by what appear to be later medieval deposits (illus 5). These early deposits

were also exposed in the northern extension, where later deposits had been removed by early 20th

century terracing. Here there is a real need to ensure preservation of potentially in situ deposits as

they are so close to the surface. A display board has already been inserted into them and a worn-

down path leads people around the side of the abbey, also impacting on the early deposits (illus 12).

Later Medieval

Medieval deposits were visible at varying depths across the site beneath the modern layers. In the

main area they were at a depth of 0.6m and consisted of a mix of deposits with visible sherds of green

glaze pottery on the surface, and other finds such as a copper alloy pin and needle. The deposits

included spreads of mortar-, shell- and stone-rich material and soils which may be derived from

construction phases of the Benedictine monastery. A spread of cobbling (537) probably belongs to this

phase. The surface of this material was uneven and fell away to the south. This area was filled in by

the later landscaping.

Post-medieval demolition and reconstruction

Evidence of various phases of post-Reformation activity related to collapse, demolition and clearance

of demolition from the Abbey were overlying the medieval deposits. These were at a similar horizon to

evidence related to the rebuilding works on the abbey in the early 20th century and characterised by

hollows, spreads of mortar and shell related to mortar production, and evidence of a building housing

stone masons’ activity (illus 12).

Modern landscaping

Overlying the stone masons’ work area and the medieval deposits were a series of spreads of material

(illus 25). These were materials such as shell, small angular stone chips, and fragmentary deposits of

mortar and sorted wall debris. This material was reused and spread across the site to fill in the hollows

and level out areas to create smoother lawns that are visible on the site today. Some of this

landscaping was related to clearance of material up against the abbey and resulted in the sharp

breaks of slope seen in the northern area of the trench and the shallow turf lying directly over medieval

remains in the northern extent of the trench.

Finds

The 2018 excavations at Site B were scoping in nature, and SMC conditions meant that only modern

deposits were excavated. Thus all finds recovered were from disturbed or redeposited contexts and

can only be interpreted in general terms. Nevertheless, the finds do provide some valuable

information, both on the activities associated with the rebuilding of the Abbey church, and with the

monastic phases of occupation of the site.

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A copper alloy nail-headed stick pin (SF570) (illus 26), is unusually well made, with decorative banding

in the middle and top of the hipped haft. While nail-headed pins as a general type are widespread in

the early medieval period, they are often crudely made from bone. Decorated examples are rare, but

there is a close parallel from Buiston crannog, from midden deposits dating to the 7th century (Munro

1882, figs 242-3; Crone 2000, illus 120). This dress or hair pin is not an item that would normally be

expected on a monastic site, though it could have belonged to a visitor. On the other hand, there are a

fragment of a mould for producing pins from Thomas’s excavation (Campbell and Maldonado 2016, fig

83), so it is possible that this pin was produced on Iona.

A medieval silver coin (SF618), is a penny of Alexander III, of the ‘cross and stars’ type, probably

dating to 1250-80 (illus 27). This is the first coin of the medieval period to be recorded from Iona other

than the Norse period hoard of late 10th century coins found in 1950 (Stevenson 1951). The coin is

worn, and presumably a casual loss.

Other metal finds can less certainly be ascribed to the medieval period. A small copper alloy clasp

(SF623), appears to be an articulated clasp or hasp for holding shut a small box or casket (illus 28).

The slot in one face may be a keyhole. Medieval bookclasps are generally broader, and do not have

keyholes. It is quite well decorated for such a small object, with bevelled edges and the terminal rivet

hole notched.

A fragment of a copper alloy rectangular sheet with four nail holes is similar to a piece found in 2017

nearby (SF221). A conical ferrule or chape (SF560) with rivet holes for attachment to a wooden stick

possibly came from a walking cane or a tool of some kind, and is also probably post-medieval or

modern (illus 29). A copper alloy needle (SF615) is unusual in having the lower end of the shaft

rectangular in section, while the upper is rounded (illus 30). The angular point suggests use in

leatherworking, possibly book-binding. A copper alloy key-ring (SF562) is also probably modern.

None of the iron objects found could be positively identified as being medieval – they were mainly nails

of various sizes. An iron spike (SF 512) was found in the area of the burial [513] but did not appear to

be part of the burial as it was not aligned with the skeleton, though it could have been a coffin fitting.

A cuboidal piece of worked bone (SF542) with cutmarks is possibly a discarded dice in the process of

manufacture, and an antler tine (SF601) also shows bone-working on the site.

As in previous excavations, some flint debris was recovered, including raw material, chunks and

flakes. One significant stone object recovered was a large smooth quartzite beach cobble which

showed high polish on both faces and a black deposit on one (SF607). This was a slickstone for

polishing leather. In and around the stonemason’s yard were numerous fragments of Carsaig

sandstone, including fragments of window tracery (SF590) and mullions (SF537), along with a large

discarded ashlar facing block (SF574) which had been re-tooled for re-use, and a chamfered block

(SF558). Examination showed that this latter block was identical to the blocks used in the squinch

arches in the cloisters. The window tracery was broken during manufacture, but the ashlar blocks

looked as if they older stones being kept for re-cycling (illus 31).

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Illus 26: Early medieval copper alloy nail-headed pin SF570

Illus 27: Silver penny of Alexander III SF618

Illus 28: Copper alloy box hasp or clasp SF623

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Illus 29: Chape with wood inside SF570

Illus 30: Copper alloy leatherworker’s needle (note angular point) SF615

Illus 31: Re-used ashlar block SF574, and chamfered block SF 558 (right) with mullion SF590 and

stone chips, all Carsaig sandstone

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Discussion

The 2018 excavations on Site B were restricted in nature, and designed principally to investigate the

scale and nature of the early medieval structure uncovered in 1957 and 2017, without disturbing any

pre-modern deposits. A secondary objective was to investigate the nature and extent of the modern

deposits and landscaping activities in this region of the PIC, both to guide any future excavation and to

enable more informed grounds management by HES. The nature of the deposits encountered made it

difficult to distinguish some of the modern construction and demolition debris from possible medieval

debris resulting from the same activities, as the same materials were being used. Much of the coarse

stonework in the modern rebuild used salvaged blocks from the collapsed medieval buildings, as there

was a conscious attempt by the architects to blend the modern and medieval aspects of the building

through the use of local Torridonian flags for the main walling. They also used the same Carsaig

sandstone for the ashlar and window tracery, and Easdale slate for the roofs as had been used in the

medieval building. The mortar used, full of pea gravel and crushed shell, also mimicked medieval

materials. These problems were compounded by a relative lack of modern finds of pottery and glass in

the working deposits (presumably because the workmen had a refectory elsewhere on site), and the

occurrence of disturbed medieval finds in later deposits. However, many of the modern deposits had

flecks of stone with mortar attached which were clearly derived from the cleaning and sorting of the

demolished medieval walls. Photographs from the 1870s (illus 3) and contemporary accounts

(Drummond 1874, 215) show how the collapsed wall stones were cleaned of mortar and stacked

around the perimeter of the site for re-use.

In terms of the aims of the excavation, the first excavation objective was only partially achieved. It was

established that the curving wall [501] did not develop into an apsed structure, as the wall continued to

run northwards in the newly exposed section of the trench, and so could not be the foundations on an

early church as had been surmised. However, it was not possible to be sure of the character of the

wall, as it was affected by robbing and burial by later deposits which SMC conditions prevented

removing. These deposits may have belonged, at least partially, to the period of re-building around

1900, but given that the 2017 excavations showed that some wall-robbing had taken place on the

southern section of the wall by the 10/11th century, it was difficult to know the date of the robbing

without excavating the deposits. Given these provisos, the wall appeared to run northwards to a point

about 6m south of the abbey church. If this was a symmetrical building, it would have measured at

least 10m north-south. No trace of a west return was seen in the west extension, though medieval

deposits obscure this part of the site. If there was a return, symmetry suggests the building was at

least 8m wide east-west. However, it is not entirely clear that the walling is part of a building, as the

north-south section revealed this year is not at right angles to the east-west section uncovered in

2017. If it is not a single structure, it is possible that is a multi-phase structure, or purely a revetment

for a level platform. The presence of clay bonding and an extension or addition (549) at the northern

end argues against this interpretation, but only further excavation can resolve the question.

The second main objective was to assess the extent of modern landscaping and deposits associated

with the reconstruction of the Abbey church, and to assess how these activities have impacted on the

medieval deposits. Although there were difficulties in places in distinguishing medieval and modern

construction deposits, this part of the excavation was largely successful. A complex series of deposits,

structures and pits were revealed relating to stone clearance, sorting and cleaning of old stonework,

and cutting of new ashlar and tracery. The irregular surface of these deposits was then levelled, with

modern deposits varying in depth from 0.2-0.6m (illus 25).

Prior to this activity, clearance of a sunken terrace around the south wall of the nave of the church by

Chalmers cut into both late and early medieval deposits and structures. It is clear that highly sensitive

deposits relating to the earliest buildings of the Columban monastery now lie directly below the

modern turf in this area, and are being impacted by visitor information panels and pathways. These

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structures include the wall [501] and the structure [525] uncovered in the excavations, but also other

features recorded by Chalmers at the time of clearance (illus 32). These include: a section of curving

wall which still protrudes through the grass; a stone-lined drain which re-uses an early medieval

graveslab; the foundations of a rectangular structure in the angle of the nave and south transept; and

a ‘curving wall’ exposed by Thomas in the same area in 1957 in Cutting 14 (Campbell & Maldonado

2016, 52). There is a palimpsest of pre-Benedictine structures in this area, the only one of which has

any dating evidence is wall [501], and none of the structures can be properly understood without more

extensive excavation. Although the stone-lined drain has been dismissed as Benedictine, other stone-

lined drains on the site in this alignment are now known to be early medieval in date (Campbell and

Maldonado forthcoming).

Illus 32 Early medieval features in terraced area to south of nave, with features exposed in 2018,

1957 (curving wall) and 1908 (drain, curving wall, early foundations).

