Introduction to Psychology, History of Psych, & Psych Perspectives

Unit 1

Intro to Psych

• Greek roots psyche – mind and logos – knowledge or study

• Since we cannot study the mind directly, the approved definition bases the study of psychology on things that can be measured

• Psychology – the scientific study of behavior and mental process

Intro to Psych• Overt behaviors such as talking, sneezing, tie

shoelaces, sitting in class are easily measured

• Covert behaviors are private, internal activities such as thinking, dreaming, and remembering are also studied

• Psychologists do research to discover new knowledge, solve problems in mental health, education, business, sports, law, and medicine

• Psychologists rely on critical thinking and information gained from scientific research

Empirical Evidence• Many people believe they are “people watchers” and

develop common-sense theories regarding people’s behaviors

• To combat common-sense, psychologists have developed the scientific observation – an empirical investigation structured to answer questions about the world in a systematic and intersubjective fashion (observations can be reliably confirmed by multiple observers)

• Must have empirical evidence and be able to collect data (observed facts) to draw valid conclusions

Empirical Evidence

Empirical Evidence

• Study above suggests that physical discomfort is associated with interpersonal hostility

• A study may prove a common sense idea, or completely go against it

• Continuing with this study showed that hostile actions that require more extreme physical exertion, like fist fighting, might decrease at higher temperatures

Psychological Research• Psychologists use scientific observation to systematically

answer questions about behavior

• Research method – a systematic approach to answering scientific questions

• There are limitations to conducting research because of a lack of a suitable research method

• People claimed to never dream and we had to take their word for it until the invention of the EEG (electroencephalograph or brain-wave machine)

• Since this invention, we can now measure that they do dream quite frequently, and if awoken can vividly remember their dreams

Research Specialties• Personality theorist – studies personality traits, motivation, and

individual differences

• Developmental psychologists – studies the course of human growth and development, from conception to death

• Learning theorists – studies how and why learning occurs in humans and animals

• Sensation and perception psychologist – investigates how we discern the world though our senses

• Comparative psychologists – study and compare the behavior of different species, especially animals

• Cognitive psychologists – study thinking

Research Specialties• Biopsychologists – interested in how behavior relates to biological

processes, particularly within the nervous system

• Gender psychologists – study differences between females and males

• Social psychologists – explore human social behavior, such as attitudes, persuasion, riots, conformity, leadership, racism, and friendship

• Evolutionary psychologists – interested in how our behavior is guided by patterns that evolved during the long history of humankind

• Cultural psychologists – study the ways in which culture affects human behavior

• Forensic psychologists – apply psychological principles to legal issues

Animal Psychology• Psychologists are interested in studying the

behaviors of any living creature

• Animal model – in research, an animal whose behavior is used to derive principles that may apply to human behavior

• Animal studies have helped us to understand stress, learning, obesity, aging, and sleep

• Psychology has also benefited animals from behavioral studies for caring for domestic animals and endangered animals in a zoo

Goals of Psychology• Ultimate goal is to benefit humanity; more specific goal are to describe,

understand, predict, and control behavior

• Description – In scientific research, the process of naming and classifying. Making records of observations, cannot answer “why” questions

• Understanding – In psychology, understanding is achieved when the causes of a behavior can be stated. Example – bystander apathy reveals that the more people who are around to help, the less likely a person will receive help due to “diffusion of responsibility”

• Prediction – An ability to accurately forecast behavior. Because of bystander apathy, we know the odds of being picked up on a freeway with car trouble are very low

• Control – Altering conditions that influence behavior. Changing the way you teach a course to help students learn better, or designing vehicles to keep drivers from making fatal mistakes are both examples of using control

Critical Thinking• Most people know to be skeptical of a $5 Rolex watch

for just a few dollars and will accept their ignorance of subatomic physics, but feel they are experts of human behavior since they deal with them daily

• Critical thinking – An ability to reflect on, evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, and synthesize information

• Critical thinkers are willing to challenge conventional wisdom

• Must be willing to actively reflect on ideas and accept the idea that your assumptions might be wrong

Critical Thinking• Basic principles of critical thinking:

• 1. Few “truths” transcend the need for empirical testing. Matters of religious beliefs and personal values can be taken as matters of faith, most other ideas can be evaluated

• 2. Judging the quality of evidence is crucial. Acting as a juror, you can’t just weigh the amount of evidence, but must critically evaluate the quality of evidence

