inventing towns, reshaping places: life and death in early bronze

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Inventing Towns, Reshaping Places: Life and DeathInventing Towns, Reshaping Places: Life and Deathin Early Bronze Age of the southern Levantin Early Bronze Age of the southern Levant

Meredith S. ChessonMeredith S. ChessonUniversity of Notre DameUniversity of Notre Dame

Southern LevantSouthern Levant

Early Bronze Age I - III: Early Bronze Age I - III: 3600 - 2350 B.C.E.3600 - 2350 B.C.E.

Intermediate Bronze / EBA IV: Intermediate Bronze / EBA IV: 2350 - 2000 B.C.E.2350 - 2000 B.C.E.

Why build large walls with towers and gatesWhy build large walls with towers and gatesaround a community?around a community?

Why at this point in time?Why at this point in time?

Early Bronze Age TransformationsEarly Bronze Age Transformations

Increasing social differentiation (individualIncreasing social differentiation (individualand group) seen in mortuary practicesand group) seen in mortuary practices

Slab-built Tomb atSlab-built Tomb at Safi/NaqaSafi/Naqa

Non-residential storage facilitiesNon-residential storage facilities

Granary at BetGranary at Bet Yerah Yerah

Intensification ofIntensification ofagriculturalagriculturalproductionproduction(irrigation(irrigation

technology,technology,waterwater

management,management,ownership, use,ownership, use,surplus storagesurplus storage

and management)and management)

Irrigated fields onIrrigated fields on Wadi Zarqa Wadi Zarqa

PopulationPopulationaggregation inaggregation in

walledwalledcommunitiescommunities

West Gate atWest Gate at Bab edh Bab edh--DhraDhra’’

•• How can we relateHow can we relateemergence of walled townsemergence of walled townsto intensified agriculturalto intensified agriculturaland pastoral production?and pastoral production?

•• How can we trace newHow can we trace newideas about community,ideas about community,property, ownership, andproperty, ownership, andobligations with theobligations with theinvention of walled towns?invention of walled towns?

Look to connections inLook to connections inthe landthe land

Landscape and Place-makingLandscape and Place-making

Practice Theory and Agency StudiesPractice Theory and Agency Studies

Performance and Lived ExperiencePerformance and Lived Experience

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““community comescommunity comesinto being throughinto being through

enculturation ofenculturation ofpeople to a localpeople to a local

history embeddedhistory embeddedin placesin places””

((Whitridge Whitridge 2004:2004:220-1)220-1)

Early EB II slab tomb,Early EB II slab tomb, Naq Naq’’aa//SafiSafi

Reconstruction of MortuaryReconstruction of MortuaryPractices in Early EB II slab tomb,Practices in Early EB II slab tomb,

NaqNaq’’aa//SafiSafi

Reconstruction of EB II-III WalledReconstruction of EB II-III WalledTown ofTown of Numeira Numeira Permanence, durability, and visibilityPermanence, durability, and visibility

Rituals, traditions, and identityRituals, traditions, and identity

Daily and Seasonal RhythmsDaily and Seasonal Rhythms

Local knowledge and regional dynamicsLocal knowledge and regional dynamics

““body as a metaphor forbody as a metaphor forsociety, as instrument ofsociety, as instrument oflived experience, and aslived experience, and assurface of inscriptionsurface of inscription””

(Joyce 2005: 140)(Joyce 2005: 140)

Experience of Living and DyingExperience of Living and Dying(and being studied) at(and being studied) at

Bab edh-Dhra`Bab edh-Dhra`

EB PLACES:EB PLACES:EB II-III TownEB II-III Townofof Bab edh-Bab edh-

DhraDhra’’, Jordan, Jordan

TerracedTerracedHousesHouses

Agricultural Fields inAgricultural Fields in Wadi Wadi

West GateWest Gate

EastEastGateGateandand

PlazaPlazaAreaArea

Sanctuary ASanctuary ACemeteryCemetery

FortificationFortificationWallsWalls

Enclosedresidentialcompounds

Fortification Walls

Street

Residential andResidential andNon-Residential Space atNon-Residential Space at

Khirbet es-ZeraqonKhirbet es-Zeraqon

Gate

Street

Enclosed ritualcomplex

Enclosedresidentialcompound

Enclosedadministrative

complex

Fortification walls

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Winnowing /threshing area

Metallurgical activities

Residential Structures

Residential PlacesResidential Places

Numeira Numeira houseshouses

Reconstruction of terraced residential area,Reconstruction of terraced residential area, Bab edh Bab edh--DhraDhra`̀