A secondary objective was to try to understand why the geophysical surveys carried out in this area

(illus 6) failed to reveal the substantial stone walling [501]. While the massive stone-pit [219] shows on

the resistivity and GPR results, only a small part of [501] shows. The results appear to be affected by

the mixed nature of the deposits which are full of stone chips, rubble and mortar. Features such as the

curving wall to the north of the 2018 trench do not appear, despite being a visible solid structure on the

surface. This may be because it is surrounded by tumble and paving or cobbling reported on one plan.

Whatever the explanation, it seems the geophysical surveys in this area at least (and potentially

Curving wall (1908)

Curving wall (1957)

Early foundations (1908)

Drain (1908)

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throughout the abbey area) are difficult to interpret and do not necessarily provide a reliable guide to

subsurface conditions.

Post-excavation strategy

Due to the modern and disturbed nature of many of the deposits excavated in 2018 there are limited

secure deposits requiring further analysis.

The pottery from the abbey site will be sent to ceramic specialist Derek Hall, who has reported on

several previous assemblages of medieval pottery from Iona. However, the small quantities of pottery

will make it difficult to be sure of the taphonomy of the sherds. Samples for floatation and wet sieving

were taken <500-502>, <504> and <506> and will be analysed by Susan Ramsay for suitability for

radiocarbon dating and any information on agricultural practices. Samples for analysis were taken

from the layers in Charles Thomas’ cutting to refine the dating of the drystone wall. Dates from <500>,

<501> and <502> will aim to date material deposited soon after the construction of the wall, providing

a terminus post quem.

The antler and bone material from the site is disarticulated and out of situ but basic analysis could

provide information on species. The metal finds have undergone initial analysis by the Project Director

and full reports are being prepared.

Samples of mortar were taken <502>, <503>, <505> and <510> and will be sent to Mark Thacker,

who has studied the Iona Abbey mortars, for analysis and ID, helping to refine the dating of the activity

and relate it to specific phases of work on the abbey.

An area of the 2017 trench was revisited and kubiena tin samples taken of layer (204) and (221) a

burnt layer just above the wall head (illus 33). Micromorphological analysis of thin sections from these

samples could provide more information on the nature of the deposit here and whether it relates to a

surface or structure situated on the revetment platform created by the drystone wall.

Illus 33: South facing section of interior deposits exposed in 2017, with kubiena tins

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3.2 Site D (site code HY18D)

Site D was located in the field to the south of Iona Abbey to investigate a geophysical anomaly

discovered in a survey on land owned by the National Trust for Scotland (Ovenden 2012). The

anomaly was visible on resistivity survey as a rectangular feature with rounded corners, measuring c.

42 x 30m externally, 32 x 21m internally (illus 36). The anomaly was interpreted as a ditched

enclosure, but the form is highly unusual for this area, and no date or function could be suggested.

The feature lay outside (south and east of) the line of the outer enclosure of the Abbey, as revealed by

the same survey, so it was not clear if it was associated with the monastery in either its early

Columban or its later Benedictine phases.

Illus 34: The raised area enclosed by the ditch – backfilled Trench D to the left background

The enclosure is sited on the upper raised beach terrace at a height of 15m OD, and surrounds a

slightly raised area visible on the Lidar image (illus 34, 35, 37). The earliest detailed map of the area,

the Douglas estate map of 1769, shows that this area was cultivated as strip fields by that period, and

lay north of the buildings of the village as it was then located (illus 39). The land was owned by the

Duke of Argyll. It is clear from this map that all trace of the enclosure had been removed by the mid

18th century. The field remained in use for arable crops (and known as Tyndal’s field to Charles

Thomas during his excavations) until the 1970s (as seen in photographs), by this time mechanically

ploughed. Even in the 1960s the field still extended west, extending over the area to the north of Reilig

Odhran later excavated by Barber (1981) (illus 38). More recently the field has been given over to

permanent pasture. Site D lies just south of the ruined St Mary’s chapel, a 13th-century building

(RCAHMS 1982, 245) which was cleared of rubble in the 19th century. Just to the west of the site and

slightly uphill, is the reported site of a well, Tobar Odhráin (Oran’s well) (Reeves 1874, cxlii) which

produces the water flow partially responsible for the flooding of the field as investigated in 2017 as Site

C (Campbell & MacIver 2017, 45).

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Illus 35: Excavating Site D trench, with the Sound of Iona and Ross of Mull in background

In marked contrast to the area of the early monastery within the PIC boundaries (O’Sullivan 1999, fig

7), there has been almost no previous excavation within the field and the nature of the deposits there

is virtually unknown. Although the site is within the scheduled area, it lies outside the Property in Care

boundary of the Abbey, where most previous excavations have taken place. 19th-century accounts

mention pins and other material being turned up in the fields around the Abbey (Keddie 1850). In 2013

a pipe trench was excavated along the southern boundary of the field in connection with new

affordable housing in the Glebe field (Will 2014). No significant archaeological deposits were

encountered except for a gravel spread interpreted as the post-medieval course of the Street of the

Dead, a coffin road leading to the Abbey. Further excavation just inside the southern wall of the field in

2018 by the NTS Thistle Camp found no supporting evidence for this surface (Alexander pers comm),

though quantities of handmade pottery were recovered. In 2017 a small trial trench (HY17C) was

opened as part of the present project to try to locate a burst drain which has been flooding the field

(Campbell & MacIver 2017). This excavation located a disused iron water pipe, visible in the

geophysical survey, which subsequent research showed to be part of a 1930’s pumped water system

servicing the St Columba hotel. This pipe ran across the rectangular enclosure and on Site C its pipe

trench was cut through deposits containing handmade pottery of mixed date and industrial deposits,

overlying a buried soil with ard marks in the natural.

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Illus 36: Resistivity survey of the field, with enclosure in red, trench locations in yellow, monastic

vallum ditches in orange, and site of well (Tobar Odhráin).

Given the highly unusual form of the enclosure, and our lack of understanding of the archaeological

resource in this area, it was identified as a prime site for investigation, both to expand our knowledge

of activities outside the bounds of the monastery, and to help with land management of the field by the

well

Iona Abbey 2018 DSR

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National Trust for Scotland. It was proposed that a trench on the east side of the enclosure across the

ditch held the best prospects for revealing its nature and date. The total area to be excavated

amounted to less than 1% of the enclosure.

A trench measuring 7 x 1.5m (total area 10.5 sq m) was situated where the ditch was cut by the pipe

trench. The pipe was located by dGPS and excavated for a length of 1.5m. It had been hoped to

locate the edge of the ditch cut in the base of the pipe trench in order to minimise intervention, but the

cut here was too narrow to allow this to be seen. Sandy deposits on top of dark brown soil visible in

the sides of the trench were taken to indicate upcast from the ditch, and the trench was laid out

accordingly (illus 36).

Illus 37: Lidar image of field (© HES), with transcription of enclosure, showing relationship to raised

area. OS Mastermap data from Digimap

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Illus 38: Plans of the abbey detailing the evolution of the stone boundary walls over time

Illus 39: 1769 estate map showing the field (No 12)- Site D is located near the 2 of no. 12, showing runrig

cultivation, the coffin road and St Mary’s chapel © HES

Iona Abbey 2018 DSR

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Lynchet [420]

On the resistivity survey, the eastern edge of the ditch was obscured by a large area of presumed

colluvium, and this turned out to be the case. The modern ploughsoil (401) varied in depth from 0.4-

0.6m and had clearly been washed downhill by plough action. In the centre of the trench there was a

cluster of large boulders (404) within the ploughsoil. Modern (20th-century) pottery and glass was

common in the deposits around the boulders. They were interpreted as infill of a hollow by the farmer

after the advent of tractor-drawn ploughs in the post WWII era. Beneath this layer was a layer of

gravelly soil (405) which gradually petered out eastwards. The gravel and an underlying brown soil

(406) filled a hollow [420] which cut through earlier deposits in the west of the trench (illus 40).

This hollow was initially interpreted as the western edge of the ditch, but it subsequently became clear

that it represented a lynchet associated with the 18th-century strip fields. The lynchet ran north-south

parallel to the slope of the field – in fact the direction of ridge and furrow seen in the 1769 estate map

(illus 39), confirming its accuracy. There was a mixture of finds, including medieval glazed pottery

(SWGW) and 18th-century wine bottle glass (SF408) in (406), confirming the late date of creation of

the lynchet.

Illus 40: South west facing section (above) and north east facing section (below) of the ditch

Ditch [408]

The ditch [408] was cut through the natural sands, gravels and boulders of the raised beach deposits.

It was 5.0m wide, with gently sloping sides and a flat bottom 2.0m wide (illus 40, 41). The maximum

depth of deposits within it was only 0.80m, though originally it would have been somewhat deeper.

Most of the fill was a fairly uniform dark brown loam though occasional random large boulders were

Iona Abbey 2018 DSR

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present, especially towards the base. The upper part merged into (406) and no clear boundary could

be seen. Lower in the fill a number of localised contexts appeared. In the south was a thin layer of

black cindery material (409) which spread for about 1.0m from the west edge of the ditch cut. On the

north side at a similar level was a thin layer of orange clay with charcoal (411) which butted up against

a setting of large rounded boulders of granite and Torridonoian flags up to 0.3m in diameter (415).

These boulders looked very similar in character to the rubble forming the walls of St Mary’s chapel,

and were probably derived from it, suggesting a post-Reformation date. This setting was carefully laid

with a level surface. It only extended into the trench for 0.3m, running into the north baulk. Its function

is unclear, but may have acted as a causeway across a boggy partially infilled ditch. Whatever the

case, it seems to represent a different stage in the useage of the area, when the ditch was no longer

functioning as originally intended.

Illus 41: Plan of trench with main features: (415) boulder setting; [408] ditch cut; pit [418]; and lynchet

[420]

Beneath these layers (ie 409, 411, 415), the brown ditch fill became progressively more silty and wet

(410, 413, 414). The concentration of boulders within this fill (412) was mainly at a lower level than

setting 415 and random rather than laid. The base of the ditch was waterlogged and the lowest few

centimetres could not be fully excavated. There appeared to be little or no primary silting, though the

sides were sometimes sandy or gravelly. These lower layers had quantities of animal teeth and very

decayed bone. Other finds included lumps of iron slag and bog iron ore. At the west lip of the ditch

there was a large iron object (SF402), perhaps a fitting or handle. There were a number of sherds of

handmade coarsely-gritted pottery (SFs 412, 428, 426, 429, 418, 419), some of it grass-marked, along

with finer ware with spots of glaze (SF420). The was also a large bodysherd of late medieval reduced

ware (SF 427) from (413) which would appear to give a terminus post quem for the infill of the ditch.

