invisible technology vinay

8/7/2019 Invisible Technology Vinay

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Invisible Technology-Moletronics

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INTRODUCTION

As a scientific pursuit, the search for a viable successor to silicon computer technology has

garnered considerable curiosity in the last decade. The latest idea, and one of the most intriguing,

is known as molecular computers, or moletronics, in which single molecules serve as switches,

"quantum wires" a few atoms thick serve as wiring, and the hardware is synthesized chemically

from the bottom up.

The central thesis of moletronics is that almost any chemically stable structure that is not

specifically disallowed by the laws of physics can in fact be built. The possibility of building

things atom by atom was first introduced by Richard Feynman in 1959.

An "assembler", which is little more than a submicroscopic robotic arm can be built andbe controlled. We can use it to secure and position compounds in order to direct the precise

location at which chemical reactions occur. This general approach allows the construction of

large, atomically precise objects by initiating a sequence of controlled chemical reactions. In

order for this to function as we wish, each assembler requires a process for receiving and

executing the instruction set that will dictate its actions. In time, molecular machines might even

have onboard, high speed RAM and slower but more permanent storage. They would have

communications capability and power supply.

Moletronics is expected to touch almost every aspect of our lives, right down to the

water we drink and the air we breathe. Experimental work has already resulted in the production

of molecular tweezers, a carbon nanotube transistor, and logic gates. Theoretical work is

progressing as well. James M. Tour of Rice University is working on the construction of a

molecular computer. Researchers at Zyvex have proposed an Exponential Assembly Process that

might improve the creation of assemblers and products, before they are even simulated in the lab.

We have even seen researchers create an artificial muscle using nanotubes, which may have

medical applications in the nearer term.

Teramac computer has the capacity to perform 1012 operations in one seconds but it has

220,000 hardware defects and still has performed some tasks 100 times faster than single-

processor .The defect-tolerant computer architecture and its implications for moletronics is the


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latest in this technology. So the very fact that this machine worked suggested that we ought to

take some time and learn about it.

Such a 'defect-tolerant' architecture through moletronics could bridge the gap between the

current generation of microchips and the next generation of molecular-scale computers.


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The Architecture of a Moletronics Computer

Introduction

Recently, there have been some significant advances in the fabrication and demonstration of

individual molecular electronic wires and diode switches. Some novel designs for several such

simple molecular electronic digital logic circuits: a complete set of three fundamental logic

gates: (AND, OR, and XOR gates), plus and adder function built up from the gates via the well-

known combinational logic, was demonstrated. This means in coming future, this technology

could be a replacement for VLSI. However, currently, this technology is only available under lab

condition. How to mass product moletronic chips is still a big problem.

Currently, integrated circuits by etching silicon wafers using beam of light. It's the VLSIlithography-based technology makes mass production of Pentium III processor possible. But as

the size of logic block goes to nano-scale, this technology no long available. As wavelength get

too short, they tend to become X-rays and can damage the micro structure of molecules. On the

other hand, the mask of lithography of Pentium III is so complex, and the shape and the

dimension of its logic block varies so much. Looking at currently available integrated circuits,

the transistor density of memory chip are much higher than processor chip, the reason is that the

cell of memory is much more simple than circuit of processor. Because, except the decoding

logic, most of the memory bit cell is the same. Could we find a way to fabricate complex logic

circuit as Pentium processor using million of same logic units? The PLD(Programmable Logic

Devices) is the answer. The paper is organized as following: section II presents some basic of

moletronic gate circuit. Section III uses PLD technology to build more complex blocks. section

IV shows the nanotube can be used for interconnection wires.

Moore's law dictates that the number of devices integrated on a single die doubles every 18

months, and has, since 1965, governed the manufacturing of integrated circuits. Studies indicate

that as early as 2012, the transistor may hit physical scaling limits that inhibit this aggressive

packing of devices. Although recent advances have given significantly more life to this device

model, and some in the field contend that molecular transistors may be feasible in the near

future, other devices may be better suited to the computing environment of the future.

Understanding the design automation and computing models associated with a given set


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of devices is critical to evaluating their fitness. One such device, Quantum-Dot Cellular

Automata (QCA) [12, 16, 18], first proposed in the early 1990s [12], transfers information by the

propagation of polarized charge, rather than the flow of current. This device has the potential to

greatly simplify the construction of circuits because every component of the circuit is epresented

by a cell and only one type of gate (the \majority gate") is needed (inversion can be performed in

QCA \wires"). Furthermore, because the cells operate using Coulombic interaction (e.g., like

charges repel), no current flows between the cells and no power (or information) is dissipated by

the internals of the cell. Conservative estimates indicate that room temperature devices could be

clocked in the 1-10 terahertz range and be 100 times more dense than a CMOS device at the end

of the CMOS curve (e.g., the smallest non-molecular theoretically operable CMOS device), and

dissipate very little power.

QCA has been realized using metal-dot cells [3, 19, 1, 20, 8] and there is tremendous opportunity

in molecular implementations [14, 11] that allow for room temperature circuit operations.

