Introduction to Latin America

Colonial and Modern Era

Pre-ColonialismSimilar to the Romans and the

Greeks prior to Christianity.•Religion

– Polytheistic– Vengeful gods controlled prosperity– Human sacrifices

•Economy– Hunter-gatherers– Semi-nomadic– Sophisticated agricultural

developments•Society

– Tribal– Male dominated– Sophisticated writing systems

Conquest & Colonialism

• Aztec and Incan empires quickly defeated by a few hundred Spanish

• Why??• Spanish had guns &

horses• Indigenous peoples had

no immunity to European diseases like smallpox

– More on this later

In this picture, Cortes is being treated like a god

Triangular Trade

Columbian Exchange

Latin American Colonies

Mexico: A case study of Colonial Latin America

• Early contact and conquest: Fernando Cortes: cleric sent with Velasquez to explore and conquer Cuba in 1511.

• Cortes conflicted with Cuban commanders and decided to break off on a separate expedition to the Yucatan. Arrived in Mexico in 1519 and established La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (modern day Veracruz)

• Aided by local missionaries and Dona Marina- an indigenous maiden who was sold to the Spaniards and became Cortes’ mistress.

• Facing mutiny, Cortes destroyed his own ships to avoid “retreat” and ruled the men with an iron grip.

• Cortes was determined to die or conquer Mexicala and Montezuma to avoid charges of treason by the Cuban General.

Contact with the MexicansConquistadores early successes• Montezuma believed that the white men

were deities (gods)• The Indians believed the white men and

their horses were invincible.• Cortes used large war dogs (mastiffs and

greyhounds) as weapons• Spaniards had guns and advanced

weaponry.• Cortes manipulated regional rivalries and

warring factions to divide the natives.• Massacre of Cholula: Cortes attacked

and slaughtered 6000 Cholulan warriors. • Demonstrated strength, but established a

bloody reputation

Montezuma

Psychological and Physical warfare

Hernan (Fernando) Cortes Superstition, Technology, Tactics• Cortes marched on the Tenochtitlan, the

capital center of Culhua-Mexica and Montezuma peacefully

• During Noche Triste (Sad Night), a rebellion against Cortes, Montezuma was killed under suspicious circumstances.

• Full scale attack against Cortes who is forced to retreat from the city.

• Aztecs replace Montezuma with his nephew Cuitlahuac. Aztec fear of the Spaniards broken.

• Introduction of biological warfare: Small pox• One of the Spanish soldiers had small pox

and it infected the Indian population creating a mini plague, killing tens of thousands, including the new Emperor.

• After months of fighting, Cortes decided to level the city, Cortes cut off supplies and Tenochtitlan fell on 8/13/1521.

New Spain• Establishment of encomiendas: lands granted to the soldiers as “payment”;

the encomendero received tribute and free labor from the Indians on the land in exchange for protection and care. *(feudal system)

• Ineffective because the encomenderos treated the Indians as slaves; many Indians died of mistreatment and disease; and often encomiendas failed.

• Political espionage, rivalries, and conflict with the Spanish crown• Establishment of Spanish Councils to oversee “Indies” affairs corrupt;

separated from Spanish crown• Expanding conquests into West Mexico and Latin America in search of

fabled cities• Revolts by Indian populations against Spanish domination• Establishment of a government in Spain under viceroy (vice king)- Don

Antonio de Mendoza created stability and a checks and balances

New Laws of 1542-1543Viceroy Antonio Mendoza Bartolome De Las Casas

Freedom to the natives, established Indian towns (impoverished)Restrictions to the encomienda system- Indian rightsConversion of Indians to ChristianityEstablished a layered form of governmentEmergence of the criollos (Mexican born Spaniard elites)

Social Pyramid

Life in New Spain for 300 yearsEconomy

• Mercantilism- Export of raw resources to the crown

– Import goods– Textiles- cotton cloths– Artisians crafts

• Mining – (silver of Zacatecas and Guanajuanto)

• Self-contained encomiendas– Wage labor/debt peonage– repartimiento– Imported slavery

• Ranches and cattle– Chicken – Pigs– Sheep

• Export Farming/share cropping– Cochineal (insects on cactus)– Corn– Wheat– Indigo plants– Sugar– Cacao and Vanilla– henequin