• 3. Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically make an idea true. Just because a teacher or authority figure claims something to be true, it would be self-demeaning to take their word for it without checking their sources

• 4. Critical thinking requires an open mind. “It seems to me that what is called for is an exquisite balance between two conflicting needs: the most skeptical scrutiny of all hypotheses that are served up to us and at the same time a great openness to new ideas” – Carl Sagan

Pseudopsychology• Pseudopsychology – Any false and unscientific

system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behavior

• Followers seek evidence that confirms their beliefs and avoid evidence that contradicts their beliefs

• Scientists by comparison actively look for contradictions to their own theories in an effort to advance knowledge

Pseudopsychology• Phrenology, created by Franz

Gall, believed that personality traits were revealed by the shape of the skull

• Palm reading claims that they can use the lines on one’s hand to discuss personality traits and predict the future

• None of these have ever been scientifically proven to work

Pseudopsychology• Graphology is the study of

handwriting to determining personality traits

• Graphologists have scored close to 0 on accuracy in rating personality, and have been found to do no better than untrained college students in rating personality and job performance

• Despite this information, graphologists have been used to select job candidates, distribute bank credit, or selected for juries

Pseudopsychology• Astrology is one of the most popular forms of

pseudopycholgy and claims to use the position of the planets and stars at the time of your birth to determine your personality traits and affect your behavior

• In a study of over 3,000 predictions, only a small percentage were fulfilled and the successful ones tended to be vague (there will be a tragedy somewhere in the east in the spring)

• If asked, astrologers were not proficient at matching people to their horoscopes than chance would allow. Famous test; astrologers could not use horoscopes to determine difference between murderers and law abiding citizens

Pseudopsychology• There is no connection between people’s astrological signs and their

intelligence or personality traits (Hartmann, Reuter, & Nyborg, 2006). Also no connection of compatibility between people’s signs and marriage or divorce rates

• Astrologers have been unable to explain why the moment of birth is more important than moment of conception.

• Zodiac signs have shifted in the sky by one full constellation since astrology has existed, but astrologers neglect this in their teachings (Scorpios are really Libras)

• Horoscopes are accepted because of uncritical acceptance – The tendency to believe generally positive or flattering descriptions of oneself

• Virgo – You are the logical type and hate disorder. Your nitpicking is unbearable to your friends, You are cold, unemotional, and usually fall asleep while making love. Virgos make good doorstops.

Pseudosychology• Fallacy of positive instances – The tendency to remember

or notice information that fits one’s expectations while forgetting discrepancies

• You can always find Aquarius characteristics in an Aquarius, but you can also find Gemini or other constellation's characteristics as well

• Psychic mediums use this effect quite well

• Studies show that the number of “hits” are relatively low per session, but people are so impressed by the hits they do get right, that they over look the many more misses that occur

Pseudopsychology• Barnum effect – The tendency to consider a personal

description accurate if it is stated in very general terms

• P.T. Barnum had a formula for success “Always have a little something for everybody”

• Astrology’s popularity proves the difficulty people have in separating valid psychology from other not valid system

• People can be harmed by pseudopsychologies by needing real help and therapy, but instead gathering help from self-appointed “experts” who offer therapies based on opinions, fads, or wishful thinking

History• People have been studying human behavior and philosophizing about it

for thousands of years, but it has only existed as a science for the past 130 years

• William Wundt is considered the father of psychology after having set up a laboratory to study conscious experience

• Measured how we experience sensations, images, and feelings by measuring different types of stimuli

• Stimulus – Any physical energy sensed by an organism that evokes a response

• Introspection – To look within,; to examine one’s own thoughts, feelings, or sensations (stop reading, close your eyes, carefully examine your thoughts, feelings, and sensations)

Structuralism• Edward Titchener takes Wundt’s ideas to America and renames it

structuralism

• Structuralism – The school of thought concerned with analyzing sensations and personal experience into basic elements

• “What basic tastes mix together to create complex flavors as different as broccoli, lime, bacon, and strawberry cheesecake?”

• Limitation as a method is that structuralists frequently disagreed with no way to settle differences

• Ex. If you and a friend both introspected on your perceptions of an apple, you would both come up with two different lists of basic elements, but who’s would be right?