Current lines of investigation include choosing candidate molecules [13, 7, 21], clocking on the

molecular scale [10], and circuit self-assembly [4]. Molecular scale circuit implementations are a

near term goal, and one of the primary focuses of this work is to provide a methodology for

producing valid, correctly clocked circuits that can be used by those performing fabrication

work.

Thus far, virtually all intellectual inquiry about emerging nano-scale systems has focused on the

device physics, with some limited effort given to circuit design. There is significant emerging

work in the area of constructing traditional

computer architectures with QCA, and understanding which computational models best _t the

device physics [18, 15, 16, 17]. However, given that nano-scale devices pose new major

challenges to circuit designers, particularly in terms

of managing the transfer of state information between very _ne-grain modules of computation

(potentially consisting of a single gate), significant design automation is required to correctly

construct QCA circuits (both in terms of the properties required for the devices making up the

circuit to function physically, and the timing necessary for them to correctly implement the

desired logic function).


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The purpose of this work is to identify some important issues in QCA physical design

automation, provide solutions

to the sub-problems of QCA layout partitioning and scheduling, and suggest a general

methodology for other sub-problems found in QCA physical design automation. These problems

are uniquely QCA-driven since QCA circuits are inherently pipelined at the gate level, and the

timing of signal delivery requires that all the signals for a given gate arrive simultaneously. In

particular, each QCA wire inherently holds state information for a clock cycle {because the wire

is constructed from QCA devices themselves, and the state is held in the position of the charge

on two devices which are physically interacting. Due to this and other QCA specific features,

QCA physical design introduces a number of interesting problems that are different from

traditional VLSI physical design.

This paper examines the problem of partitioning a QCA circuit into clocking zones, which are

required for the functioning of a QCA cell. As the circuit is partitioned, a schedule is created that

strictly enforces the timing requirements of the circuit {specifically, that each of the signals

arrives at its destination simultaneously. Furthermore, it provides for the tradeoff between the

objective functions of constructing the minimum latency circuit, while simultaneously placing

restrictions on the amount of wasted area in that circuit. We propose an ILP formulation and

heuristic algorithms for the QCA circuit partitioning problem. We also compare the output of theILP and heuristic solutions using both actual and randomly generated circuits. The real example,

chosen from the ALU of a complete processor laid out in QCA [15], gives the additional

advantage of allowing comparisons to a full-custom layout. Our heuristic algorithms are based

on a network ow model of the problem. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to

model and solve the QCA circuit partitioning problem. For traditional VLSI circuit partition

work, see [2, 22]. For QCA circuit physics and design work, see [12, 16, 18, 17, 15]. Section 2

provides a brief introduction to QCA circuits. Section 3 describes the formulation of the overall

problem and how QCA device physics impacts it. Section 4 examines the specific Partitioning

and Scheduling problem, and presents the ILP and heuristic formulations.


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Moletronic circuit--QCA basics

We discuss an approach to computing with quantum dots, Quantum-dot Cellular Automata

(QCA), which is based on encoding binary information in the charge configuration of quantum-

dot cells. The interaction between cells is Coulombic, and provides the necessary computing

power. No current flows between cells and no power or information is delivered to individual

internal cells. Local interconnections between cells are provided by the physics of cell-cell

interaction. The links below describes the QCA cell and the process of building up useful

computational elements from it. The discussion is mostly qualitative and based on the intuitively

clear behavior of electrons in the cell.

Fundamental Aspects of QCA

A QCA cell consists of 4 quantum dots positioned at the vertices of a square and contains 2 extra

electrons. The configuration of these electrons is used to encode binary information. The 2

electrons sitting on diagonal sites of the square from left to right and right to left are used to

represent the binary "1" and "0" states respectively. For an isolated cell these 2 states will have

the same energy. However for an array of cells, the state of each cell is determined by its

interaction with neighboring cells through the Coulomb interaction. A schematic diagram of a

four-dot QCA cell is shown in Fig. 1.

Figure: Schematic of the geometry of the basic four-

site cell.The tunneling energy between two

neighboring sites is designated by t, while a is the

near-neighbor distance.


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If the barriers between cells are sufficiently high, the electrons will be well localized on

individual dots. The Coulomb repulsion between the electrons will tend to make them occupy

antipodal sites in the square a shown in Fig. 2. For an isolated cell there are two energetically

equivalent arrangements of the extra electrons which we denote as a cell polarization P = +1 and

P = -1. The term "cell polarization" refers only to this arrangement of charge and does not imply

a dipole moment for the cell. The cell polarization is used to encode binary information - P = +1

represents a binary 1 and P = -1 represents a binary 0.

Figure: Coulombic repulsion causes the

electrons to occupy antipodal sites within thecell. These two bistable states result in cell

polarizations of P = +1 and P = -1.

The two polarization states of the cell will not be energetically equivalent if other cells are

nearby. Consider two cells close to one another as shown in the inset of Fig. 3. The figure inset

illustrates the case when cell 2 has a polarization of +1. It is clear that in that case the ground-

state configuration of cell 1 is also a +1 polarization. Similarly if cell 2 is in the P = -1 state, theground state of cell 1 will match it. The figure shows the nonlinear response of the cell-cell

interaction.