SocietyRacial dominance

– Spaniards (Peninsulares)– Criollos– Indians– Blacks (imported slaves)– Free blacks

• (manumitted, or • purchased)

Miscegenation– Castas– Mestizos (Spanish Indian)

• Euromestizo-- Criollo• Indomestizo-- Mestizo• Afromestizo– Mulatto or

ZamboWomen and Family• Patriarchal, machismo• Women could inherit in the absence

of a male heir• Pre-arranged marriages• Maintenance of family, extended

familiesEducation• Used to Hispanicize natives• Church education (basic literacy)• Crown universities (Bureaucracy)• Citizenship and republicanism

Religion• Secular clergy

• Priests who served under Bishops

• Regular clergy: missionaries• Franciscans• Dominicans• Augustinians• Jesuits

• Missions and monasteries established throughout Mexico (California, New Mexico, Arizona)

• Often advocated for better treatment for the Indians:

• Idolatry, Saint Worship, Virgin of Guadalupe

• Church gained supreme authority over Mexico over time.

• Corruption, political, economic manipulation

• Inquisition• Forced conversion

• (indians and Jews)• Moral inquisitions• Censorship• Prosecution of witchcraft and

magic (voodoo)• Checked political dissidence

Threat to New Spain:French, Dutch, and English explorers were expanding into New Spain territory (near modern Southern United States) forcing New Spain to confront both indigenous revolts and encroachment

“If there is victory in overcoming the enemy, there is a greater victory when a man overcomes himself.”– Jose De San Martin

• Enlightenment Philosophy: What is it?• John Locke• Montesquie• Rousseau• Voltaire• Thomas Paine• Adam Smith• Simon Bolivar• Jose De San Martin• Miguel Hidalgo

Bourbon Reforms and Reactions• Controversy over the Spanish throne at the turn of the 18th century led to instability in Spain, Europe, and the colonies

for 50 years.• Re-stabilization under Charles III led to restructuring of colonial law: • Sweeping political reforms to rejuvenate the economy and protection of the colonial frontiers from foreign

encroachment. – (Britain, France, US, Native populations)– Seven Years War– Creation of a colonial army

• Industrialization: – advanced technology in the silver mines and advanced agricultural development– Architectural and infrastructure development of Churches, schools, government buildings– building of city centers with street lighting, – Development of railroads, paved roads and public transportation in urban centers– Neglect of rural areas led to village riots and rural conflicts

• Enlightened reforms: – crown revenues and taxation increased– hardest hit to the indigenous who were extorted for more money,

product to cover tax increases– Europeanization of urban centers – cosmopolitan (Frenchified)– Promotion of the arts and enlightened ideals– Revolutions raised awareness of social injustices and precariousness of the elite

• Church reform– Jesuits vs. the Crown: – 1767- expulsion of all Jesuits and confiscation of all Jesuit property– – Violent protests by Criollos and Indians who were educated and supported by Jesuit Churches. – Reforms of local celebrations and public ritual limited and reformed. Church confiscation of land, tithes

• Encouraged emigration of Peninsulares to New Spain with the promise of land, wealth taken from the church and used as payment (at the expense of Criollos, etc.)

"I swear before you; I swear on the God of my parents; I swear on them; I swear on my honor and I swear on my country that I shall not give rest to my arm nor respite to my soul until I have broken the chains that oppress

us by the will of the Spanish power. ” --Simon Bolivar

•American & French Revolutions inspire colonists to revolt against Spain & Portugal•Haitian Revolution•Mexican Revolution of 1810– Rise of the Criollos•Gran Colombia•Brazil: American Royalty

200-1300 1500 1800Conquest Independence

Early Independence:

Independence and New Nations

Research!

1. Describe Mexico’s War of Independence.2. Evaluate the success of Mexico’s independence

movement of 1810. 3. To what extent was this movement a revolution?

Justify your responses and build a historiography.

Product requirements:• Group IA presentation

– Must have a minimum of 5 sources, including the two chapters I have given you. Sources must be cited and presented during reports.

– Groups may have no more than four people– choose your groups wisely– Must include visual: I don’t care what this is, but keep this simple and professional– All group members must present and demonstrate mastery. Grade is dependent on group performance.

Anyone who fails to present will not receive the group grade.– Presentations should be approximately 10-15 minutes in length.– Presentations begin _______________:

• Failure to present on time will result in a failed grade for the group.• (no exceptions so check your stuff prior to the presentation)

– Take notes and prepare for individual paper.• Repetition and redundancy of facts is to be expected but your group should be able to take a stand on

issues and defend them.