Samples were taken from the basal layers for flotation.

Interior

The only interior deposits which survived occupied less than a metre at the west of the trench, the

remainder being cut away by the ditch or the lynchet. Here, under topsoil was thick layer of streaky

yellow sand (402) overlying a brown silty loam (403) and a dirty orange gravel (416), all without finds.

These lay on a brown soil (417) which directly overlay yellow natural sand. The surface of the natural

had random impressions which did not appear to be like the parallel ard marks seen in 2017, but just

possibly could represent spade cultivation.

In the north-western corner of the trench there was a cut in the natural [418] filled with sandy backfill

mixed with small stones (419). One larger slab of granite lying against the side of the cut protruded out

of the cut above the natural. It was difficult to be sure at what level the cut appeared – it was certainly

sealed by 402 and 403, but the relationship with 417 was obscure, and 416 was not present here. The

Iona Abbey 2018 DSR

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fill (419) produced a grass-marked base of handmade coarse pottery (SF423) and two large iron nails,

one certainly a clench rivet (SF445). The sandy layer (402) is the same as that seen being cut by the

pipe trench in the exploratory trench to the west. The pipe itself just misses the north-west corner of

the trench.

Finds

Apart from the modern pottery, glass and ironwork in the most recent contexts, finds were scattered.

Both handmade and wheel-thrown sherds were found throughout the deposits, including medieval

glazed wares, and local wheelthrown unglazed wares, as well as grass-marked handmade

coarsewares (eg SF434) (illus 43). Scattered iron slag was found, including a hearth bottom which is

larger than early medieval examples (SF 413). One large iron object came from the edge of the ditch

cut (SF 402), possibly an agricultural item (illus 42). Towards the base of the ditch quantities of very

decayed animal bone were found, along with teeth.

Illus 42: SF402 possible handle

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Illus 43: SF434 Grass-marked base of handmade pottery

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Discussion

While there is no doubt that [408] is indeed a ditch, it is very broad and shallow. This may be a

function of the subsoil geology, as sands and gravels do not always allow steep-sided ditches.

However, the nearby deep monastic vallum excavated by Barber had a much steeper profile, so the

ditch may have a different function. Drainage would not seem to be the primary purpose, as it

encloses a raised mound which is in a very dry part of the field. The possibility of deposits formed from

upcast (402, 403) in the interior could represent an inner bank, or possibly levelling deposits to create

a level interior for a building. There is no sign of either of these in the geophysics however, but there

are indications of pits within the area according to the geophysical report interpretation (Ovenden

2012, 2) (Illus 44), which would tie in with the presence of a pit [418].

The presence of animal bone in the primary ditch infill, and scattered evidence of iron-working, might

suggest occupation related to craft activities within the enclosure. The sherd of late medieval pottery

(no earlier than 14/15th century) in the primary deposits would suggest a late date in the use of the

abbey, possibly associated with the 15th -century rebuilding of the abbey, or the 17th –century partial

restoration of the abbey as a cathedral of the Isles (RCAHMS 1982, 52). The stone setting within the

ditch may represent a causeway erected when the ditch had ceased its primary function, or a working

platform erected in a sheltered area. The agricultural lynchet seems to have been functioning by the

18th century, and have gone out of use in the 20th century.

The presence of coarse handmade pottery with grass-marked bases may be indicative of late first

millennium occupation in the immediate area which had been disturbed by the ditch cutting. The cut

feature [418] contained some of this pottery as well as a clench nail, which provides some support for

this idea. Similar vessels were found in Barber’s excavation (Barber 1981, fig 43, no. 13.2), and to the

east of the Abbey (Haggerty 1988, illus 5, 19). These vessels could have been influenced by northern

Irish souterrain ware, or Hebridean Norse pottery (Lane & Campbell 1988, 210-1; Campbell

forthcoming; Armit 2008), though the fabrics are local.

Post-excavation strategy

The analysis of the ditch is the key feature of the site as the material from the agricultural lynchet is

very mixed modern material. The pottery from the ditch will be sent to ceramic specialist Derek Hall,

who has reported on several previous assemblages of medieval pottery from Iona. However, the small

quantities of pottery will make it difficult to be sure of the taphonomy of the sherds- some of the

handmade sherds appear to be residual, derived from deposits cut through by the ditch. In addition,

only broad dates are likely to be arrived at as the reduced ware found in the lower levels of the ditch

has a long life-span. The handmade pottery will be reported on by the project director, who is a

specialist in this material. Samples for floatation and wet sieving were taken from the basal layers of

the ditch (413, 414) <401, 402>, from the cindery layer (409) <400>, and from sandy (402) <403>, and

will be analysed by Susan Ramsay for suitability for radiocarbon dating and any information on

agricultural practices, but very little material was recovered (App. 6). The bone material from the ditch

fill (413, 414) is extremely decayed (a spongy mass) and again the taphonomy is problematic; it holds

little potential other than possible species presence. The origin of the iron-working slag is also

problematic, and may be residual, again does not merit specialist analysis. Most of the weight of slag

is from a single large diameter hearth bottom (1.9kg).

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Illus 44: Gradiometer survey of field (Ovenden 2012), with enclosure in red. Note internal anomalies and pipe trench

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4 Conclusions

The 2018 excavation of Site B confirmed that the early medieval wall [501] had been heavily truncated

to the north and west and this might explain why there is only a small section of wall is represented on

the geophysical surveys of the site. Excavation of the area around Site B confirmed that the depth of

modern material varies across the site, from very shallow just below the turf in the terraced area to the

north, to a modern overburden of c. 0.6m to the south along the PIC boundary wall (illus 25). To the

east and west a relatively flat platform has been formed by modern landscaping and here the modern

overburden is c.0.4m. This information can be used to inform future conservation and presentation at

the site. It has become clear that the entire sunken terrace area around the south of the abbey church

nave contains a complex palimpsest of early medieval structures and deposits, and that these are

neither understood, nor presented to the public, and are not well protected. The very heterogeneous

make-up of the modern deposits, with rubble, stone chippings, mortar, shell and spoil spreads may

also go some way to explaining the confusing geophysical signatures in the area. The excavations

also showed the position of the masons’ yard used during the early 20th-century reconstruction of the

nave, and shows how the materials were prepared. This is important as there appear to be no

photographs or other records of this work in progress.

The earliest phase of activity on the site is the construction of the drystone wall [501] with its

foundation course resting on an old ground surface c. 1.75m below the current turf. Dating of the

dumped material up against the exterior wallface has confirmed that the wall was constructed

sometime before AD 660-770, and thus belongs to the earliest phase of monastery. Further samples

obtained in 2018 will hopefully refine this dating. It was established that the walling ran for at least 6m

northwards from the curved corner, and thus was not part of an apsed church as had been speculated

in 2017, but the nature of the structure could not be established given the SMC constraints. If it

represents a building, then this would be very large and might possibly be the ‘magna domus’

mentioned by Adomnán as the main living quarters of the monks of the Columban monastery

(MacDonald 2001). It was also not established if the walling was merely a revetment to create a level

surface intended for a conventional rectangular building, or the lower courses of a clay-bonded stone

structure, as suggested by evidence in the northern extension, and the apparently collapsed material

to the east, or indeed, a multiphase structure. Only further open area excavation could resolve these

issues.

The site was also the focus of later medieval activity. The wall was partially dismantled in the 10/11th

century, industrial metalworking took place, and burials were inserted around the exterior of the

structure. Above this level, the western extension trench showed that above and inside the

demolished structure there were significant deposits of later medieval date, full of green-glazed

pottery, bone, and metalwork finds. These were not excavated, but appeared to be midden material

and dumps of building debris from the Benedictine period construction phases. However, there is no

clear answer to the puzzle of why the Benedictine cloisters were built to the north of the church, rather

than in the normal area to the south.

The 2018 excavation of Site D answered its research objectives – the geophysical anomaly is indeed

a ditched enclosure, and it seems to date to the late medieval period. Analysis of the ditch sediments

may provide more precise dating. However, the function of the enclosure remains obscure and only

investigation of the interior is likely to throw more light on this.

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5 Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Historic Environment Scotland and the University of Glasgow for funding the

excavations, and Richard Strachan, John Raven and Simon Stronach of HES for support through the

project. Our partners in the National Trust for Scotland and in particular Derek Alexander have been

crucial to our understanding of the wider island context. Thanks also to Emma Wilkins (NTS ranger),

Jane Martin and Gordon Rutherford of the HES staff on Iona for much help on site. Thanks to Andrew

Prentice, the tenant farmer, for helping with access to Site D and interest in the excavations. As well

as the main site team thanks are due to Gert Petersen, for organising and delivering our equipment for

the excavation.

6 References

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Yale University Press.

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Appendix 1: List of Contexts

Site B 2018

Context Area Description Interpretation Relationship to other contexts

500 all Topsoil. A homogenous turf rooted layer 0.15m thick. Same as 2017 (200). Topsoil Over all other layers

501 Main trench, N. Extension

Drystone revetment wall, roughly coursed large blocks of undressed flagstone with small pinning stones. Composed of local Torridonian flags and a few rounded granite slabs. Lowest course megalithic stones up to 0.7m x 0.55m. Truncated to the north where an area of 3m is visibly slumped. It is possible upper courses have been robbed or truncated. Same as 2017 [203].

Drystone revetment/wall (same as (203)) with truncation. Forms a rounded corner of larger structure.

under 518, 516, 539, cut by 538?

