introduction - shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/45074/11/introduction.pdf ·...

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): Chemistry, Biological activities and current developments in technology

___________________________________________________________________________________

1

INTRODUCTION

The Zingiberaceous plants are characterized by their tuberous or non-tuberous

rhizomes, which have strong aromatic and medicinal properties. The family Zingiberaceae

contains approximately 1,300 species in 50 genera, widely distributed in South and South-

east Asia. It includes several medicinally important genera including Zingiber. Selected

species of Zingiberaceae family have been widely used as spices. Rhizomes of one particular

species, Zingiber officinale Roscoe is commonly known as ‘GINGER’ worldwide. It is said to

be a native of Asia but is intensively cultivated throughout the tropical areas of the world. It

takes its name from the Sanskrit word singabera, which means ‘with a body like a horn’, as in

antlers. It is also described in Koran, the sacred book of the Muslims, indicating it was known

in Arab countries as far back as 650 A.D. It was one of the earliest spices known in Western

Europe, used since the ninth century.

Ginger is now used throughout the world as a spice, because of its characteristic

pleasant aroma and pungency. Ginger rhizome both fresh as well as dried form is used in

medicine and as a spice for several centuries. It has a long and well-documented history of

culinary and medicinal uses (Akhila and Tiwari, 1984). The rhizome is typically consumed as

a fresh paste, dried powder, slices preserved in syrup, candy (crystallized ginger) and also

used for flavouring tea.

Ginger is consumed in fairly larger quantities. Fresh ginger is used as a vegetable. In

western countries, ginger is used in bread, biscuits, cakes, puddings, soups, pickles, beer and

wine. The unique flavour properties of ginger arise from the combination of pungency of non-

volatile compounds and aroma of essential oil. The essential oil and oleoresins extracted from

ginger rhizomes are very valuable products responsible for the characteristic ginger flavor and

pungency. Both oil and oleoresins are used in several food products such as soft beverages

and also many types of pharmaceutical formulations. Ginger is found in a large variety of

foods and can be ingested in considerable amounts (250-1000 mg) daily in the human diet

(Hara et al., 1998).

It forms a part of the traditional medicinal practices of all the ginger-growing countries.

Indians consider it as Mahaoushadha (the great medicine). It is widely used in traditional

oriental medicine for common cold, digestive disorders, and rheumatism (Surh et al., 1998).


___________________________________________________________________________________

2

Ayurvedic, Chinese and traditional medicinal systems recommended ginger as remedy for

numerous ailments including nausea, sea or motion sickness, nausea related to pregnancy,

vomiting, loss of appetite, stomach cramps, diarrhoea, heartburn, colic, flatulence, indigestion,

common cold, influenza, cough arthritis, rheumatic disorders, migraine headaches, cardiac

palpitations, hypertension, and impotence. It is reported to exhibit stimulant, aphrodisiac,

aromatic, and carminative properties when taken internally, while behaving as a sialogogue

when chewed, a rubefacient when applied externally (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975; Nadkarni,

1976).

In recent times, scientific research is undertaken to test the validity of the medicinal

claims made about ginger. Recent research studies showed interesting results with respect to

the medicinal properties of ginger, including an anti-emetic effect or control of nausea and

vomiting, prevention of coronary artery disease, healing and prevention of both arthritic

conditions and stomach ulcers. In addition, ginger is found to be effective against tumor

growth, rheumatism and migraine and is active as an antioxidant in the body. Many reviews

cited the various functions of ginger. The review of Chrubasik et al., (2005) was on the

pharmacological and clinical effects of ginger. Grzanna et al., (2005) reported ginger as an

anti-inflammatory agent. Shukla and Singh (2007) reviewed the cancer prevention properties

of the crude drug. Ali et al., (2008) compiled some of the phytochemical, pharmacological

and toxicological properties of ginger. Ghosh et al., (2011) gave an insight over the greater

potency of gingerol on the treatment of the various lethal diseases such as colorectal cancer.

An overview of post harvest technological treatment and new processing methods are

briefed in the chapter. Development of extraction methodologies and analysis of major

chemical constituents, its application in food industry, its advantages and limitations are

discussed. Brief review on the chemical constituents presented along with their biological

properties.


___________________________________________________________________________________

3

Taxonomy

Kingdom : Plantae

Division : Angiosperma

Class : Monocotyledoneae

Order : Scitaminaea

Family : Zingiberaceae

Genus : Zingiber

Species : officinale

Vernacular names

Botany

It is a perennial, herbaceous plant of about 1 m in height possessesing many fibrous

roots, aerial shoots with leaves and branched rhizome. The flowers of the plant are fragile and

occur in a dense spike, consisting of several overlapping scales on an elongated stalk. Each

flower has three yellowish-orange petals with an additional purplish, lip-like structure

(Ravindran et al., 2005). The rhizomes are aromatic, thick lobed, branched and scaly

structures with a spicy lemon-like scent.