• Individual response should be an extended essay (not an IA); – 750-1000 words in length- – formal presentation (cite your sources) – Due _____________________.– Papers should include information from the group IA’s

Consequences of Independence MovementRise of the Modern State in Latin America: Mexico

Geography

Nativism and Nationalism

Constitutions

Civil Wars: war heroes and authoritarian regimes

Foreign intervention

Republic versus Monarchy

Federalism versus Centralism

Early Mexican RepublicanismConstitution of 1824

Federalists• 19 States and 4 territories• Separation of powers:

executive, legislative, judicial branches

• Bicameral legislation– Senate: 2 senators– Chamber of Deputies: 1

representative for 80,000 people

• President and VP elected by state legislatures with 4 year term limit

Centralists• Church remained dominant

over spiritual life: retained power and no religious toleration

• Presidential powers in times of Emergency (crisis to ensue)

• Protected military and religious fueros (special courts (similar to our military tribunal)

• Resisted tax increases (did not support Federalist spending)

Military coup’s undermined the stability of Mexico’s Republic

• Santa Anna overthrows Bustamante and is elected President in 1833.

• Centralist- Republican supporter; fought against previous insurrections including Hidalgo, Iturbide, Tampico (Spain), and Bustamante

• Championed as the Hero of Mexico (really just a military man who fought where he was told to fight).

• Retired to his estate and left the government in the hands of VP Gomez Farias (liberal)

• Reforms against military and church autonomy

– Abolished fueros– Secularized education– Illegalized tithes and – Secularized the funds of monastaries and

missions

Spain attacked and tried to recolonize Mexico by invading Tampico.

Emergency powers granted to Guerrero. Santa Anna sent to stop them. Santa Anna eventually won.

Guerrero refused to relinquish his emergency powers.

VP Bustamante overthrows Guerrero– establishes a dictatorship.

Executed Guerrero as a traitor (4 out of 5 Independence heroes were now executed)… Mexico loses confidence in government

Santa Anna was becoming a war hero National statesman

Santa Anna rises again!

Constitution of 1836: (Siete Leyes)

1. The 15 articles of the first law granted citizenship to those who could read and had an annual income of 100 pesos, except for domestic workers, who did not have the right to vote.

2. The second law allowed the President to close Congress and suppress the Mexican Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation. Military officers were not allowed to assume this office.

3. The 58 articles of the third law established a bicameral Congress of Deputies and Senators, elected by governmental organs. Deputies had four-year terms; Senators were elected for six years.

4. The 34 articles of the fourth law specified that the Supreme Court, the Senate of Mexico, and the Meeting of Ministers each nominate three candidates, and the lower house of the legislature would select from those nine candidates the President and Vice-president,

5. The fifth law had an 11-member Supreme Court elected in the same manner as the President and Vice-President.

6. The 31 articles of the sixth Law replaced the federal republic's "states" with centralized "departments", fashioned after the French model, whose governors and legislators were designated by the President.

7. The seventh law prohibited reverting to the pre-reform laws for six years

• In addition to these primary reforms: the presidency was extended to an 8 year term.

• In addition to a voting fee, officers of the government had a minimum annual salary requirement.

• Republican states were reorganized into military territories controlled by political bosses picked by the President.

•Overthrows Gomez Farias and establishes a conservative 2nd Presidency.

•Reverses the Gomez Farias initiatiives.

•Centralist/Conservative regime

•Created a new conservative constitution in 1836 (Siete Leyes)

•What is the greatest controversy of the new Constitution?

Foreign affairs and intervention

• Property of foreign nationals submitted claims to their own government for compensation from the Mexican government

• France demanded $600,000 in compensation• The Mexican government was unstable and could not address

these complaints• France sent a military fleet and established a blockade in Veracruz• Mexico agreed to pay $600,000- France raised total to $800,000

(expenses of the blockade)- Mexico refused to pay new amount• Santa Anna personally led troops against the French in Veracruz• Santa Anna injured and leg is amputated• Mexican victory but expensive for Mexican society• The French were not finished and would return in about 30 years.

• France (Pastry War) 1838

Santa Anna’s Leg• Santa Anna ordered that his amputated

leg be mummified and transported to Mexico City in a Presidential procession.