502 Main trench, W. Extension

Backfill of Thomas' Cutting 11d and the 2017 trench. A mixed deposit - separated stone and soil in 2017 and laid Terram down. Backfill Under 500, abuts [501]

503 Main trench A burnt charcoal rich soil with orange mottling in Trench 2d (2017). Same as 2017 (223) Burnt layer Same as (223)

504 Main trench

Firm dark brown sandy silty with small angular stones, frequent inclusions of shell becoming increasingly concentrated to the east. Contains animal bone, Ballachulish slate and porcelain (19th century). 6m by 2m in the N edge and W area of trench. Same as 2017 (204).

Mixed levelling deposit, localised in the N edge and W area of trench.

under 500, over 515, same as 508, 507, 204 (2017)

505 Main trench Large tumbled stone to the east of the main drystone wall [501]. Same as 2017 (245). Unexcavated.

Spread of stone from demolition/collapse? Same as (245)

506 Main trench Clay rich deposit to the east of (505). Same as 2017 (244). Unexcavated. Related to building material? Same as (244)

507 Main trench

Firm dark brown sandy silt with small angular stones, mortar, occasional shell and animal bone and fragments of 19th century Ballachulish slate. Mixed deposit used to level the area. Interface above truncated burial [513] and (512) (not excavated). 2.5m by 2m by 0.1m thick in the SE corner of trench. Same as 2017 (204).

Levelling deposit, localised in SE corner of trench.

under 500, over 206 (2017), 512, 513, same as 504, 508, 204 (2017)

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Context Area Description Interpretation Relationship to other contexts

508 Main trench

Firm dark brown sandy silt with small stones up to 0.05m (5%). Homogenous and unclear. Inclusions of 19th century Ballachulish slate. 3.1m by 0.96m by 0.25m deep. In the SW corner of the main trench. Same as 2017 (204).

Levelling deposit, localised in SW corner.

under 500, same as 504, 507, 204 (2017)

509 Main trench

Firm dark brown sandy silt with small patches of yellow sand. Present in 2017 sondage to E of wall [501]. Only revealed in plan, not excavated. 2m by 2m. Unexcavated. under 506, 505

510 Main trench, N. Extension

Loose greyish brown deposit with frequent shell (limpet and whelk). Small fragments of angular stone in areas and inclusions of slate and ceramic. Extends to N of wall [501] to break of slope where it has possibly been truncated by landscaping. More concentrated to the E, extends into hollow at the W edge of trench but does not continue- suggests it is a dumped deposit. 3m across by 0.1m deep. Same as 2017 (224).

A shell rich layer related to mortar production which has been levelled and truncated. under 520, 504, 511

511 Main trench, W. Extension

Loose to firm spread of disintegrating mortar within a matrix of mid greyish brown silt. Occasional limpet shell. Some stone with mortar attached suggests a post-destruction deposit. Possibly truncated to the E, extends to the W under baulk and stops at the edge of the W extension. 2m by 1.5m by 0.15m deep. Same as 2017 (225).

A dump of mortar and spread of material which has been levelled.

under 504, over 510 at W edge, 519 in hollow

512 Main Trench

Fill of [513]. Dark brown sandy silt visible in W-facing section of Thomas' trench. Upper area truncated in antiquity. Contains human remains and an iron spike. 0.6m wide by 0.1m deep.

Fill of [513]. Upper truncated in antiquity under 507, fill of 513

513 Main Trench U-shaped cut, not visible in plan- only in section. 0.4m to 0.6m wide by 0.1m deep.

Cut of a grave, upper truncated in antiquity. Not excavated.

under 507, filled by 512, cuts 206

514 Main Trench

Four small rounded stones visible in W-facing section of Charles Thomas's trench; c.0.1m x 0.05m. Under 2017 (211). Forms a horizontal line in section 0.4m wide. Charcoal rich lens running over the top. 0.4m by 0.5m.

Possible small hearth/stone setting under 211

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Context Area Description Interpretation Relationship to other contexts

515 Main Trench

Dark blackish brown mottled layer with patches of charcoal. Contains; small angular stones and patches of disintegrated mortar, fragments of cragganware, wheel-thrown pot and broken up sandstone. Clay rich in upper extent. Extends from N end of trench to (522).

Burnt deposit localised over, and to the E of wall [501]. over 516, 522

516 Main Trench

Friable white spread of crushed and whole shell and small fragments of stone. Inclusions of mortar, excavated as two thin lenses.

Spread of material associated with mortar production. under 517, 515, over 541

517 Main Trench Light orange brown sandy deposit underlying (510) containing a nail-headed pin. 2.2m by 1.1m by 0.1m deep.

Unexcavated- possible medieval deposit. under 516, 510

518 N. Extension Compact, mixed deposit of angular stone and sand with modern glass. Cut by 20th century activity, along a steep scarp.

Dump of material from 20th century landscaping. under 510

519 Main trench

Thin layer of soil underlying a spread of mortar (511). Contains a fragment of chamfered block from the cloisters, indicative of construction debris. 2m by 1.5m by 0.1m deep.

Turf or soil formation in a hollowed area, deposit filled by a levelling layer including mortar debris. under 511, over 520

520 Main trench Thin layer of pea gravel in the hollow underlying (519). 1.5m by 1m by 0.1m deep.

Levelling deposit, possibly related to mortar production. under 519, over 510

521 N. Extension Thin layer of sandy hill wash overlying early 20th century cut. 0.01m deep.

Thin layer of hill wash deposited over early 20th century cut. under 510

522 Main Trench

Loose strip of mortar in the main trench and friable patches of white mortar with small stones. Spread to the E and W of wall [501] in NE corner of the main trench.1.8m by 1.1m by 0.05m deep.

Spread of modern mortar associated with rebuilding the abbey in the 20th century. under 514, over 506, 541

523 Main Trench

Orange brown friable sandy deposit overlying (516) in an area W of wall [501]. Similar to, and difficult to differentiate from (517). 1.3m by 0.9m by 0.1m thick. Modern deposit. under 510, over 516

524 N. Extension

Loose blackish brown undifferentiated topsoil in the hollow in NE corner of N extension. Amorphous edges. Contains 2 fragments of slag. 0.5m by 0.4m by 0.1m deep.

Silted up hollow where stone was removed from. under 500, over 528

525 N. Extension

L-shaped setting of stones aligned NW-SE on long axis. A mix of rounded and angular stones. Extends into the trench edge. Not excavated, only exposed. 2m by 0.4m by 0.1m.

Possible base layer for a turf wall or stone structure, possibly disturbed during 20th century landscaping. abuts 526

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Context Area Description Interpretation Relationship to other contexts

526 N. Extension Loose pea gravel deposit within and to the N of stone setting [525]. Unexcavated. Gravelly deposit

Abuts 525, under 500

527 N. Extension A patch of friable, loose broken up shell and small stones on N extension. Similar to (516).1.5m by 1m by 0.03m.

Spread of disintegrated modern mortar. under 510, over 518

528 N. Extension Dark blackish brown deposit with iron slag and small flecks of charcoal. Not excavated.

under 524 (?same as 208), cut by 538

529 W. Extension

Very compact deposit of small angular stones, sandstone chips and compact sandy soil. Extends beyond N edge of trench and 4m to the S and into E edge of western extension. Small patch visible in NW corner of main trench. Contains several iron nails. 4m across By 0.25m deep.

Hardstanding for community work. over 532, under 500

530 W. Extension Band of white disintegrated mortar in W extension. Not excavated. Band of mortar under and within medieval deposit (534). under 529, 534

531 W. Extension Fill of pit [533]. Dark brown sandy soil with frequent large rounded stones up to 0.4m by 0.3m by 0.2m deep.

Modern deposit of building stone in a pit cut into medieval deposits (534) under 500, fill of 533

532 W. Extension

Greenish yellow sandy friable layer in the west extension. Contains frequent small, angular Carsaig sandstone fragments. Same as 2017 (233).

Related to sandstone working, a levelling deposit or floor surface.

under 529, over 534, 537, same as 233, abuts 535

533 W. Extension

Sub-rectangular cut, shallow with gently sloping sides leading to an undulating-flat base. Aligned approximately E-W. Cut into medieval deposits (534). Filled by (531).

Modern cut containing a fill of modern stone. over 534, under 531

534 W. Extension

Firm dark brown mottled sand with orange patches. Contains green glaze pottery, animal and charcoal. Across the large part of the western extension. 5m x 5m (depth unknown). Unexcavated- medieval deposit. under 532, same as 540, 542

535 W. Extension

Linear cut 0.28m wide aligned E-W across the western extension for a distance of 5m. U-shaped and shallow with an undulating base. 5m by 2.8m by 0.1m deep. Filled by (536).

Cut for sleeper beam delineating spread of 532 and related to the hardstanding/community hut platform (529). over 534, 530, under 536

536 W. Extension

Loose dark blackish brown sandy soil with some angular stones and modern white mortar chunks. Contains nails throughout. 5m by 0.28m by 0.1m deep. Fill of sleeper beam cut [535].

under 529?, 504, over 535, abuts 532

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Context Area Description Interpretation Relationship to other contexts

537 W. Extension

Deposit of rough cobbling under (532). Comprises a mix of rounded cobbles c.0.15m x 0.1m and smaller angular stones packed in between. Forms a rough surface 2m by 1.5m by 0.1m deep. The area uncovered is L-shaped but may extend under (534) to the W and S. Unexcavated.

Rough surface, possibly part of a once larger area. under 532 and possibly 534

538 N. Extension

Vertical sided cut oriented N-S along line of wall projection. Unclear edge to the W. Cuts (528) in NE corner of northern extension. Filled by (539).

Possibly a trench cut to rob wall stones. under 539, over 528

539 N. Extension Fill of [538]. Very compact and trampled to upper, becoming loose and undifferentiated. Inclusions of modern glass near the surface.

Fill of trench cut to rob wall stones [538]. under 500, over 538

540 W. Extension Firm dark brown mottled sand with orange patches. Same as (534). Unexcavated- medieval deposit. under 532, same as 534, 542

541 Main Trench

Compact, dense layer of small angular stones within a matrix of small pebbles. Inclusions of mortar visible on the surface. Stops before wall [501]; similar patch on W edge of wall. 2m by 2m (depth unknown).