RitualRitualSpace atSpace at

Khirbet es-Khirbet es-ZeraqonZeraqon

Wooden beamWooden beamwith notching onwith notching on

floor of Sanctuaryfloor of SanctuaryA,A, Bab edh-DhraBab edh-Dhra’’

MudbrickMudbrickcourtyard floorcourtyard floor

near altarnear altarSanctuary A,Sanctuary A, Bab Bab

edhedh--DhraDhra’’

CressetCresset

CressetCresset

Seal ImpressionSeal Impression

ArchitecturalArchitecturalVocabularies for SacredVocabularies for Sacred

Space?Space?

Pillared White Building atPillared White Building atYarmouthYarmouth

BetBet YerahYerahGranary:Granary:

AgriculturalAgriculturalProduction inProduction in

a Staplea StapleFinanceFinance

EconomyEconomy

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EBA sites with olive andEBA sites with olive andgrape fruit, pits, or woodgrape fruit, pits, or wood

Large deposit of grapes atLarge deposit of grapes at NumeiraNumeira

EB Olive oil processing site inEB Olive oil processing site in Wadi Ziqlab Wadi Ziqlab, northern Jordan, northern Jordan

WaterWatermanagementmanagement

atat JawaJawa

Watercollection

pools

Watercollection

poolsDeflection

wall

Irrigatedfields

Water as key resource in townsWater as key resource in townsand fieldsand fields

Collective CivicCollective CivicProjectsProjects

Irrigation systemsIrrigation systemsAdministrative complexesAdministrative complexes

Fortification systemsFortification systems

New Walled Towns and New New Walled Towns and New ViewscapesViewscapes

Staple Finance EconomyStaple Finance Economy

Property, Ownership, and AccessProperty, Ownership, and Access

Collective Labor and Civic ProjectsCollective Labor and Civic Projects

EB Mortuary EvidenceEB Mortuary Evidence

Dolmen field,Dolmen field, Wadi Wadi el-el-YabisYabis, Jordan, Jordan

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•• Excavations 1965, 1967 (P.Excavations 1965, 1967 (P.Lapp); survey/excavationsLapp); survey/excavations1973-1983, 1989-90 (W.1973-1983, 1989-90 (W. RastRastand T.and T. SchaubSchaub); mapping 2004); mapping 2004(T.(T. Schaub Schaub and M. Chesson)and M. Chesson)

•• Early Bronze Age sites on theEarly Bronze Age sites on thesoutheastern Dead Sea Plainsoutheastern Dead Sea Plain(c. 3150 - 2000 bce(c. 3150 - 2000 bce uncaluncal))

•• 2 walled town sites (2 walled town sites (Bab edh-Bab edh-DhraDhra’’ andand NumeiraNumeira))

•• 4 cemeteries (4 cemeteries (Bab edh-DhraBab edh-Dhra’’,,FeifaFeifa,, Safi/NaqaSafi/Naqa,, KhKh.. KhanazirKhanazir))

•• Publication ongoing:Publication ongoing: NumeiraNumeirais current focusis current focus

Bab edh-DhraBab edh-Dhra’’ Cemetery in 1979Cemetery in 1979

Early Bronze Age Occupation on southeastern Dead Sea PlainEarly Bronze Age Occupation on southeastern Dead Sea Plain

Village, shaft tombs, circular Ch. Houses atVillage, shaft tombs, circular Ch. Houses atBab edhBab edh--DhraDhra`; cist, slab tombs at`; cist, slab tombs at Safi Safi//NaqaNaqa

EB IB / early II:EB IB / early II:c. 3050-2900 bcec. 3050-2900 bce

EB IB / early IIEB IB / early II

EB IVEB IV

Village, shaft tombs atVillage, shaft tombs at Bab edh Bab edh--DhraDhra`; stone`; stoneshaft tombs at shaft tombs at KhanazirKhanazir

EB IV:EB IV:c 2300-2000 bcec 2300-2000 bce

EB IAEB IA

Shaft tombs and campsites atShaft tombs and campsites at Bab edh Bab edh--DhraDhra`; cist tombs at`; cist tombs at Feifa Feifa andand Safi Safi//NaqaNaqa