• His leg was celebrated by all levels of the government and military

• Leg placed in a special urn and set utop a stone pillar where it was left as a shrine to Santa Anna.

Mexican American War and the loss of Texas

• Group IA: – Mexico’s justification for the war– United States justification for the war– Lone Star Republic: – Santa Anna: Mexican hero… discuss – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo– Mexico’s reaction to the results of the war– United States reaction to the results of the war

Product requirements:• Group IA presentation

– Must have a minimum of 5 sources, including the one chapter I have given you. Sources must be cited and presented during reports.

– Groups may have no more than four people– choose your groups wisely– Must include visual: I don’t care what this is, but keep this simple and professional– All group members must present and demonstrate mastery. Grade is dependent on

group performance. Anyone who fails to present will not receive the group grade.– Presentations should be approximately 15-20 minutes in length.– Presentations begin ______________________:

• Failure to present on time will result in a failed grade for the group.• (no exceptions so check your stuff prior to the presentation)• take notes and prepare for individual paper.• Repetition and redundancy of facts is to be expected but your group should be

able to take a stand on issues and defend them.

• No individual paper is required at this time.

Revolution of Ayutla and the Mexican Constitution of 1857

Constitution of 18571.Religious issue: did not establish the Catholic Church as the state religion opening the door for religious freedoms2.First genuine bill of inalienable rights in first 34 Articles:

1. Equality before the law2. Freedom of Speech, petition, assembly,

education3. Abolished slavery4. Abolished “compulsory service” 5. Abolished titles of nobility and eradicated any

form of aristocracy6. Right to bear arms7. Established habeas corpus (right to legal

protection and a trial to determine guilt and incarceration).

3.Leys were included in Constitution

New revolutionary Mexican leaders including:•Juan Alvarez, a revolutionary intellectual and •Benito Juarez; a Zapotec Indian who rose from poverty and became a national symbol for the native Mexicans

Plan de Ayutla: liberal reformLey Juarez: broke Church jurisdiction by abolishing fueros (military and church courts)

Ley Lerdo: nationalized land not specifically being used for religious or production purposes

Ley Iglesias: civil registry of births, deaths, and marriages

The Catholic ChurchObstacle to progress or path to

freedom?

• Colonial Institution survived Independence movements

• Church took advantage of nationalization movements and amassed riches from the Creole and Peninsular elite- tribute, estates willed, tithes

• By the 1800’s, Church controlled 50-80% of the land in most Latin areas

• Priests were very prestigious and were able to influence the masses in political decisions forcing the creole and the peninsulars to support the church.

• The Church also dominated educational organizations.

• The masses had more direct contact with the Church than with the government so the Church influenced the ideals of the people.

• Pope encouraged support of European monarchs; refused to support local government

• Issued papal decree against Mexican liberal government

Swear allegiance to the Constitution

Swear allegiance to the Catholic Church

Excommunicated Traitors to the nation

Considered heretics Civil servants lost jobs

Soldiers not treated in Catholic hospitals

Teachers suspended from universities

Not given their final rites by the Church

Not allowed to attend public educational institutions

Priests were suspended from the Order by the Pope

The War of the Reform:Mexican Civil War of 1858-1861(What is ironic about these dates?)

Eventually the Liberals won the Civil WarDid the reforms work?

• Domination of Latin American markets by Foreign countries

• Chronic political instability rewarded civil positions to untrained

• Lack of infrastructural development in rural areas

• National treasuries empty

• Abolition of slavery and Indian tributes leads to debt peonage and apprenticeships

• Domination by local families within governments based on land voting requirements

• Aristo class remained dominant and adopted European influences

Economic Stagnation

Reaction of the masses to Church conflict

Foreign trade agreements with the elite, lack of investments in corporate development

Exploitation of indigenous and mestizo in monocrop systems

Mining and manufacturing declined

Development of large HacendadosMexico: Sanchez Navarro FamilyArgentina: Anchorena Family

Rise of Modern States in Latin America 1850-1890

Long term effects of Caudillos

• Political Stability and cooperation between upper classes and church

• Foreign investments in property, agriculture, mining, infrastructure

• Industrialization• Urbanization• Modernization• Centralization of governments and

society including civil marriage, secular education, open religion.