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Figure: The cell-cell response

A Majority Gate

Fig. 4 shows the fundamental QCA logical device, a three-input majority gate, from which more

complex circuits can be built. The central cell, labeled the device cell, has three fixed inputs,

labeled A, B, and C. The device cell has its lowest energy state if it assumes the polarization of

the majority of the three input cells. The output can be connected to other wires from the output

cell. The difference between input and outputs cells in this device, and in QCA arrays in general,

is simply that inputs are fixed and outputs are free to change. The inputs to a particular device

can come from previous calculations or be directly fed in from array edges. The schematic

symbol used to represent such a gate is also shown in Fig. 4. It is possible to "reduce" a majority

logic gate by fixing one of its three inputs in the 1 or 0 state. If the fixed input is in the 1 state,

the OR function is performed on the other two inputs. If it is fixed in the 0 state, the AND

function is performed on the other two inputs. In this way, a reduced majority logic gate can also

serve as a programmable AND/OR gate. Combined with the inverter shown above, thisAND/OR functionality ensures that QCA devices provide logical completeness


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Figure: The Majority Gate

Programmable Logic Devices and Field Programmable Gate Array basics

The Programmable Logic Devices(PLD) are nothing new, they have been around for almost 20

years. Since PLD device exists, it makes the life of a lot of Electronic designer's life easy. It is

well known that in order to design a digital system, besides microprocessors and peripheral ICs

there are needed several other devices, such as lots of logic gates to glue these chips together.

This circuits make our life and our printed boards very hard and complex. It exists a way to

dramatically improve this way of design digital devices that, although it is not completely

different from the others, brings the desired results more efficiently: in a shorter time and with

fewer expenses. The way abovementioned is Programmable logic devices (PLD), they permit the

customizing of one or more logic functions on a chip in contrast to the designer being restrictedto defining a logic function with specific chips. The programmability aspect permits the logic

designer to spend more time on the development and validation of high level functionality. The

simplest Integrated circuit of the PLD is PAL/GAL. PAL(Programmable Array Device), which

was invented at Monolithic Memories in 1978 PAL consists of an AND array followed by an OR

array, either (or both) of which is programmable. Inputs are fed into the AND array, which

performs the desired AND functions and generates product terms. The products terms are then

fed into the OR array. In OR array, the output of various product terms are combined to

produced the desired output. With PAL, we can implement any combinational logic circuit. How

about the sequential logic circuits? There exists another kind of customized IC: Field

Programmable Gate Array. See Fig. 7.


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Figure: The Architecture of Field

Programmable Gate Array, a combination of

PLD and Masked Programmed Gate

Array(MPGA).

Unlike the traditional fully customised VLSI circuits, Field Programmable Gate Array(FPGAs)represent a technical breakthrough in the corresponding industry. Before they were introduced,

an electronic designer had only a few options for implementing digital logic. These options

included discrete logic devices (VLSI or SSI); programmable devices (PALs or PLDs); and

Masked Programmed Gate Arrays(MPGA) or Cell-Based ASICs. A discrete device can be used

to implement a small amount of logic. A programmable device is a general-purpose device

capable of implementing the logic of tens or hundreds of discrete devices. It is programmed by

users at their site using programming hardware. The size of a PLD is limited by the power

consumption and time delay. In order to implement designs with thousands or tens of thousands

of gates on a single IC, MPGA can be used. An MPGA consists of a base of pre-designed

transistors with customised wiring for each design. The wiring is built during the manufacturing

process, so each design requires custom masks for the wiring. The cost of mask-making is

expensive and the turnarround time is long (typically four to six weeks). The availability of


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FPGAs offer the benefits of both PLD and MPGA. FPGAs can implement thousand of gates of

logic in a single IC and it can be programmed by users at their site in a few seconds or less

depending on the type device used. The risk is low and the development time is short. These

advantages have made FPGAs very popular for prototype development, custom computing,

digital signal processing, and logic emulation. From the architecture of PLD and FPGA, we

could see repeated logic cell. Thus, density of this kind of chip increased very quickly. Just a few

years ago, a high-density FPGA consisted of 50K gates and was used for glue logic. Today's

FPGA are multi-million system gate devices at the heart of electronic systems in some of the

fastest growing high-tech markets. There is a lot of computer around the world using FPGA

processors.

What is so Special about Carbon Nanotubes?

Carbon nanotubes are one of the most commonly mentioned building blocks of nanotechnology.

With one hundred times the tensile strength of steel, thermal conductivity better than all but the

purest diamond, and electrical conductivity similar to copper, but with the ability to carry much

higher currents, they seem to be a wonder material. However, when we hear of some companies

planning to produce hundreds of tons per year, while others seem to have extreme difficulty in

producing grams, there is clearly more to this material than meets the eye.

In fact nanotubes come in a variety of flavors: long, short, single-walled, multi-walled, open,

closed, with different types of spiral structure, etc. Each type has specific production costs and

applications. Some have been produced in large quantities for years while others are only now

being produced commercially with decent purity and in quantities greater than a few grams. In

this brief white paper we hope to resolve some of the confusion surrounding what may be one of

the most significant new materials since plastics.