Functionalism• William James broadened psychology to include animal behavior, religious

experience, and abnormal behavior

• Functionalism – The school of psychology concerned with how behavior and mental abilities help people adapt to their environments

• James saw consciousness as an ever-changing stream or flow of images or sensations; disagreed with structuralists in that life consisted of lifeless building blocks

• Championed by Charles Darwin’s idea of natural selection – Darwin’s theory that evolution favors those plants and animals best suited to their living conditions

• Functionalists wanted to know how the mind, perceptions, habits, and emotions help us adapt and survive

• Started the psychology of learning and education

Behaviorism• John Watson argued that studying the mind and introspection

didn’t work because it was unscientific due to the disagreements between scientists and it’s inability to be measured

• Behaviorism – The school of psychology that emphasizes the study of overt, observable behavior

• Realized that you cold study animals by observing their relationship between stimuli and an animal’s responses – Any muscular action, glandular activity, or other identifiable aspect of behavior

• Argued that this could be applied to humans as well

• Adopted Pavlov’s concept of conditioning to explain most behavior (A conditioned response is a learned reaction to a particular stimulus)

Behaviorism• B.F. Skinner developed idea of operant conditioning or that our actions are

controlled by rewards and punishments

• Skinner believed that mental events such as thinking are not needed to explain behavior

• A “desired culture” could be created based on a system of positive reinforcement that could encourage desirable behavior (believed punishment wouldn’t work since it didn’t teach correct responses)

• Cognitive behaviorism – An approach that combines behavioral principles with cognition to explain behavior

• Critics disagreed with behaviorists complete disregard for the role that thinking has in our lives

• Ex. You go to a particular website because it offers free streaming videos. Behaviorists would say that you are rewarded with pleasure every time to go to this site. Cognitive behaviorists would add that you also expect to find good videos at this site

Gestalt Psychology• Play the song “Happy Birthday” on a tuba and then again on a flute.

You would be able to recognize the song as long as the relationship between the notes remains the same

• How would this differ if you played the same song, but played one note every hour?

• Gestalt psychology – A school of psychology emphasizing the study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis into parts

• Max Wertheimer disagreed with structuralists by stating that you can’t look at psychological events as pieces or elements; you must study thinking, learning, and perception as whole units to better understand the full picture

• “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts”

Psychoanalytic Psychology• Sigmund Freud brought about a completely different way of

thinking

• He viewed mental life like an iceberg in that only a small part is exposed and that our behavior is influenced greatly by our unconscious thoughts, impulses, and desires (especially concerning sex and aggression)

• Unconscious – Contents of the mind that are beyond awareness, especially impulses and desires not directly known to a person

• Believed that unconscious thoughts are repressed – The unconscious process by which memories, thoughts, or impulses are held out of awareness – because they are threatening

• Can be expressed in dreams, emotions, or slips of the tongue (Freudian slips)

Psychoanalytic Psychology• Believed that all thoughts, emotions, and actions are determined and through

probing deep enough we can find the causes for every action or thought

• Psychoanalysis – A Freudian approach to psychotherapy emphasizing the exploration of unconscious conflicts

• First to promote the affects that childhood had on adulthood

• Neo-Freudians – A psychologist who accepts the broad features of Freud’s theory but has revised the theory to fit his or her own concepts

• Alfred Adler, Anna Freud, Karen Horney, Carl Jung, Otto Rank, & Eric Erikson all placed less emphasis on sex and aggression and more on social motive and relationships

• Fraud’s ideas are prevalent through the more prevalent Psychodynamic theory – Any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces

Humanistic Psychology• Humanism – An approach to psychology that focuses on human experience, problems,

potentials, and ideals

• Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and other humanists disagreed with Freudians and behaviorists ideas of determinism – The idea that all behavior has prior causes that would completely explain one’s choices and actions if all such causes were known

• Humanists stress free will – The idea that human beings are capable of freely making choices or decisions

• Past does effect us, but we can choose to live more creative, meaningful, and satisfying lives

• Humanists are interested in psychological needs for love, self-esteem, belonging, self-expression, creativity, and spirituality

• These are just as important as biological urges for food and water

• Self-actualization – the ongoing process of fully developing one’s personal potential

• Humanists believe that all people have this potential and they seek ways to help it emerge