• Economic prosperity for investors and the elites

Modern Map of Latin America

What types of economic growth occurred and who benefited from it?

Caudillos and Gauchos

Caudillo: military leaders supported by rural elite, the Church, and the army. Militia generals.

Folk Caudillo: rare; guardian of traditions placed the needs of the masses over the desires of the aristo classes.

Charismatic generals who could sway the masses and assert authority over a region.

Gauchos: (charro) Cowboys and rural landworkers. Ranchers; symbolic of national pride; hardworking man of the land.

Development of bandits and stealing from the rich to help the poor. The gaucho became a symbol of national identities for

independent countries that had been previously missing.

What is the Message?What is the Message?

Foreign intervention still a problem• English, French, and Spanish debts were called in and Juarez

issued a moratorium (no payment for 2 years)• Joint occupation of the Mexican coasts to seize custom house

receipts towards debts.• France returns under Napoleon III, ignores Spain and Britain

and occupies Mexico- attacks Mexican forces at Puebla• General Porfirio Diaz and General Zaragoza repelled the

French… date?• Ironically, the French returned and eventually conquered

Puebla, then Mexico City• New monarchy established under Maximilian

– Offends all levels of Mexican society• Conservatives• Liberals• Church• The Masses

U.S. Involvement to the French Intervention

• Juarez and Diaz turned to the United States for help against French– Lincoln justified help based on the Monroe Doctrine

of 1823.• What was the Monroe Doctrine?• U.S. soldiers and arms went to Juaristas

– Otto van Bismarck threatens French borders forces French to withdraw troops; abandon Maximilian

– Pope Pius IX refused to intervene because Maximilian had hurt papal relations

– Maximilian defeated and executed by the Juarista regime that was restored to power.

Results of the French Intervention: Emergence of a Modern Mexico

• Mexican nationalism grew• International recognition of Mexican sovereignty established• Republican victory and vindication of the Constitution of 1857• Weakening of the Church• Mexico bankrupt, focused on economic reforms and

development of infra-structure• Displaced citizens required social reforms; including educational

reform and Positivism• Porfirio Diaz tried twice to overthrow democratically elected

governments. Failed against Juarez. Succeeded against Lerdo in 1867.

• Diaz declared himself dictator: is this a bad thing?

Europe out of Latin America? Not really!Urbanization, Industrialization, Modernization

at all costs• European influence sweeps through Latin America:• Intellectual trends in the Arts focused on Europe and ignored

Latin American artists/writers• Positivism, Progressivism, and neo-enlightenment • Urban developments and architecture based on European

designs• Capitalism and development of “classes”• Desire for U.S. and European products• Development of cientificos based on European education• Urban progress and economic reformations despite effects on

the masses, lead to more popular protests, instability, and banditry as a form of social protests

United States as a major world power and foreign intervention in Latin America

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

• Reinforced the Monroe Doctrine (stagnant) and promised U.S. intervention against any European country that pressed claims in the Western hemisphere.

• Response to the Venezuelan crisis of1902 (Drago Doctrine, Cleveland’s response to Congress)

“Big Stick Diplomacy”

“Speak softly and carry a big stick.”Theodore Roosevelt

[Roosevelt] essentially turns the Monroe Doctrine on its head and says the Europeans should stay out, but the United States has the right, under the doctrine, to go in in order to exercise police power to keep the Europeans out. It's a very neat twist on the Monroe Doctrine, and, of course, it becomes very, very important because over the next 15 to 20 years, the United States will move into Latin America about a dozen times with military force, to the point where the United States Marines become known in the area as "State Department troops" because they are always moving in to protect State Department interests and State Department policy in the Caribbean. So what Roosevelt does here, by redefining the Monroe Doctrine, turns out to be very historic, and it leads the United States into a period of confrontation with peoples in the Caribbean and Central America, that was a really important part of American imperialism.

•Walter LeFeber, American Historian

The Cuban “Melodrama”The Cuban “Melodrama”A case study U.S. justification for entering a A case study U.S. justification for entering a

warwar

The Spanish-American War: 1898The Spanish-American War: 1898

Valeriano Weyler’s Valeriano Weyler’s “Reconcentration” Policy“Reconcentration” Policy

Remember the MaineRemember the Maine!!To Hell with SpainTo Hell with Spain!!

Cuban “IndependenceCuban “Independence??””