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Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures

The term nanotube is normally used to refer to the carbon nanotube, which has received

enormous attention from researchers over the last few years and promises, along with close

relatives such as the nanohorn, a host of interesting applications. There are many other types of

nanotube, from various inorganic kinds, such as those made from boron nitride, to organic ones,such as those made from self-assembling cyclic peptides (protein components) or from naturally-

occurring heat shock proteins (extracted from bacteria that thrive in extreme environments).

However, carbon nanotubes excite the most interest, promise the greatest variety of applications,

and currently appear to have by far the highest commercial potential. Only carbon nanotubes will

be covered in this white paper. Figure 1. Bent nanotubes. Courtesy of A. Rochefort, Nano-

CERCA, University of Montreal, Canada

Carbon nanotubes are often referred to in the press, including the scientific press, as if they wereone consistent item. They are in fact a hugely varied range of structures, with similarly huge

variations in properties and ease of production. Adding to the confusion is the existence of long,

thin, and often hollow, carbon fibers that have been called carbon nanotubes but have a quite

different make-up from that of the nanotubes that scientists generally refer to. To distinguish

these we will refer to them as carbon nanofibers.


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Introduction to Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes were 'discovered' in 1991 by Sumio Iijima of NEC and are effectively long,

thin cylinders of graphite, which you will be familiar with as the material in a pencil or as the

basis of some lubricants. Graphite is made up of layers of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal

lattice, like chicken wire (see figure 2). Though the chicken wire structure itself is very strong,

the layers themselves are not chemically bonded to each other but held together by weak forces

called Van der Waals. It is the sliding across each other of these layers that gives graphite its

lubricating qualities and makes the mark on a piece of paper as you draw your pencil over it.

Figure 2. Layer structure of graphite. Source: gallery of crystal structures, Han Yang University,

Korea.http://www.chem.hanyang.ac.kr/Service/crystal.

Now imagine taking one of these sheets of chicken wire and rolling it up into a cylinder and

joining the loose wire ends. The result is a tube that was once described by Richard Smalley

(who shared the Nobel Prize for the discovery of a related form of carbon called

buckminsterfullerene) as "in one direction . . . the strongest damn thing you'll ever make in the

universe". In addition to their remarkable strength, which is usually quoted as 100 times that of

steel at one-sixth of the weight (this is tensile strengththe ability to withstand a stretching force

without breaking), carbon nanotubes have shown a surprising array of other properties. They can

conduct heat as efficiently as most diamond (only diamond grown by deposition from a vapour is


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better), conduct electricity as efficiently as copper, yet also be semiconducting (like the materials

that make up the chips in our computers). They can produce streams of electrons very efficiently

(field emission), which can be used to create light in displays for televisions or computers, or

even in domestic lighting, and they can enhance the fluorescence of materials they are close to.

Their electrical properties can be made to change in the presence of certain substances or as a

result of mechanical stress. Nanotubes within nanotubes can act like miniature springs and they

can even be stuffed with other materials. Nanotubes and their variants hold promise for storing

fuels such as hydrogen or methanol for use in fuel cells and they make good supports for

catalysts.

But let's look at some of the different types of nanotubes, and nanotube pretenders.

One of the major classifications of carbon nanotubes is into single-walled varieties (SWNTs),

which have a single cylindrical wall, and multi-walled varieties (MWNTs), which have cylinders

within cylinders (see figure 3).

Figure 3. Computational image of single-and multi-walled nanotubes. Source: image gallery,

Nanotechnology Team, NASA.

The lengths of both types vary greatly, depending on the way they are made, and are generally

microscopic rather than nanoscopic, i.e. greater than 100 nanometers (a nanometer is a millionth

of a millimeter). The aspect ratio (length divided by diameter) is typically greater than 100 and

can be up to 10,000, but recently even this was made to look small. In May last year SWNT

strands were made in which the SWNTs were claimed to be as long as 20 cm. Even more

recently, the same group has made strands of SWNTs as long as 160 cm, but the precise make-up


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of these strands has not yet been made clear. A group in China has also found, purely by

accident, that packs of relatively short carbon nanotubes can be drawn out into a bundle of fibers,

making a thread only 0.2 millimeters in diameter but up to 30 centimeters long. The joins

between the nanotubes in this thread represent a weakness but heating the thread has been found

to increase the strength significantly, presumably through some sort of fusing of the individual

tubes.

Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWNTs)

These are the stars of the nanotube world, and somewhat reclusive ones at that, being much

harder to make than the multi-walled variety. The oft-quoted amazing properties generally refer

to SWNTs. As previously described, they are basically tubes of graphite and are normally capped

at the ends (see figure 4), although the caps can be removed. The caps are made by mixing in

some pentagons with the hexagons and are the reason that nanotubes are considered close

cousins of buckminsterfullerene (see figure 5), a roughly spherical molecule made of sixty

carbon atoms, that looks like a soccer ball and is named after the architect Buckminster Fuller

(the word fullerene is used to refer to the variety of such molecular cages, some with more

carbon atoms than buckminsterfullerene, and some with fewer).