Perspective Date Notable Events

Experimental psychology

1875 First psychology course offered by William James

1878 First American Ph.D. in psychology awarded

1879 Wilhelm Wundt opens first psychology laboratory in Germany

1883 First American psychology lab founded at Johns Hopkins University

1886 First American psychology textbook written by John Dewey

Structuralism 1898 Edward Titchener advances psychology based on introspection

Functionalism 1890 William James publishes Principle of Psychology

1892 American Psychological Association founded

Psychodynamic psychology

1895 Sigmund Freud publishes first studies

1900 Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams

Behaviorism 1906 Ivan Pavlov reports his research on conditioned reflexes

1913 John Watson presents behavioristic view

Gestalt psychology

1912 Max Wertheimer and other advance Gestalt viewpoint

Humanistic psychology

1942 Carl Rogers publishes Counseling and Psychotherapy

1943 Abraham Maslow publishes “A Theory of Human Motivation

Biological PerspectiveBiopsychological ViewKey Idea: Human and animal behavior is the result of internal physical, chemical, and biological processesSeeks to explain behavior through activity of the brain and nervous system, physiology, genetics, he endocrine system, and biochemistry; neutral, reductionistic, mechanistic view of human nature

Evolutionary ViewKey Idea: Human and animal behavior is the result of the process of evolution.Seeks to explain behavior through evolutionary principles based on natural selection; neutral, reductionist, mechanistic view of human nature

Psychological PerspectiveBehavioristic ViewKey Idea: Behavior is shaped and controlled by one’s environment.Emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the effects of learning; stresses the influence o external rewards and punishments; neutral, scientific, somewhat mechanistic view of human nature

Cognitive ViewKey Idea: Much human behavior can be understood in terms of the mental processing of information.Concerned with thinking, knowing, perception, understanding, memory, decision making, and judgment; explains behavior in terms of information processing, neutral, somewhat computer-like view of human nature

Psychodynamic ViewKey Idea: Behavior is directed by forces within one’s personality that are often hidden or unconscious.Emphasizes internal impulses, desires, and conflicts – especially those that are unconscious; views behavior as the result of clashing forces within personality; somewhat negative, pessimistic view of human nature

Humanistic ViewKey Idea: Behavior is guided by one’s self-image, by subjective perceptions of the world, and by needs for personal growth.Focuses on subjective, conscious experience, human problems, potentials, and ideals; emphasizes self-image and self-actualization to explain behavior; positive, philosophical view of human nature

Sociocultural PerspectiveSociocultural ViewKew Idea: Behavior is influenced by one’s social and cultural context.Emphasizes that behavior is related to the social and cultural environment within which a person is born, grow up, and lives from day to day; neutral, interactionist view of human nature

S R

ConsciousConscious

UnconsciousUnconscious

INPUTINPUT

ProcessingProcessing

OUTPUTOUTPUT

SocialSocialSelfSelf

CulturalCultural

Biological Perspective• Most psychologists have adopted multiple

theories to explain behavior since human nature is too complicated for any one theory to explain

• Biological perspective – The attempt to explain behavior in terms of underlying biological principles

• Use biological principles like brain processes, evolution, and genetics to explain our behavior

• Neuroscience and evolutionary psychologists are part of the field of the biological perspective

Psychological Perspective• Psychological perspective – The traditional view that behavior is shaped by

psychological processes occurring at the level of the individual

• Acknowledges that mental processes underlie much of our behavior and emphasizes objective observation, cognitive behaviorism, and cognitive psychology

• Cognitive psychology is gaining prominence since we now have the technology to measure things like thinking, memory, and language

• Psychodynamic view is still gaining ground as they trace human behavior through their unconscious behavior

• Humanistic psychologists try to enhance people’s lives, like the psychodynamic view, but do so by stressing subjective, conscious experiences, and the positive side of human nature, as opposed to the unconscious processes

• Positive psychology – The study of human strengths, virtues, and effective functioning; came about once there was a need to not only study the negative side of human behavior

Sociocultural Perspective• Sociocultural perspective – The focus on the importance of social and cultural contexts

in influencing the behavior or individuals

• Cultural diversity is becoming the norm in American and thus has had a profound impact on psychology

• Most psychology has been based on North America and European cultures and the question is now being asked is “Do the principles of Western psychology apply to people of all cultures?”

• Cultural relativity – The idea that behavior must be judged relative to the values of the culture in which it occurs

• Ex. If you are treating a Native American woman who claims that spirits live in the trees near her home, do you treat her for delusions, and is she abnormal?