Area of hardstanding/hard packed surface related to mortar production (522). under 515, 522

542 W. Extension

Orange brown hard packed surface with a clay component to the west of rough cobbling (537). Extends 1.5m by 2m in the NW corner of the western extension and extends into trench edge. Unexcavated.

Burnt material packed to form a surface? under 532

543 Main Trench

Loose dark brown mixed material with rounded and angular stones throughout. Inclusions of bone fragments and patches of mortar. 2m long section visible at N extent of wall [501], roughly aligned with [538] in northern extension.

A deposit of material where stone robbing has occurred. over 541, 501

544 W. Extension

Very compact yellow sandy deposit with a loose lens at the base of slightly different material. Localised in the SW corner of the western extension. Base foundation for a wall? under 533, underr 545

545 W. Extension Thin lens of a charcoal rich greyish brown silty deposit in the SW corner of western extension. 0.3m by 0.25m by 0.03m deep. Thin lens of burnt deposit. over 544, under 546

546 W. Extension

Brownish orange burnt deposit with charcoal flecks. Extends to (545) in the SW corner of the western extension. Small patch visible at the base of pit [533]. 0.3m by 0.25m (depth unknown). Unexcavated. Probable medieval deposit. under 533, over 545, 544

547 N. Extension L-shaped cut 25m by 10m by 0.4m deep. Area cut during 1900's landscaping.

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Context Area Description Interpretation Relationship to other contexts

548 N. Extension Loose brown sandy soil 0.3m in depth. Backfill or material from landscaping. under 518, over 501

549 N. Extension

Very compact spread of clay with a flat stone uncovered in the N edge of the northern extension. Extends to the N and possibly aligned E-W. Frequent small angular stones over the large flat stone and within the clay. 0.4m wide, depth unknown. Unexcavated.

Remnants of a clay bonded wall/structure? under 500, abuts 528, 501

Site D

Feature

Description

Interpretation

Relationship to other contexts

401

friable reddish-brown sandy loam, up to 0.6m thick, over whole trench topsoil over 404

402 Yellowish sandy soil with streaky texture, up to 0.15m thick, only in small strip at west end of trench

ditch upcast? internal bank? cut by 420, under 401

403 compact purplish-brown silty loam, up to 0.15m thick, only in small strip at western end of trench upcast? under 402

404 silty brown soil with concentration of large rounded boulders up to 0.5m, in slight hollow in centre of trench, extending about 2m east-west

agricultural infill of low-lying area

over 405, at base of and within 401

405 Soft gravel-rich layer, dark brown, up to 0.10m thick. Fills west part of hollow 420, but peters out towards the middle of the trench Inwash from cultivation under 404, over 406

406

Soft silty dark brown soil, occasional stones, up to 0.2m thick, within ditch cut 420 ditch silt under 405, over 415, 411, 409

407

very soft yellow sand, in west end of trench. Irregular holes in surface filled with 417 natural cut by 420, under 417

408 Broad cut, running north-south, shallow sides with flat bottom. 5.0m wide at top, 2.0m at base. ditch cut cut by 420, lowest fill 414

409

Black soft cindery layer. Small patch in south of trench, 0.03m thick metal-working deposit under 406, over 410

410

dark brown silty soil, merges into 413 ditch silt under 409, over 413

411 soft orange clay, 0.05m thick. Small patch in north, between boulders 415 and ditch edge part of 415?

butts 415, over 413, within 410

412

large rounded boulders, mainly granite, scattered in base of ditch, not set like 415 dumped infill of wet area? under 410, over 413

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Feature

Description

Interpretation

Relationship to other contexts

413 dark brown sticky clayey silt, gravelly in places at ditch edge, up to 0.4m thick. Very decayed bone common. ditch silt under 410, 412

414 dark brown sticky clayey silt, waterlogged and sandy at base, 0.10m thick. Random large rounded boulders up to 0.5m ditch silt under 413, over 420

415 Setting of carefully laid large boulders in north of trench (up to 0.4m), extending into baulk. 1.3 x 04m, 0.4m thick, forming a level platform in the centre of the ditch causeway?

abuts 411, under 410, over 413

416

orange gravel, in west end of trench upcast? under 403, over 417

417 dark brown soil in west part of trench, up to 0.2m thick, fills irregular hollows in natural sand 407 old topsoil under 416, over 407

418

Steep-sided cut in north-west corner of trench, feature runs into baulks, depth 0.5m pit? Grave?? under 403,

419

Mixed material, sand, gravel and soil with small stones, in cut 418 backfill of feature over 419, under 403, ?416

420

Shallow cut running north-south, in west end of trench, peters out eastwards lynchet cuts 402, fill 405

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Appendix 2: List of Samples

Site B

Sample # Context Area

# bags Size bag Volume

% of deposit Reason for sampling Applications/Comments

500 211

1 small 0.1 in section botanics C14 and ID, on cobbles in E section

501 233

1 tiny

in section botanics C14 and ID, on cobbles in E section

502 224

1 small

in section mortar with shell C14 and ID, on cobbles in E section

503 239

1 small

mortar and slate mortar ID

504 242

1 large 1 in section botanics ID botanics

505 522

1 small

mortar on stone mortar ID

506 545

1 small

smear on wall 544 C14 and ID

507 221

1 Kubiena

Burnt layer - boundary between (204) and (221) stone micromorph analysis

508 221

1 Kubiena

Below and to left of sample #508 in (221) micromorph analysis

509 221

1 Kubiena

To left of samples #507 and #508 in (221) micromorph analysis

510 522

1 Kubiena

Mortar in Kubiena to stop it getting broken up mortar ID

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Site D

Sample # Context Area Size bag Reason for sampling Applications/Comments

400 409 D L C14 Charcoal

401 413 D L C14 Charcoal

402 414 D L C14 Charcoal (waterlogged area)

403 402 D L C14 Charcoal

404 419 D L C14 Charcoal

405 - - L ID, comparison Mortar, St. Mary's chapel

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Appendix 3: List of Finds

Site B

SF Number Context Area

# of pieces Material Type Description Easting Northing

Act. Height Date Initials

501 510 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Cream, wheel thrown 128663.66 724488.24 18.42 10/05/2018 PY

502 502 T2 14 Slag Slag Bulk slag - - - 08/05/2018 CM

503 500 T2 2 Metal Iron Iron fragments - - - 08/05/2018 CM

504 500 T2

Mix Mix Mixed material - - - 08/05/2018 CM

505 504 T2 9 Pottery Pottery Mix of green and white glaze - - - 08/05/2018 LT

506 504 T2 1 Slag Slag Slag - - - 10/05/2018 JB

507 504 T2 2 Mortar Mortar White mortar - - - 10/05/2018 JB

508 504 T2 60+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 10/05/2018 JB

509 508 T2 1 Pottery Pottery White glaze - - - 10/05/2018 JB

510 507 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Cream, wheel thrown 128665.81 724483.07 17.97 10/05/2018 AB

511 507 T2 1 Metal Iron Nail (vertical) 128665.94 724484.17 17.94 12/05/2018 AB

512 512 T2 1 Metal Iron Spike (horizontal) 0.15m 128664.57 724483.43 17.95 12/05/2018 EC

513 512 T2 1 Metal Iron Nail (horizontal) 128665.55 724483.33 17.94 12/05/2018 LT

514 507 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Early Med handmade 128666.69 724483.34 17.95 12/05/2018 AB EC

515 507 T2 20+ Slag Slag Bulk slag - - - 12/05/2018 AB EC

516 507 T2 20+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 12/05/2018 AB

517 507 T2 2 Stone Flint Flake and core - - - 12/05/2018 AB

518 507 T2 3 Metal Iron Iron fragments - - - 12/05/2018 AB

519 507 T2 3 Stone Slate Slate fragments 128666.58 724483.16 17.91 12/05/2018 AB

520 515 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Craggan Ware 128665.43 724486.47 18.18 12/05/2018 PY

521 510 T2 1 Stone Flint Chunk 128661.37 724488.33 18.52 12/05/2018 EC

522 510 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Handmade 128661.67 724489.84 18.48 12/05/2018 EC

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SF Number Context Area

# of pieces Material Type Description Easting Northing

Act. Height Date Initials

523 510 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Green glaze 128662.96 724489.55 18.33 12/05/2018 EC

524 508 T2 6 Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 12/05/2018 JB

525 500 T2 35+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 12/05/2018

JB JAD AB LT

526 500 T2 2 Stone Flint Pink flint flake and rolled ?core - - - 12/05/2018

JB JAD AB LT

527 VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID

528 510 T2 150+ Bone Bone Bulk bone + human mandible - - - 12/05/2018

JB JAD AB LT

529 VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID

530 510 T2 3 Metal Iron Nail - - - 12/05/2018

JB JAD AB LT

531 510 T2 1 Stone Slate Slate fragment with nail hole - - - 12/05/2018 JB

532 VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID

533 504 T2 1 Stone Flint Burnt flint - - - 12/05/2018 PY

534 505 T2 15 Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 12/05/2018 PY

535 518 T2 1 Glass Modern Dark green 128663.04 724490.44 18.38 14/05/2018 EC

536 518 T2 1 Stone Slate Grey 662.87 491.09 18.16 14/05/2018 EC

537 511 T2 1 Stone Sandstone Carsaig window moulding fragment On plan On plan 18.51 14/05/2018 AB

538 519 T2 1 Pottery Pottery White gritty ware green glaze 128661.37 724488.01 18.46 14/05/2018 -

539 518 T2 50+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 14/05/2018 -

540 518 T2 1 Metal Iron Iron object, ?nail - - - 14/05/2018 -

541 518 T2 7 Slag Slag Bulk slag - - - 14/05/2018 -

542 519 T2 1 Bone Dice Small bone cube, ?dice, unfinished 128661.54 724486.99 18.35 14/05/2018 AB

543 519 T2 1 Pottery Pottery White gritty ware green glaze 128660.98 724486.61 18.28 14/05/2018 AB

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SF Number Context Area

# of pieces Material Type Description Easting Northing

Act. Height Date Initials

544 511 T2 5 Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 14/05/2018 AB JB