The theoretical minimum diameter of a carbon nanotube is around 0.4 nanometers, which isabout as long as two silicon atoms side by side, and nanotubes this size have been made.

Average diameters tend to be around the 1.2 nanometer mark, depending on the process used to

create them.

SWNTs are more pliable than their multi-walled counterparts and can be twisted, flattened and

bent into small circles or around sharp bends without breaking.

Discussions of the electrical behavior of carbon nanotubes usually relate to experiments on the

single-walled variety. As we have said, they can be conducting, like metal (such nanotubes are

often referred to as metallic nanotubes), or semiconducting, which means that the flow of current

through them can be stepped up or down by varying an electrical field. The latter property has

given rise to dreams of using nanotubes to make extremely dense electronic circuitry and the last

year has seen major advances in creating basic electronic structures from nanotubes in the lab,


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from transistors up to simple logic elements. The gulf between these experiments and

commercial nanotube electronics is, however, vast.

Figure 4. Simulated structure of a carbon nanotube. Courtesy of Richard Smalley's picture

gallery. Figure 5.Buckminsterfullerene. Source: Chem Library, Imperial College of Science,

Technology and Medicine, UK.

There are various ways of producing SWNTs, which are briefly discussed later. The detailed

mechanisms responsible for nanotube growth are still not fully understood and computer

modeling is playing an increasing role in fathoming the complexities. The ambition of SWNT

producers is to gain greater control over their diameters, lengths, and other properties, such as

chirality (explained below).

The volumes of SWNTs produced are currently small and the quality and purity are variable.

Carbon Nanotechnologies Inc. of Houston, Texas, are currently ramping up production to a half

a kilogram a day, which is actually huge in comparison to amounts of SWNTs that have been

made historically. Various companies pursuing specific nanotube applications produce their own

material in house.


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Figure 5.Buckminsterfullerene. Source: Chem Library, Imperial College of Science, Technology

and Medicine, UK.

Chirality

Imagine again the chicken wire that we roll up to make the nanotube. In fact, imagine a chicken

wire fence out of which will be cut a rectangle to roll into a tube. You could cut the rectangle

with the sides vertical or at various angles. Additionally, when joining the sides together, you can

raise or lower one side. In some cases it will not be possible to make a tube such that the loose

ends match and hexagons are formed, but in other cases it will, and these represent the possible

permutations of SWNTs (see figure 6). The possibilities are two forms in which a pattern circles

around the diameter of the tube, often called zigzag and armchair (not the most intuitive of

names, unfortunately, but they are now widely used), and a variety of forms in which the

hexagons spiral up or down the tube with varying steepness, these being the chiral forms. There

is theoretically an infinite variety of the latter, if you allow for infinite diameters of nanotubes.

Figure 6. Schematic representation of rolling graphite to create a carbon nanotube. Source: image

gallery Nanotechnology Team, NASA.


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Figure 6. Schematic representation of rolling graphite to create a carbon nanotube. Source: image

gallery Nanotechnology Team, NASA.

Which of these forms a nanotube takes is the major determinant of its electrical properties, i.e.

whether the tube is semiconducting or conducting. For a long time, the fact that all known

production methods created a mix of types has been considered one of the hurdles to be

overcome if the electronic properties are to be exploited. Claims have now been made that it is

possible to produce only the semiconducting kind (specifically, the zigzag form). Additionally,

there are approaches that can yield only semiconducting nanotubes from a mix of

semiconducting and conducting ones. One such approach relies on vaporizing the conducting

nanotubes with a strong electric current, leaving only the semiconducting kind behind. A more

recent approach is simply to leave the mix of nanotubes lying around for a whilethe metallic

ones are oxidized and become semiconducting (the process can, of course, be speeded up). In the

early part of 2001 there were also reports that nanotubes had been induced to form crystals, each

of which contained just one type of nanotube. This would have been a nice separation method

but the silence on this approach since then suggests that these results have not been duplicated.


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Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWNTs)

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes are basically like Russian dolls made out of SWNTsconcentric

cylindrical graphitic tubes. In these more complex structures, the different SWNTs that form the

MWNT may have quite different structures (length and chirality). MWNTs are typically 100times longer than they are wide and have outer diameters mostly in the tens of nanometers.