Senator Senator Orville Orville PlattPlatt

Platt AmendmentPlatt Amendment (1903) (1903) 1. Cuba was not to enter into any agreements 1. Cuba was not to enter into any agreements withwith foreign powers that would endanger its foreign powers that would endanger its independence.independence. 2. The U.S. could intervene in Cuban affairs if 2. The U.S. could intervene in Cuban affairs if necessary to maintain an efficient, necessary to maintain an efficient, independent govt.independent govt. 3. Cuba must lease 3. Cuba must lease Guantanamo Bay Guantanamo Bay to the U.S. to the U.S. forfor naval and coaling station. naval and coaling station. 4. Cuba must not build up an excessive public 4. Cuba must not build up an excessive public debt.debt.

What the US Fought ForWhat the US Fought For

Objective: To examine the construction of the Panama Canal.

Panama and the Panama Canal regionIntroduced as early as 1513 by Balboa

• France, led by engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, began construction on the canal in 1881.

• About $287,000,000 had been spent and 20,000 men had died before the French withdrew from the project in 1889.

•Malaria, flooding, uncontrolled jungle, yellow fever

Panama Canal

Ferdinand de Lesseps

• President Theodore Roosevelt stated in a speech about the Panama Canal, "No single great material work which remains to be undertaken on this continent is as of such consequence to the American people.“

•Roosevelt was frustrated because war ships were stuck in the Pacific (Oregon took 67 days to get from San Francisco to Cuba)

•Proposed the completion of the project. Purchased the canal from France for $40 million

Colombia, 1822

Colombia refused to grant the U.S. permission to complete the canal project.

• Therefore, the U.S. encouraged the Panamanian people to revolt against Colombia.

•Colombian soldiers were bribed to lay down arms ($50US).

•U.S. warships parked off the coast of Panama to show support for the Panamanian Revolution.(early version of gun boat diplomacy that would be used later)

•Before the revolt ended, U.S. had already written the Panama Constitution and had created a national flag.

• On November 3, 1903, Panama declared their independence from Colombia and allowed the U.S. to build the canal.

U.S. paid Panama $10m for rights to continue the canal.

•Initially, U.S. faced same issues as French crews until John Stevens was assigned to oversee the Panama project.

•Changed the design of the canal to a lock system to avoid flooding issues.

•U.S. workers first sprayed tons of insecticide across Panama in order to destroy the mosquito eggs in an attempt to limit cases of malaria and yellow fever.

•Stevens established basic sanitation expectations and helped build local towns.

Animation: How the Panama Canal Works

Panama Canal Timelapse

1905 fumigation car eradicating the mosquitoes - Panama City

The Panama Canal – Live Cameras

Theodore Roosevelt at the construction site of the Panama Canal.

The canal was completed in August 15, 1914.

Overshadowed by the developments in WWI.

United States controlled the Panama Canal (international travel in the Western hemisphere) until turned over to the Panamanians in 1999

Roosevelt Corollary and Dollar Diplomacy

• Nicaragua threatened to nationalize lands controlled by U.S. companies.• Threat of European sanctions and blockades justified U.S. intervention• Supported plan to overthrow President Zeyela that eventually led to the

establishment of dictator Somoza regime. • Sent U.S. Marines to Nicaragua to control population and train

Nicaraguan National Guard (Dollar Diplomacy)• Dollar diplomacy was also extended to U.S. involvement and

relationships in China.• Despite Somoza’s obviously corrupt government, the U.S. would help

him stay in power until he was overthrown by revolution in 1961.• The United States would remain involved in Nicaraguan affairs, claiming

protection from encroaching communist movements until 1990, including supporting drug lord Manuel Noriega.

United States under fire:• Excessive European involvement in Haiti prompted the United States to justify

occupation of Haiti using Dollar Diplomacy and the Roosevelt Corollary as justification.

• United States assumed key roles in Haitian government and controlled Haitian economy to benefit the United States.

• United States was criticized for Imperialistic actions in Latin America during the Pan American Conference.

• United States agreed to begin withdrawal of occupation of Latin American countries.

• Supported Latin American dictators including Papa Doc and Baby Doc of Haiti, Rafael Trujillo of the Dominican Republic and other brutal conservative dictators who were willing to promote U.S. interests and curb communist expansion.

• Haiti receives economic aid and support from the United States now.

Good Neighbor Policy