545 521 T2 6 Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 14/05/2018 CM

546 521 T2 5 Slag Slag Bulk slag - - - 14/05/2018 CM

547 521 T2 2 Mortar and slate Mortar and slate Old mortar and bulk slag - - - 14/05/2018 CM

548 519 T2 1 Pottery Pottery White gritty ware green glaze 128661.05 724485.45 18.29 14/05/2018 AB

549 VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID

550 519 T2 20+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 14/05/2018 AB

551 524 T2 2 Slag Slag Iron slag/bog iron - - - 15/05/2018 JB

552 519 T2 1 Metal Iron Iron fragment - - - 15/05/2018 AB

553 510 T2 2 Pottery Pottery Green glaze, same vessel 128662.91 724488.52 18.46 15/05/2018 PY

554 510 T2 1 Stone Sandstone Carsaig window moulding fragment 128662.83 724486.94 18.36 15/05/2018 JB

555 230 T2 1 Stone Flint Core - - - 15/05/2018 AB

556 510 T2 1 Stone

Slicker 128662.41 724486.46 18.34 15/05/2018 JB

557 520 T2 20+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 15/05/2018 AB

558 519 T2 1 Stone Sandstone Chamfered ashlar - - - 15/05/2018 EC

559 529 T2 1 Metal Iron Nail On plan On plan

16/05/2018 EC

560 529 T2 1 Metal Cu alloy Ferrule

16/05/2018 JB

561 515 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Green glaze 128665.94 724487.43 18.22 17/05/2018 JAD

562 529 T2 1 Metal Cu alloy Keyring 128658.07 724488.90 18.52 17/05/2018 JB

563 529 T2 1 Pottery Pottery White gritty ware green glaze, handle 128658.83 724487.57 18.58 17/05/2018 CM

564 529 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Red ware 128656.90 724486.63 18.56 17/05/2018 JB

565 529 T2 3 Pottery Pottery Craggan Ware, refitting fragments 128656.99 724486.50 18.55 17/05/2018 JB

566 VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID

567 VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID VOID

568 528 T2 4 Slag Slag Bulk slag - - - 17/05/2018 HC

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SF Number Context Area

# of pieces Material Type Description Easting Northing

Act. Height Date Initials

569 534 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Medieval - - - 18/05/2018 HC

570 517 T2 1 Metal Cu alloy Nail-headed pin

18/05/2018 JAD

571 531 T2 10+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 18/05/2018 CM

572 534 T2 2 Pottery Pottery Red ware green glaze - - - 18/05/2018 CM

573 529 T2 10+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 18/05/2018 CM

574 529 T2 2 Stone Sandstone Ashlar stone - - - 18/05/2018 CM

575 529 T2 1 Slag Slag Iron slag - - - 18/05/2018 CM

576 540 T2 1 Metal Iron Nail - - - 18/05/2018 PY

577 539 T2 3 Mortar Mortar Mortar - - - 18/05/2018 EC

578 539 T2 1 Metal Iron Nail - - - 18/05/2018 EC

579 539 T2 10 Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 18/05/2018 EC

580 539 T2 1 Stone Slate Slate - - - 18/05/2018 EC

581 539 T2 1 Slag Slag Slag - - - 18/05/2018 EC

582 532 T2 26 Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 18/05/2018 HC

583 542 T2 1 Shell Shell Oyster - - - 18/05/2018 HC

584 542 T2 1 Slag Slag Slag - - - 18/05/2018 HC

585 542 T2 25 Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 18/05/2018 HC

586 540 T2 1 Stone Slate

- - - 18/05/2018 HC

587 515 T2 4 Slag Slag

- - - 18/05/2018 JAD

588 515 T2

Bone Bone

- - - 18/05/2018 JAD

589 540 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Red ware green glaze 128659.22 724488.26 18.44 19/05/2018 PY

590 532 T2 1 Stone Sandstone Tracery 128656.11 724487.08 18.47 19/05/2018 EC

591 540 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Medieval, rim sherd 128659.60 724488.50 18.41 19/05/2018 PY

592 534 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Medieval 128655.10 724487.40 18.50 19/05/2018 EC

593 534 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Medieval 128655.10 724487.20 18.48 19/05/2018 EC

594 534 T2 2 Pottery Pottery Medieval 128655.40 724487.10 18.44 19/05/2018 EC

595 534 T2 1 Pottery Pottery Medieval 128655.40 724486.10 18.35 19/05/2018 EC

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SF Number Context Area

# of pieces Material Type Description Easting Northing

Act. Height Date Initials

596 534 T2 2 Pottery Pottery Medieval 128655.60 724485.70 18.26 19/05/2018 EC

597 543 T2

Bone Bone Bone from layer over wall - - - 19/05/2018 JAD

598 534 T2 1 Stone Slate Slate - - - 21/05/2018 HC

599 500 T2 5 Pottery Porcelain Sherd - - - 21/05/2018 HC

600 510 T2 1 Shell Shell Unusual shell - - - 21/05/2018 HC

601 500 T2 1 Antler Tine

- - - 21/05/2018 HC

602 500 T2 1 Slag Slag Slag - - - 21/05/2018 HC

603 500 T2 1 Glass Modern Bottle glass - - - 21/05/2018 HC

604 534 T2 1 Metal Iron Nail - - - 21/05/2018 HC

605 534 T2 10 Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 21/05/2018 HC

606 511 T2 6 Stone Slate Bulk slate - - - 21/05/2018 HC

607 500 T2 1 Stone Stone

- - - 21/05/2018 HC

608 500 T2 1 Bone Tusk Boar tusk - - - 21/05/2018 HC

609 504

1 Pottery Pottery Medieval 128659.74 724486.36 18.44 22-May HC

610 504

1 Metal Zinc washer? 128660.08 724486.39 18.45 22-May HC

611 536

1 Metal Iron ?nail 128657.14 724486.17 18.49 22-May AB

612 536

1 Metal Iron ?nail 128657.02 724486.13 18.49 22-May AB

613 504

1 Pottery Pottery Med pottery 128659.87 724485.29 18.38 22-May HC

614 536

40+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 22-May AB

615 504

1 Metal Cu alloy Long needle 128659.63 724486.76 18.46 22-May PY

616 536

4 Stone Slate Slate fragments - - - 22-May AB

617 532

1 Metal Iron Nail 128657.22 724486.05 18.42 22-May AB

618 532

1 Metal Silver Coin 128657.64 724485.64 18.28 22-May AB

619 532

1 Metal Iron and Cu alloy ?nail wrapped with Copper wire 128657.45 724485.69 18.35 22-May AB

620 504

1 Metal Cu alloy Strip 128658.88 724486.48 18.47 22-May PY

621 504

1 Glass Glass Modern window glass 128659.80 724485.11 18.33 22-May HC

622 532

1 Metal Iron Nail 128657.26 724485.48 18.31 22-May AB

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SF Number Context Area

# of pieces Material Type Description Easting Northing

Act. Height Date Initials

623 532

1 Metal Cu alloy Clasp? 128658.40 724482.30 18.43 22-May HC

624 532

1 Stone Mortar Iona marble with mortar - - - 22-May HC

625 532

1 Pottery Pottery Potsherd - - - 22-May HC

626 532

4 Metal Iron Iron fragments - - - 22-May HC

627 532

1 Slag Slag Slag - - - 22-May HC

628 536

8 Stone Stone Fire-cracked stone? - - - 22-May HC

629 500

1 Metal Iron Nail - - - 24-May LT

630 543

10+ Bone Bone Mix of bone - - - 25-May JAD

631 543

1 Slag Slag Slag - - - 25-May JAD

632 500

6+ Slag Slag Slag from N extension - - - 25-May LT

633 518

10+ Bone Bone Bulk bone - - - 25-May LT

634 518

2 Slag Slag Slag - - - 25-May LT

Site D

SF No. Context

No./ wt (g) Material Type Description Date

401 401 - Mix Mix Mixed modern materials 22/05/2018

402 406 2 Metal Iron handle? 23/05/2018

403 404 5 Glass Modern 18th wine bottle 23/05/2018

404 404 68g Bone

Animal Bone Bulk bone 23/05/2018

405 404 1 ceramic Pottery modern salt-glazed jar 23/05/2018

406 404 324g Slag iron Slag

23/05/2018

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407 404 4 Metal Iron ?nail 23/05/2018

408 406 1 Glass Modern 18th- Century wine bottle glass, joins SF403 24/05/2018

409 406 1 ceramic Pottery unglazed med. Whiteware 24/05/2018

410 406 1 ceramic Pottery gritty handmade ware 24/05/2018

411 406 1 ceramic Pottery med. SWG ware, green-glazed 24/05/2018

412 410 1 ceramic Pottery handmade, grass-marked base with carbonised

deposits 24/05/2018

413 406 2102g Slag iron slag

24/05/2018

414 406 16g Bone

Animal Bone Bulk bone 24/05/2018

416 404 1 Stone Flint broken scraper/knife? 24/05/2018

418 410 1 ceramic Pottery handmade gritty ware coarse ware 24/05/2018

419 410 1 ceramic Pottery handmade gritty ware coarse ware 25/05/2018

420 410 1 ceramic Pottery Fine wheel-thrown ware with spotty glaze 25/05/2018

421 406 1 Stone Flint

25/05/2018

422 410 39g Bone

Animal Bone Bulk bone 25/05/2018

423 410 96g Slag iron Slag Bulk slag 25/05/2018

424 410 5 Stone Flint Bulk flint 25/05/2018

425 405 584g Slag iron Slag Bulk slag 26/05/2018

426 413 1 ceramic Pottery

26/05/2018

427 413 1 ceramic Pottery Late medieval reduced ware, large bodysherd 26/05/2018

428 414 1 ceramic Pottery handmade gritty ware coarse ware 26/05/2018

429 414 1 ceramic Pottery handmade gritty ware coarse ware 26/05/2018

431 402/3 1 ceramic Pottery handmade gritty ware coarse ware 26/05/2018

432 419 1 ceramic Pottery unglazed, wheel-thrown 26/05/2018

433 419 1 Metal Iron Nail 26/05/2018

434 419 1 ceramic Pottery handmade gritty ware coarse ware, grass-marked

base, carbonised deposits 26/05/2018

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435 419 1 ceramic Pottery unglazed, wheel-thrown 26/05/2018