Figure 7. Representaion of a multi-walled carbon nanotube. Courtesy ofA. Rochefort, Nano-

CERCA, University of Montreal, Canada

Although it is easier to produce significant quantities of MWNTs than SWNTs, their structures

are less well understood than single-wall nanotubes because of their greater complexity and

variety. Multitudes of exotic shapes and arrangements, often with imaginative names such as

bamboo-trunks, sea urchins, necklaces or coils, have also been observed under different

processing conditions. The variety of forms may be interesting but also has a negative side


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MWNTs always (so far) have more defects than SWNTs and these diminish their desirable

properties. Figure 7. Representaion of a multi-walled carbon nanotube. Courtesy ofA. Rochefort,

Nano-CERCA, University of Montreal, Canada

Many of the nanotube applications now being considered or put into practice involve multi-

walled nanotubes, because they are easier to produce in large quantities at a reasonable price and

have been available in decent amounts for much longer than SWNTs. In fact one of the major

manufacturers of MWNTs at the moment, Hyperion Catalysis, does not even sell the nanotubes

directly but only pre-mixed with polymers for composites applications. The tubes involved

typically have 8 to 15 walls and are around 10 nanometres wide and 10 micrometers long. Other

companies are moving into this space, notably formidable players like Mitsui, with plans to

produce similar types of MWNT in hundreds of tons a year, a quantity that is greater, but not

hugely so, than the current production of Hyperion Catalysis. This is an indication that even

these less impressive and exotic nanotubes hold promise of representing a sizable market in the

near future.

Nanohorns

These are single-walled carbon cones with structures similar to those of nanotube caps that have

been produced by high temperature treatment of fullerene soot. Sumio Iijima's group at NEC has

demonstrated that nanohorns have good adsorptive and catalytic properties (i.e. desired

substances stick to them and they enhance chemical reactions), and the company is working on

using them in a new generation of fuel cells for personal electronics.

Nanofibers

We use this term to refer to hollow and solid carbon fibers with lengths on the order of a few

microns and widths varying from some tens of nanometers to around 200 nanometers. These

materials have occasionally been referred to as nanotubes. However, they do not have the

cylindrical chicken wire structure of SWNTs and MWNTs but instead consist of a mixture of

forms of carbon, from layers of graphite stacked at various angles to amorphous carbon (lacking

any large-scale regular structure). Because of this variable structure they do not exhibit the

strength of pure nanotubes but can still be quite strong and possess other useful properties. The


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US company Applied Sciences Inc. is already producing tons of such material a year and there

are several major producers in the Far East.

Carbon Nanotube Production Processes

Production processes for carbon nanotubes, crudely described, vary from blasting carbon with an

electrical arc or a laser to growing them from a vapor, either en masse (usually in tangled

bundles) or on nanoparticles, sometimes in predetermined positions. These processes vary

considerably with respect to the type of nanotube produced, quality, purity and scalability.

Carbon nanotubes are usually created with the aid of a metal catalyst and this ends up as a

contaminant with respect to many potential applications, especially in electronics. IBM have

very recently, however, grown nanotubes on silicon structures without a metal catalyst.

Scalability of production processes is an essential commercial considerationsome of the

approaches use equipment that simply cannot be made bigger and the only way to increase

production is to make more pieces of equipment, which will not produce the economies of scale

required to bring down costs significantly.

Nanotube Applications

By now we hope you have an idea of the different types of nanotubes and how their qualities and

ease of production vary. Reports of one company producing tons of the material, alongside

reports of researchers not being able to get enough to get meaningful results from their research,

should no longer be confusing. It would, of course, be useful if commentators got into the habit

of making clear the type of material they are talking about.

Understanding these differences is essential for understanding the commercial potential of the

various applications of nanotubes and related structures that already exist or have been proposed.

The variety of these is vast, and the commercialization timelines involved vary from now to ten

years from now or more. Some of the potential markets are enormous. We will leave you with a

taste of the possibilities.

The materials markets are already seeing applications for composites based on multi-walled

carbon nanotubes and nanofibers. In many ways this is an old marketthat of carbon fibers,

which have been around commercially for a couple of decades. The benefits of the new materials


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in these markets are the same as those of carbon fibers, just better; the main properties to be

considered being strength and conductivity. Carbon fibers are quite large, typically about a tenth

of a millimeter in diameter, and blacken the material to which they are added. MWNTs can offer

the same improvements in strength to a polymer composite without the blackening and often

with a smaller amount of added material (called the filler). The greater aspect ratio (i.e. length

compared to diameter) of the newer materials can make plastics conducting with a smaller filler

load, one significant application being electrostatic painting of composites in products such as

car parts. Additionally, the surface of the composite is smoother, which benefits more refined

structures such as platens for computer disk drives.

When thinking about structural applications such as these, it should be remembered that, in

general, as the fibers get smaller so the number of defects decreases, in a progression towards the

perfection of the single-walled nanotube. The inverse progression is seen in terms of ease of

manufacturingthe more perfect, and thus more structurally valuable, the material, the harder it

is to produce in quantity at a good price. This relationship is not written in stonethere is no

reason that near-perfect SWNTs should not be producible cheaply and in large quantities. When

this happens, and it might not be too far off, the improvements seen in the strength-to-weight

ratios of composite materials could soar, impacting a wide variety of industries from sports

equipment to furniture, from the construction industry to kitchenware, and from automobiles to

airplanes and spacecraft (the aerospace industry is probably the one that stands to reap the

greatest rewards). In fact a carbon nanotube composite has recently been reported that is six

times stronger than conventional carbon fiber composites.