EB IA:EB IA:c. 3150-3050 bcec. 3150-3050 bce

EB II / IIIEB II / IIIWalled town, charnel houses atWalled town, charnel houses at Bab edh Bab edh--DhraDhra`; walled town at`; walled town at Numeira Numeira

EB II / III:EB II / III:

c. 2900-2300 bcec. 2900-2300 bce

Shifting Settlement and Mortuary Practices: Social Memory,Shifting Settlement and Mortuary Practices: Social Memory,Identity, and Changing Ideas about Community and PlaceIdentity, and Changing Ideas about Community and Place

EB IA Campsites >> Shaft or Cist TombsEB IA Campsites >> Shaft or Cist Tombs

EBIB / II Village >> Slab tombs, CircularEBIB / II Village >> Slab tombs, CircularCharnel HousesCharnel Houses

EB II / III Walled Town EB II / III Walled Town >> Charnel Houses>> Charnel Houses EB IV Village EB IV Village >> Stone Shaft Tombs>> Stone Shaft Tombs

EB IA ShaftEB IA ShaftTombs atTombs at

Bab edhBab edh--DhraDhra’’

Tomb A78WTomb A78W

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EB IA MORTUARY PATTERNS AT BAB EDH-DHRA`EB IA MORTUARY PATTERNS AT BAB EDH-DHRA`

•• Shaft tombs: 1-5 chambers per shaftShaft tombs: 1-5 chambers per shaft•• MNI: 5-25 individualsMNI: 5-25 individuals•• Secondary practices: skeletal elements sorted, placed on mattingSecondary practices: skeletal elements sorted, placed on matting•• Ceramic and stone vessels placed to right of entranceCeramic and stone vessels placed to right of entrance•• Beads and other goods placed in and amongst vesselsBeads and other goods placed in and amongst vessels

EB IAEB IAcemeteries ofcemeteries of

FeifaFeifa, , Safi/NaqaSafi/Naqa

Robbed Cemetery ofRobbed Cemetery of Feifa Feifa in 2001in 2001Excavated Cist tomb, Excavated Cist tomb, FeifaFeifa

EB IB/EARLY II Transitions atEB IB/EARLY II Transitions at Bab edh Bab edh--DhraDhra`̀

Charnel House A4Charnel House A4



EB IB/early IIEB IB/early IIcemetery atcemetery at

Bab edhBab edh--DhraDhra`̀

Shaft tomb A110NEShaft tomb A110NE

Transitional ritualTransitional rituallandscapes:landscapes:

•• Above and BelowAbove and Below

•• Primary andPrimary andsecondary burialssecondary burials

EB IB/early IIEB IB/early IIcemetery atcemetery atSafiSafi//NaqNaq’’aa

Excavated Chamber Tomb,Excavated Chamber Tomb, Safi Safi

100.0%100.0%373373TOTALSTOTALS

21.4%21.4%8080AdultsAdults““

1.1%1.1%44AdolescentsAdolescentsFemalesFemales


0.3%0.3%11AdolescentsAdolescentsMalesMales


4.3%4.3%1616AdolescentsAdolescents““

26.0%26.0%9797ChildrenChildren““

15.3%15.3%5757InfantsInfants““

1.3%1.3%55PrenatalPrenatalUnknownUnknown

%%TotalTotalAgeAgeSexSex

Ortner Ortner and and Fröhlich Fröhlich in press: Table 2in press: Table 2

•• EB IA life expectancy: 21.36EB IA life expectancy: 21.36 yo yo

•• Average male/female heights: 164 cm/154 cmAverage male/female heights: 164 cm/154 cm

•• High infant mortality: 47% deaths before 15 High infant mortality: 47% deaths before 15 yoyo

•• Trauma uncommonTrauma uncommon

•• Infectious diseases: TB (n=2) and brucellosis (n=4)Infectious diseases: TB (n=2) and brucellosis (n=4)

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EB II-IIIEB II-IIIcemetery atcemetery at

Bab edhBab edh--DhraDhra`̀

Charnel House A55Charnel House A55Aerial view of excavated charnel housesAerial view of excavated charnel houses

Excavated Charnel House A41Excavated Charnel House A41

Charnel Houses atCharnel Houses atBab edhBab edh--DhraDhra`:`:

Libraries of the DeadLibraries of the Dead

•• Visible &Visible & Visitable Visitable

•• Secondary MortuarySecondary MortuaryCeremoniesCeremonies

•• Emphasis onEmphasis onMembership andMembership andCollectiveCollective

A51 during excavationA51 during excavation

A55 during excavationA55 during excavation

Differentiation inDifferentiation inBab edh-Dhra`Bab edh-Dhra`

Charnel HousesCharnel Houses

Area(m2)

MNI No. ofVessels

Weapons StonePalettes

Costume Items

SmallerCharnelHouses

15.1 -15.5

Unk. 20-30 None None Beads: stone and bone

LargerCharnelHouses

35.3 -120.9

41-200 46-783 Maceheadsand MetalDaggers,Knives,

Axes

1-4 foundin fourcharnelhouses

Pendants: shell, bone, stoneand carnelian

Beads: metal, ostrich egg,faience, alabaster, carnelian,lapis, crystal, calcite, shell,

stone, bone, and gold

A55 materialsA55 materials in situin situ

• Larger charnel houses contain larger MNI, greater numbers and types of localand non-local goods

• Tendency >> evidence for social differentiation of groups with fluid “border”

•• ““made-to-ordermade-to-order”” body libraries for groups body libraries for groups•• Visible and Visible and visitablevisitable•• Differing access to resources represented inDiffering access to resources represented in

grave goods by charnel housegrave goods by charnel house•• Secondary mortuary rituals (until final use of A22)Secondary mortuary rituals (until final use of A22)•• Reshaping of landscape and making differentReshaping of landscape and making different

kind of Placekind of Place

EBA Transformations: Durability, Visibility, and PlaceEBA Transformations: Durability, Visibility, and Place

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EB IV cemeteryEB IV cemeteryatat Bab edh Bab edh--

DhraDhra`̀

MovingMovingdead belowdead below

groundgroundagain atagain atBab edhBab edh--

DhraDhra`̀

Village onVillage onruins ofruins of

walled townwalled town

Shaft Tombs A52 and A54Shaft Tombs A52 and A54

EB IVEB IVcemetery atcemetery at

KhirbetKhirbetKhanazirKhanazir

•• Change in living placesChange in living placesaccompanied by change inaccompanied by change inplaces for the deadplaces for the dead

•• Shifts between visible (above-Shifts between visible (above-ground) and less visibleground) and less visible(subterranean) burial contexts(subterranean) burial contexts

•• Moderately increasing socialModerately increasing socialdifferentiation with inventiondifferentiation with inventionof towns (group andof towns (group andindividual scales)individual scales)

•• Membership in groups tied toMembership in groups tied towhere you are buried (kinshipwhere you are buried (kinshipin EB IA contexts)in EB IA contexts)

•• In some ways, health of EB II-In some ways, health of EB II-III town dwellers decreasesIII town dwellers decreases(both male and female)(both male and female)

•• MANY QUESTIONS LEFT!MANY QUESTIONS LEFT!


FortificationFortificationWalls,Walls, Numeira Numeira

•• How can we relateHow can we relateemergence of walledemergence of walledtowns to intensifiedtowns to intensifiedagricultural andagricultural andpastoral production?pastoral production?

•• How can we trace newHow can we trace newideas aboutideas aboutcommunity, property,community, property,ownership, andownership, andobligations with theobligations with theinvention of walledinvention of walledtowns?towns?

Look to connections inLook to connections inthe landthe land

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Material Wealth,Resources, and Property

Immaterial Wealth,Immaterial Wealth,Resources, and PropertyResources, and Property

Who are your dead and yourWho are your dead and yourliving?living?

Which and how manyWhich and how manyhuman and materialhuman and material

resources do you / yourresources do you / yourgroup members claim orgroup members claim or

control?control?

How are these relationshipsHow are these relationshipsinscribed on the physical and socialinscribed on the physical and social

landscapes?landscapes?

Thanks toThanks to•• Tom Tom Schaub Schaub and Walt and Walt RastRast•• Bob Chapman, Roger Matthews, Wendy Matthews, Bob Chapman, Roger Matthews, Wendy Matthews, RafiRafi

Greenberg, DavidGreenberg, David Ilan Ilan, Rosemary Joyce, Susan , Rosemary Joyce, Susan KusKus, and Ian, and IanKuijtKuijt

inventing towns, reshaping places: life and death in early bronze

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