436 414 4 Metal Iron Bulk iron objects 26/05/2018

437 414 507g Bone

Animal Bone Bulk bone 26/05/2018

438 413 163 Bone

Animal Bone Bulk bone 26/05/2018

439 414 11g Slag Slag Slag 26/05/2018

440 413 167g Slag Slag Bulk slag 26/05/2018

441 413 3 Metal Iron Bulk iron 26/05/2018

442 413 4 Stone Flint

26/05/2018

443 404 1 ceramic Pottery modern glazed redware 31/05/2018

444 419 1 Stone Flint

01/06/2018

445 419 1 Metal Iron Nail 01/06/2018

446 419 84g Slag Slag

01/06/2018

447 409 17g ceramic pottery 4 sherds of coarse handmade pottery from wet

sieving, 2 with grass-marked bases 29/06/2018

448 413 18g ceramic pottery one bodysherd micaceous handmade coarseware

from wet sieving 29/06/2018

449 414 82g ceramic

Fired clay

Large irregular lump with grass-marked lower surface, from wet sieving sample. Possible furnace material? 29/06/2018

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72

Appendix 4: List of Photos

Site B

Image number Area Context Details From Date Initials

1

Pre-ex of 6 by 6m trench S 07/05/2018 CM

2

Pre-ex of 6 by 6m trench SE 07/05/2018 CM

3

Pre-ex after old trenches emptied NE 08/05/2018 EC

4

Pre-ex after old trenches emptied E 08/05/2018 EC

5

Pre-ex after old trenches emptied N 08/05/2018 EC

6

Pre-ex after old trenches emptied W 08/05/2018 EC

7

Wall and (204) revealed S 08/05/2018 EC

8

Wall and (204) revealed E 08/05/2018 EC

9

Wall and (204) revealed E 08/05/2018 EC

10-12

Wall and (204) revealed S 08/05/2018 EC

13

Wall and Thomas' trench W 08/05/2018 EC

14

(504) (204) deturfed W 08/05/2018 EC

15-18

(504) (204) detail N 08/05/2018 EC

19

(506) (505) Tumble from wall E 08/05/2018 EC

20

(506) (505) Tumble from wall S 08/05/2018 EC

21

[501] Wall and Thomas' trench W 08/05/2018 EC

22-26

Aerial shots of trench NE 08/05/2018 EC

27

(510) (504) Shell rich layer (510) and (504) W 09/05/2018 EC

28

(510) (504) Shell rich layer (510) and (504) E 09/05/2018 EC

29-30

VOID

09/05/2018 EC

31-32

NE facing section of Thomas' trench N 09/05/2018 EC

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33

NE facing section of Thomas' trench W 09/05/2018 EC

34-35

VOID-deleted

09/05/2018 EC

36-38

NE facing section - detail W 09/05/2018 EC

39

W facing section - Thomas' trench W 09/05/2018 EC

40

(506) (505) (506), (505) clay and tumbled stone

09/05/2018 EC

41

(506) (505) (506), (505) clay and tumbled stone S 09/05/2018 EC

42

(506) (505) (506), (505) clay and tumbled stone N 09/05/2018 EC

43

Upper section of NE facing section Thomas' trench N 09/05/2018 EC

44

E facing section of trench with wall E 11/05/2018 EC

45-48

NE facing section Thomas' trench where it meets wall [501] E 11/05/2018 EC

49-50

Fe spike ^ 513 in situ W 11/05/2018 EC

51

Mortar patch in N edge of trench N 11/05/2018 CM

52-53

After removal of (504) N edge of trench E 11/05/2018 CM

54-55

After removal of (507) SE corner E 11/05/2018 CM

56

(510) Pre-ex (510) - N extent W 12/05/2018 JD

57

VOID

12/05/2018 EC

58-59

[514] Stone setting in W facing section Thomas' trench W 12/05/2018 EC

60-62

[514] Stone setting in W facing section Thomas' trench - in sunlight W 12/05/2018 EC

63-64

(510) (500) E facing section of N extension E 14/05/2018 CM

65

(518) Plan view of mortar and (518) under (510) shell E 14/05/2018 CM

66

(518) Plan view of mortar and (518) under (510) shell showing main trench E 14/05/2018 CM

67-69

(510) (518) N facing section of N extension N 14/05/2018 CM

70-71

(519) (510) (519) soil layer under mortar (511) over shell (510) SE 14/05/2018 CM

72-80

Heather recording cross

14/05/2018 CM

81

(510) E facing section of shell E 15/05/2018 CM

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74

82-83

(510) Plan view of shell before removal in W end of trench E 15/05/2018 CM

84-87

(515) (516) (517) (523) Detail of NE corner trench after rain E 15/05/2018 EC

88

(518) Oblique of N extension after exposing (518) W 15/05/2018 CM

89

[525] (526) Detail of unexcavated post setting W 15/05/2018 CM

90

(524) (528) Post-ex after removal of (524) from holloe (528) beneath N 15/05/2018 CM

91-92

(518) Post-ex after exposing (518) NW 15/05/2018 CM

93

(510) N facing section of N extension showing (510) shell N 15/05/2018 CM

94

(510) N and E facing section of N extension showing shell NE 15/05/2018 CM

95-103

(522) (516) (517) (523) NW of trench 1m sq close up of surface E 15/05/2018 EC

104

(529) Pre-ex of stone spread surface(?) E 16/05/2018 CM

105-108

Detail of chamfered stone from (519) - 16/05/2018 EC

109-110

(529), (530), (531), (532) Pre-ex of (529) surface and mortar W 16/05/2018 CM

111

" (530) mortar band (under (529)?) W 16/05/2018 CM

112-114

(529) Detail of character of (529) E 16/05/2018 CM

115-117

(531), (532), (533) Mid ex of (532), pre-ex of [533] pit SW 17/05/2018 CM

118

[533], (531) Pre-ex of large pit [533] W 17/05/2018 CM

119

(516) Mid-ex, slot against S facing section SW 17/05/2018 JD

120

" S-facing section, slot against S-facing section S 17/05/2018 JD

121

[533], (534) After removal of (531) - hollow/cut, (534) to N W 18//05/2018 CM

122

" " " " S 18/05/2018 CM

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123

(534) + (532) Deposits visible - modern truncation SE 18/05/2018 CM

124

[538] (539) (528) Cut for robber trench through (528) S 18/05/2018 CM

125

[525] Stone setting after trench extension SE 18/05/2018 CM

126

" " " SE 18/05/2018 CM

127

[525] (518) (526) Mid ex of N extension W 18/05/2018 CM

128

[527] (542) (540) Pre-ex of cobbling (527) and deposits (542), (540) W 18/05/2018 CM

129

[527] (542) (540) Detail of cobbling [527] N 18/05/2018 CM

130-31

" Pre-ex of cobbling (527) and deposits (542), (540) E 18/05/2018 CM

132-134

- Detail of masonry stone - 19/05/2018 EC

135-136

- Aerial shots of trench - 19/05/2018 EC

137-138

- Detail of slates and mortar - 19/05/2018 EC

139-141

- Photos of 7th Century pin, nail-headed - 19/05/2018 EC

142

[538] (538) Detail of cut [538] through (528) E 19/05/2018 EC

143-144

[525] (526) Post-ex Northern extension W 19/05/2018 EC

145-146

(542) Brown, orange burnt soil after (532) removal N 21/05/2018 EC

147

(537) Cobbling N 21/05/2018 EC

148

(532) Remnants of (532) not yet removed here N 21/05/2018 EC

149

(537) Cobbling E 21/05/2018 EC

150

(537) (504) Cobbling extending to S with (504) over it S 21/05/2018 EC

151

(544) (545) (546) Detail of SW corner of W extension S 21/05/2018 EC

152

(544) (545) Detail of SW corner of W extension W 21/05/2018 EC

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76

(546)

153

[535] (536) Sleeper beam across trench c. E-W W 21/05/2018 EC

154-155

[533] Cut of pit, post-ex S 21/05/2018 EC

156

[535] (536) Sleeper beam across W extension W 21/05/2018 EC

157

(534) Detail of mortar W 21/05/2018 EC

158

(534) Detail of mortar W 21/05/2018 EC

159

(544) (546) Detail of SW corner W 21/05/2018 EC

160

(532) Remnants of (532) S 21/05/2018 EC

161-162

[501] (541) Detail of robbed wall and mortar (541) surface E 21/05/2018 EC

163-166

- Aerial views of wall NE 21/05/2018 EC

167-168

(543) Post-ex removal of (543) and robbed wall E 22/05/2018 CM

169

(543) (516) (515) S-facing section of trench over wall S 22/05/2018 CM

170-171

(541) View of NE corner trench post-ex E 22/05/2018 CM

172

[535] Cut post ex and continuation to the E W 22/05/2018 CM

173

[535] Cut post ex and continuation to the E E 22/05/2018 CM

174-175

SF 615 Peter with needle from (504) - 22/05/2018 -

176-177

SF 618 Detail of silver coin - 22/05/2018 EC

178-183

(534) (530) (537) (544) Post-ex of W extension W 22/05/2018 CM

184-186

[501] (543) (541) Post-ex main trench SE 22/05/2018 CM

187

(518) [538] (528) [525] Post-ex N extension NE 22/05/2018 CM

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188

(518) [538] (528) [525] Post-ex N extension E 22/05/2018 CM

189

(518) [538] (528) [525] Post-ex N extension W 22/05/2018 CM

190

(500) (532) (529) (504) S-facing section of W extension S 22/05/2018 CM

191

(500) (504) (510) Shell W-facing section of W extension W 22/05/2018 CM

192

(500) (504) N-facing section W extension N 22/05/2018 CM

193

(529) (532) E-facing section W extension E 22/05/2018 CM

194

(511) (519) E-facing section main trench E 22/05/2018 CM

195

(511) (529) E-facing detail of N corner E 22/05/2018 CM

196

(515) (516) (541) (543) S-facing section of main trench S 22/05/2018 CM

197

(515) (516) (541) (543) S-facing section of main trench S 22/05/2018 CM

198

(515) (516) (541) (543) S-facing section of main trench SE 22/05/2018 CM

199

(515) (516) (541) (543) S-facing section of main trench SE 22/05/2018 CM

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200

(510) (521) (500) E-facing section of N extension E 22/05/2018 CM

201-210

- Aerial views of trench post-ex 2018 NE 23/05/2018 EC

211-215

- E-facing section of main trench left to right E 23/05/2018 CM

216-221

- S-facing section of main trench left to right S 23/05/2018 CM

222-227

- N-facing section of N extension left to right N 23/05/2018 CM

228-230

- E-facing section of main trench left to right E 23/05/2018 CM

231-234

- W-facing section of main trench left to right W 23/05/2018 CM

235-239

- N-facing section of main trench left to right N 23/05/2018 CM

240-244

- E-facing section of W extension left to right E 23/05/2018 CM

245-248

- S-facing section of W extension left to right S 23/05/2018 CM

249-253

- W-facing section of W extension left to right W 23/05/2018 CM

254-257

- N-facing section of W extension left to right N 23/05/2018 CM

258

(544) [533] E-facing section of sondage (544) and underlying lens E 23/05/2018 CM