This is an appropriate point at which to introduce a note of caution, and an area of research worth

keeping an eye on. Just because the perfect nanotube is 100 times stronger than steel at a sixth of

the weight doesn't mean you are going to be able to achieve those properties in a bulk material

containing them. You may remember that the chicken wire arrangement that makes up the layers

in graphite does not stick at all well to other materials, which is why graphite is used inlubricants and pencils. The same holds true of nanotubesthey are quite insular in nature,

preferring not to interact with other materials. To capitalize on their strength in a composite they

need to latch on to the surrounding polymer, which they are not inclined to do (blending a filler

in a polymer is difficult even without these issuesit took a decade to perfect this for the new

nanoclay polymers now hitting the markets).


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One way of making a nanotube interact with something else, such as a surrounding polymer, is to

modify it chemically. This is called functionalization and is being explored not just for

composite applications but also for a variety of others, such as biosensors. For structural

applications, the problem is that functionalization can reduce the valuable qualities of the

nanotubes that you are trying to capitalize on. This is an issue that should not be underestimated.

Of course, in theory you don't need to mix the nanotubes with another material. If you want to

make super-strong cables, for example, the best solution would be to use bundles of sufficiently

long nanotubes with no other material added. For this reason, one of the dreams of nanotube

production is to be able to spin them, like thread, to indefinite lengths. Such a technology would

have applications from textiles (the US military is in fact investigating the use of nanotubes for

bullet-proof vests) to the 'space elevator'. The space elevator concept, which sounds like

something straight out of science fiction (it was, in fact, popularized by Arthur C. Clarke)

involves anchoring one end of a huge cable to the earth and another to an object in space. The

taut cable so produced could then support an elevator that would take passengers and cargo into

orbit for a fraction of the cost of the rockets used today. Sounds too far out? It has, in fact, been

established by NASA as feasible in principle, given a material as strong as SWNTs. The

engineering challenges, though, are awesome, so don't expect that 'top floor' button to be taking

you into orbit any time soon.

The materials market is a big one, and there are others, which we'll come to, but smaller ones

exist too. Nanotubes are already being shipped on the tip of atomic force microscope probes to

enhance atomic-resolution imaging. Nanotube-based chemical and biosensors should be on the

market soon (they face stiff competition from other areas of nanotechnology). The thermal

conductivity of nanotubes shows promise in applications from cooling integrated circuits to

aerospace materials. Electron beam lithography, which is a method of producing nanoscale

patterns in materials, may become considerably cheaper thanks to the field emission properties of

carbon nanotubes. Recent developments show promise of the first significant change in X-raytechnology in a century. Entering more speculative territory, nanotubes may one day be used as

nanoscale needles that can inject substances into, or sample substances from, individual cells, or

they could be used as appendages for miniature machines (the tubes in multi-walled nanotubes

slide over each other like graphite, but have preferred locations that they tend to spring back to).


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Big markets, apart from materials, in which nanotubes may make an impact, include flat panel

displays (near-term commercialization is promised here), lighting, fuel cells and electronics. This

last is one of the most talked-about areas but one of the farthest from commercialization, with

one exception, this being the promise of huge computer memories (more than a thousand times

greater in capacity than what you probably have in your machine now) that could, in theory, put

a lot of the $40 billion magnetic disk industry out of business. Companies like to make grand

claims, however, and in this area there is not just the technological hurdle to face but the even

more daunting economic one, a challenge made harder by a host of competing technologies.

Despite an inevitable element of hype, the versatility of nanotubes does suggest that they might

one day rank as one of the most important materials ever discovered. In years to come they could

find their way into myriad materials and devices around us and quite probably make some of theleaders in this game quite rich. interconnection: nanotube

Today, one way to pack transistors more densely on a chip is to make the already microscopic

wires smaller and thinner. But the wires are approaching the thickness of a few hundred atoms.

Once wires get down to only several atoms thick, says IBM researcher Phaedon Avouris, they

blow up when you try to send electrical signals through them. Nanotubes don't. IBM and others

are racing to use nanotubes to make the first carbon chips, perhaps the successor to silicon chips,

though the program is only in the earliest stages. A carbon nanotube is a tubular form of carbon

with a diameter as smaller as 1 nm. The length can be from a few nanometers to several microns.

(1 micron is equal to 1,000 nanometers.) It is made of only carbo atoms. To understand the

CNT's structure, it helps to imagine folding a two-dimensional graphene sheet. Depending on the

dimensions of he sheet and how it is folded, several variations of nanotubes can arise. Also, just

like the singel or the multilayer nature of graphene sheets, the resulting tubes may be a single- or

a multiwall type. The tube's orientation is denoted by a roll-up vector(See Fig.8) .

Along this vector, the graphene sheet is rolled into a tubular from. The and are vectors

defining a unit cell in the planer graphene sheet. n and m are integers, and is the angle. A

variety of tubes-based on the orientations of the benzyne rings on the graphene tube-are possible.

If the orientation is parallel to the tube axis, then the resulting "zigzag" tubes are semiconductors.