• Social norms – Rules that define acceptable and expected behavior for embers of a group

• Judging what is “normal” behavior has been traditionally set by white, middle-class males, but to be an effective psychologist, we must be sensitive to people who are ethnically and culturally different

Psychologists• Psychologist – A person highly trained in the methods,

factual knowledge, and theories of psychology

• A psychiatrist and psychologist are not the same thing

• Many misconceptions exist for psychologists such as most psychologists are not therapists in a private practice as is portrayed in the movies

• Most are employed by schools, businesses, and social agencies

• Clinical psychology is not the only field that exists; a little over half of all psychologists study mental disorders or do therapy

Psychologists• Most psychologists do work that helps people

• People interested in emotional problems specialize in clinical or counseling psychology

• Clinical psychologist – A psychologist who specializes in the treatment of psychological and behavioral disturbances or who does research on such disturbances

• Counseling psychologist – A psychologist who specializes in the treatment of milder emotional and behavioral disturbances

• This difference is starting to disappear and many now work as full time therapists

• Most have a masters or Ph.D. in order to work at a practice

Specialty Typical Activities

Biopsychology B* Does research on the brain, nervous system, and other physical origins of behavior

Clinical A Does psychotherapy; investigates clinical problems; develops methods of treatment

Cognitive B Studies human thinking and information processing abilities

Community A Promotes community-wide mental health through research, preventions, education, and consultation

Comparative B Studies and compares the behavior of different species, especially animals

Consumer A Researches packaging, advertising, marketing methods, and characteristics of consumers

Counseling A Does psychotherapy and personal counseling; researches emotional disturbances and counseling methods

Cultural B Studies the ways in which culture, subculture, and ethnic group membership affect behavior

Developmental A,B Conducts research on infant, child, adolescent, and adult development; does clinical work with disturbed children; acts as consultant to parents and schools

Educational A Investigates classroom dynamics, teaching styles, and learning; develops educational tests, evaluates educational programs

Engineering A Does applies research on the design of machinery, computers, airlines, automobiles, and so on, for business, industry, and the military

Environmental A,B Studies the effects of urban noise, crowding, attitudes toward the environment, and human use of space; acts as a consultant on environmental issues

Forensic A Studies problems of crime and crime prevention. Rehabilitation programs, prisons, courtroom dynamics; selects candidates for police work

Gender B Does research on differences between males and females; the acquisition of gender identity, and the role of gender throughout life

Health A,B Studies the relationship between behavior and health; uses psychological principles to promote health and prevent illness

Industrial-organizational A Selects job applicants, does skills analysis, evaluates on –the-job training, improves work environments and human relations in organizations and work settings

Learning B Studies how and why learning occurs; develops theories of learning

Medical A Applies psychology to manage medical problems, such as the emotional impact of illness, self-screening for cancer, compliance in taking medicine

Personality B Studies personality traits and dynamics; develops theories of personality and tests for assessing personality traits

School A Does psychological testing, referrals, emotional and vocational counseling of students; detects and treats learning disabilities; improves classroom learning

Sensation and perception B Studies the sense organs and the process of perception; investigates the mechanisms of sensation and develops theories about how perception occurs

Social B Investigates human social behavior, including attitudes, conformity, persuasion, prejudice, friendship, aggression, helping, and so forth

*Research in this area is typically applied (A), basic (B), or both (A,B)

Other Professionals• Psychiatrist – A medical doctor with additional training in the diagnosis

and treatment of mental and emotional disorders– Psychiatrists can normally issue drugs, but a trend to allow psychologists to

prescribe is occurring

• Psychoanalyst – A mental health professional trained to practice psychoanalysis– Usually has an M.D. and seeks further training in Freudian psychoanalysis

• Counselor – A mental health professional who specializes in helping people with problems not involving serious mental disorder; marriage counselors, career counselors, or school councilors– Must have a master’s degree and 1 to 2 years of full-time supervised

counseling experience

• Psychiatric social workers – A mental health professional trained to apply social science principles to help patients in clinics and hospitals– Most have a Master of Social Work degree and assist psychologists and

psychiatrists

Ethics• Most psychologists take pride in following a

professional code that stresses

– High levels of competence, integrity, and responsibility

– Respect for people’s rights to privacy, dignity, confidentiality, and personal freedom

– Protection of the client’s welfare

• Psychologists are also expected to use their knowledge to contribute to society