259

- S-facing section extension in N extension N 23/05/2018 CM

260

(511) Extent of 511 after removal of baulk to W extension N 24/05/2018 CM

261

(537) Extent of 537 after removal of 511 under baulk N 24/05/2018 CM

262

(511) Hollow which contained 511 NE 24/05/2018 CM

263

(511) Hollow which contained 511 NE 24/05/2018 CM

264

(537) Extent of 537 E 24/05/2018 CM

265

(537) Extent of 537 E 24/05/2018 CM

266-267

[538] [538] N extension, clay bonding and robber cut N 25/05/2018 CM

268

- Robbed wall S 25/05/2018 CM

269-270

- Post-ex N extension N 25/05/2018 CM

271

- Robbed wall W 25/05/2018 CM

272-275

- Post-ex aerial view of trench 2 NE 25/05/2018 CM

276

- View of sit D from tower N 25/05/2018 CM

277-278

(544) E-facing section of (544) E 25/05/2018 CM

279-280

S 507 and S 508 Sample location S 25/05/2018 CM

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281-282

S 509 Sample location S 25/05/2018 CM

283-300

- Reinstatement photos - 30-May EC

303-311

- Reinstatement photos - 30-May EC

Site D

Image number Context Details From Date Initials

001 (401) (402) General shot W 22/05/2018 JAD

002 (401) (402) Pre-ex (402) showing test pit to find service trench NW 22/05/2018 JAD

003 (401) (402) Pre-ex (402) SE 22/05/2018 JAD

004 (404) Pre-ex (404) SE 22/05/2018 EC

005 (404) Pre-ex (404) NW 22/05/2018 EC

006 (407) SF 407 SF 407 in situ SE 22/05/2018 JAD

007 (407) SF 407 SF 407 in situ SE 22/05/2018 JAD

008 (407) SF 407 SF 407 in situ SE 22/05/2018 JAD

009 (407) SF 407 SF 407 in situ SE 22/05/2018 JAD

010 (407) SF 407 [420] SF 407 in situ, general SE 22/05/2018 JAD

011 - Working shot SE 24/05/2018 JAD

012 (407) (406) Mid-ex NW 24/05/2018 JAD

013 - People in field excavating ditch

25/05/2018 EC

014

25/05/2018 EC

015 Pipe trench Slot to find pipe

25/05/2018 EC

016 Pipe trench Slot to find pipe

25/05/2018 EC

017 General Sheep disturbed fencing E 25/05/2018 EC

018 General

25/05/2018 EC

019 General

25/05/2018 EC

020 General

W 25/05/2018 EC

021 General

E 25/05/2018 EC

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Image number Context Details From Date Initials

022

25/05/2018 EC

023

25/05/2018 EC

024 (415)

S 26/05/2018 EC

025 (415)

N 26/05/2018 EC

026 S section Post-ex N 26/05/2018 EC

027 S section Post-ex N 26/05/2018 EC

028 S section Post-ex N 26/05/2018 EC

029 S section Post-ex N 26/05/2018 EC

030 S section Post-ex N 26/05/2018 EC

031 S section Post-ex

26/05/2018 EC

032 S section Post-ex

26/05/2018 EC

033 W end (407) Post-ex with pipe [419] N 26/05/2018 EC

034 W end (407) Post-ex N 26/05/2018 EC

035 General Post-ex W 26/05/2018 EC

036 General Post-ex W 26/05/2018 EC

037 General Post-ex E 26/05/2018 EC

038 General Post-ex E 26/05/2018 EC

039 General Post-ex E 26/05/2018 EC

040 General Post-ex E 26/05/2018 EC

041 N section Post-ex with [419] pre-ex S 26/05/2018 EC

042 N section Post-ex S 26/05/2018 EC

043 W section [419] Post-ex E 26/05/2018 EC

044 N [419] Post-ex S 26/05/2018 EC

045

View of abbey and - trench to right S 30/05/2018 EC

046-050

Post-ex reinstatement - 30/05/2018 EC

051-052

Reinstatement, from abbey tower N 30/05/2018 EC

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Appendix 5: List of Drawings

Site B

Drawing number Area Feature(s) Details Scale

Drawn by Start Date

Finish Date

501 T2

Pre-ex plan of Trench 2 1:20 CM 10/05/2018 10/05/2018

502 Thomas trench

N and E facing section of Thomas' trench 1:10 EC 12/05/2018 13/05/2018

503 Trench 510, 515, 519, 511 Mid-ex plan of Trench, overlay of #501 1:20 CM 12/05/2018 14/05/2018

504 N ext 518, 510 Pre-ex plan of north extension 1:20 CM 14/05/2018 14/05/2018

505

Plan of whole trench 1:100 EC 14/05/2018

506 Trench 515, 516, 517, 501 Mid-ex plan overlay of #503 1:20 CM 15/05/2018 15/05/2018

507 N ext 518, 527, 525, 524 Mid-ex plan overlay of #504 1:20 CM 15/05/2018 15/05/2018

508 W ext 529 Pre-ex plan of W extension 1:20 CM 16/05/2018 16/05/2018

509 W ext 532, 533, 535 Mid-ex plan of W extension overlay of #508 1:20 CM 18/05/2018 18/05/2018

510 N ext 518, 538, 539 Mid-ex plan of N extension overlay of #507 1:20 CM 18/05/2018 18/05/2018

511 N ext 518, 525, 538 Post-ex plan of N extension 1:20 CM 22/05/2018 22/05/2018

512 W ext 534, 537, 530 Post-ex plan of W extension 1:20 CM 22/05/2018 22/05/2018

513

516, 523, 515 Sketch showing layers, overlay of #506 1:20 EC - -

514

501, 543, 541, 517 Post-ex plan of NE corner 1:20 CM 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

515 N ext 500, 510, 518 E-facing section of N extension 1:20 CM 23-May 23/05/2018

516 W ext 500, 529, 532, 537, 534 S-facing section of W extension 1:20 CM 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

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Drawing number Area Feature(s) Details Scale

Drawn by Start Date

Finish Date

517 W ext

500, 529, 532, 533, 535, 546, 545, 544 E-facing section of W extension 1:20 CM 23-May 23/05/2018

518

500, 508, 504, 511, 519, 520 E-facing section of trench 1:20 CM 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

519

510, 504, 515, 517, 523, 516 S-facing section of trench 1:20 CM 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

520 W ext 529, 532, 535, 504 Sketch - W-facing section of W extension Sketch CM 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

521 W ext 500, 504 Sketch - N-facing section of W extension Sketch CM 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

522 N ext 504, 510, 518 Sketch - N-facing section of N extension Sketch CM 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

523

515, 541, 507 Sketch - W-facing section of main trench Sketch CM 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

524

507, 508, 239 Sketch - N-facing section of main trench Sketch CM 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

525 N ext

Post-ex plan N extention, overlay #511 1:20 CM 26/05/2018 26/05/2018

526 Main

Post-ex plan of NW corner, overlay of #514 1:20 CM 26-May 26-May

527 Main

500, 504, 515, 523, 543, 517 S-facing section trench NE corner 1:10 CM 26/05/2018 26/05/2018

528 W ext 544, 533 E-facing section of 2017 trench showing darker lenses of (544) and [533] 1:10 LT 26-May 26-May

529 Main

S-facing section of 2017 trench, kubiena tin location 1:20 CM 26/05/2018 26/05/2018

530 N ext - Display board location 1:20 EC 01-Jun 01-Jun

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Site D

Drawing number Feature(s) Details Scale Drawn by Start Date Finish Date

400 404 Early plan 1:20 JAD 23/05/2018 23/05/2018

401 409, 407 Early plan of boulders 1:20 JAD 24/05/2018 24/05/2018

402 412 Plan of boulders in ditch 1:20 ENC 24/05/2018 24/05/2018

403 415 Plan post-ex of ditch 1:20 ENC 26/05/2018 26/05/2018

404 - Sections of N and S baulks 1:20 CMac 26/05/2018 26/05/2018

405 all Summary plan post-ex 1:20 ENC 5/6/2018 5/6/2018

Appendix 6 Wet-sieving results

Site code Sample Contx

Res. Vol. (ltr) CV (g)

Nutshell (g) bone (g) Teeth (g)

Pottery (g)

Glass (g) Metal (g) Ind. Waste (g)

Other (g) shells

HY18B 501 233 <0.1 0 HY18B 500 211 <0.1 1.2

54.7 slag

0.1

HY18B 504 242 <0.1 5.6

22.4 slag HY18B 506 545 <0.1 13.7

HY18D 400 409 3.00 0.10

0.6

16.10

<0.1 slag spherule 2.6 slag

HY18D 401 413 3.30 3.27 <0.1 17.7 + 2.6 burnt

bone

0.4 fish

bone

HY18D 402 414 0.30 0.40

1.0 + 0.8 burnt bone

3.3 animal teeth

HY18D 403 402 <0.1 0.4

1.4

86.3 slag

HY18D 404 417

0.8

24.0 slag/vitrified

stone