When the orientation is perpendicular to the tube axis, the corresponding "arm chair" tubes are


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metallic. In between the two extremes, when (n-m)/3 is an integer, the nanotubes are

semimetallic. The two key parameters, the diameterdand the chiral angle , are related to (n,m)

by ,. For example,a(10,10) nanotube is 1.35 nm in diameter

whereas a (10,10) tube is 0.78nm in diameter. Carbon nanotubes exhibit extraordinary

mechanical properties as will. For example, the Young's modulus is typically over 1 Tera Pascal.

Also, the nanotube along the axis is as stiff as a diamond. The estimated tensile strength is about

200 Gpa, which is an order of magnitude higher than that of any other material. Here we are

mainly interested in carbon nanotube's electronic behavior and applications. The metallic and

semiconducting nature described previously has given rise to the possibilities of metal-

semiconductor or semiconductor junctions. These junctions may form nanoelectronic devices

based entirely on single atomic species such as carbon.

Figure: Carbon nanotubes: their structure,

properties and uses in nano-electronic devices


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Fault tolerance: TeraMac

Teramac is a massively parallel experimental computer built at Hewlett-Packard Laboratories to

investigate a wide range of different computational architectures. It is a true supercomputer,

capable of operating 100 times faster than a high-end workstation for some configurations.

Teramac also contains about 220,000 defects, any one of which could prove fatal to a more

conventional machine. The architecture of Teramac, the philosophy behind its construction, and

its ability to tolerate large numbers of defects have significant implications for any future

nanometer-scale computational paradigm. It is not necessary to chemically synthesize perfect

devices with a 100% yield and assemble them into a completely deterministic network in order

to obtain a reliable and powerful system. Future computers may not have a central processing

unit, but may instead be an extremely large configurable memory that is trained for specific tasks

by a tutor. In this article, we will describe Teramac with particular emphasis on those aspects

most relevant to scientists interested in developing computational nanotechnology. Several

concepts related to the logical architecture of Teramac are graphically presented here. (A) The

Cross Bar represents the heart of the configurable wiring network that makes up Teramac. The

inset shows a configuration bit (a memory element) that controls a switch. The bit is located and

configured using the address lines, and its status is read using the data lines. The cross bar

provides not only a means of mapping many configuration bits together into some desiredsequence, but it also represents a highly redundant wiring network. Between any two

configuration bits, there are a large number of pathways, which implies a high communication

bandwidth within a given cross bar. Logically, this may be represented as a 'fat tree.' Such a 'fat

tree' is shown in (B), where it is contrasted with a standard tree architecture. Note that both trees

appear the same from the front view, but from an oblique view, the fat tree has a bandwidth that

the standard tree does not. Color coded dots and a dashed box are included to show the

correspondence between a given level of the fat tree and the cross bar in (A). See figure.9.


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Figure: The Majority Gate

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

At some of the top laboratories around the country, scientists are publicly expressing

beliefs that before now they would only express in private: electronics technology is on the edge


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of a molecular revolution where molecules will be used in place of semiconductors, creating

electronics circuit small that their size will be measured in atoms not microns. They are boldly

predicting that the impact on computing speed and memory resulting from circuits so small

would stagger virtually all fields of technology and business.

Research teams from Rice and Yale Universities say that they have successfully created

molecular size switches that can be opened and closed repeatedly. The HP/UCLA group had

only reported being able to switch once, not repeatedly. Repeated switching is necessary to build

functioning digital computers. These breakthroughs in the field of molecular electronics seem

to be giving researches a new sense of confidence.

There are several research groups working in laboratories under top-secret conditions.

They are making progress on several fronts. One of them is said to be working on molecular

scale Random Access Memory (RAM). RAM, on a molecular scale, could offer incredibly huge

storage capacities. Molecular methods could make it available at costs so low as to be pocket

change. Because of the very small scale of such devices, it might be possible to store, for e.g., a

DVD movie on something the size of a grain of rice.

The micro electronic devices on todays silicon chips have components that are 0.18

microns in size or about one thousandth the width of a human hair. They could go as small as

0.10 microns or hundred nanometers. In molecular electronics, the components could be as tiny

as 1 nanometer. This would make for a new breed of super powerful chips and computers so

small that could be incorporated into all manmade items.

The semiconductor world predicts it will continue to advance the silicon-based chip,

making ever-smaller device, through the year 2014. But the costs involved with these

advancements are enormous. Currently semiconductor chips are made in multibillion-dollar

fabrication plants by etching circuitry into layers of silicon with light waves. Its a very

expensive process and each new generation requires huge amounts of money to upgrade to newer

fab-plants. The world of computers is in for a change. Several computer semiconductor

companies, including Sun Microsystems and Motorola have been meeting to consider forming a

consortium that would look for commercial uses for molecular electronics. Researches say that


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this is still only the beginning in the making of molecular computers. There are still many

obstacles to over come before molecular computers become reality.

Some researches believe that in order for molecular systems to work as computers, they

will need to have fault tolerant architectures. Several groups are working on such devices. The

progress made recently has caused a lot of excitements among researches in molecular

electronics. For a long time, they have had the vision but have had few results. Now they are

looking towards the future and have results that are helping to map the way for them.

invisible technology vinay

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