Language Common name

Sanskrit : Adrakam, Ardraka

Hindi : Adrak, Sunthi, Sonth

Kannada : Sunthi

Marathi : Nisam

Gujarati : Sunt

English : Ginger

Telugu : Allam

Tamil : Ingee, Ingiver, Chukku (dried)

Malayalam : Inchi (fresh), Chukku (dried)


___________________________________________________________________________________

4

Cultivation and Production

Ginger is cultivated in several parts of the world. The major ginger producing

countries are India, China, Japan, Indonesia, Australia, Nigeria and West Indies islands. Of

these, Jamaica and India produce the best quality ginger, followed by the West African

variety. Chinese ginger is usually not exported as a dried spice but preserved in sugar syrup

or converted into ‘ginger candy’. It has low pungency and aroma and hence it cannot be used

for separation of essential oil and oleoresin. Japanese ginger possesses certain pungency,

but lacks the characteristic ginger aroma (National Institute of Industrial Research, 2010).

However, India and China are the two major suppliers of ginger in the world market.

World production of ginger was 1,620,493 MT in an area of 302,841 hectares in 2010

(Fig. 1 and 2; Table 1). India and china combinedly occupies a predominant position in ginger

production contributing ~45 per cent of the total world production (Fig. 3). Bangladesh, USA,

UK, Spain, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Netherlands, Morocco are some of the major importing

countries of Indian ginger. The export of ginger from India during 2009-10 was 5500 tonnes

valued Rs. 46.75 crores as against 2008-09 was 5000 tonnes valued Rs. 34.83 crores.

(http://ffymag.com/admin/issuepdf/ Ginger_April%2011.pdf and

http://www.indianspices.com/html/s0420sts.htm accessed on 10.05.2011). The processed

products of ginger have high export value in the Middle East and some European countries as

well. The major consuming nations of the processed products are the US, UK, Japan and

Saudi Arabia.

Fig. 1. Area and production of ginger in the world

Source: FAOSTAT, 23.02.2012


___________________________________________________________________________________

5

Fig. 2. Distribution of world ginger production (2010)

Fig. 3. World leading producers of ginger (2005-2010)


___________________________________________________________________________________

6

Table 1. World production of ginger and major producing countries (2010)

Country Production (MT) India 385,330 China 334,000 Nepal 210,790 Thailand 172,681 Nigeria 162,223 Indonesia 109,024 Bangladesh 74,841 Japan 53,600 Philippines 27,099 Republic of Korea 24,969 Other countries 63,445

Total 1,620,493

Source: FAOSTAT

Fig. 4. Area and production of ginger in India (year 2000-2010) Source: FAOSTAT, 23.02.2012


___________________________________________________________________________________

7

India is the largest producer and consumer of ginger in the world, with a figure of

385,330 MT in an area of 107,540 hectares of land during 2009-2010 (Fig. 4;

http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx accessed on 23.02.2012). Kerala contributes to one

third of ginger production and also the leading state in area for use of ginger production.

Meghalaya is the second leading state followed by Orissa, Karnataka, West Bengal, Andhra

Pradesh, Sikkim, Mizoram, Madhya Pradesh, etc. Ginger is also grown on a limited scale in

other states like Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and some North Eastern States.

In Karnataka, the crop is grown in an area of about 29 thousand hectares with a production of

2.73 lakh tonnes. Hassan, Kodagu, Shimoga, Chikmagalore, Bidar and Mysore are the major

districts cultivating the crop. It is grown as a pure crop as well as inter crop in plantations.

Out of the total production, about 30 percent is converted into dry ginger, while 50

percent is consumed as fresh ginger and the rest is used as seed materials. Dry ginger is

produced mainly in Kerala, a major share of which is exported. Cochin ginger and Calicut

ginger are the two popular varieties of Indian ginger in the world market.

CHEMISTRY

The chemistry of compounds reported from the Zingiberaceous plants including

Zingiber officinale and their biological activities are reviewed (Orasa et al., 2000).

Volatile compounds

The steam distilled volatile oil of ginger represents the aroma of ginger and is present

generally in the range of 1.0 to 2.5% in the dried rhizomes from different countries, displaying

considerable compositional diversity. Typical ginger oil contains high content of

sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, in particular, zingiberene, ar-curcumene, β-bisabolene, and β-

sesquiphellandrene, while important monoterpenoids normally include geranial, neral, and

camphene. Structures of mono and sesqui Terpenoids and their oxygenated derivatives from

ginger are presented in Fig. 5a-d. Although these compounds are characteristic of “typical”

ginger oils, the literature clearly shows that ginger oil composition is highly variable. Factors

such as geographical origin, maturity of rhizomes, fresh or dried rhizomes, and conditions of

drying process contribute to the disparity of composition of ginger oil (Vernin and Parkanyi,

2005).


___________________________________________________________________________________

8

Tricyclene α-Pinene β-Pinene Camphene

α-Phellandrene β-Phellandrene p-cymene D-Limonene

-3-Carene

β-Myrcene Terpinolene

Fig. 5. (a) Structures of monoterpene hydrocarbons from ginger oil

OH

OH OH

HO

Linalool Borneol Isoborneol Terpinen-4-ol

CHO

O

H

OH

OO

Neral (Z-Citral)

Geranial (E-Citral)

Geraniol Bornyl acetate

OH

HO

OH

O

Camphene hydrate P-Metha-1(7), 8-

dien-2-ol α-Terpineol Camphor

Fig. 5. (b) Structures of oxygenated monoterpenes from ginger oil


___________________________________________________________________________________

9

Cyclosativene Cycloisosativene α-cubenene β-Elemene Caryophyllene

H

H

cis-α-Bergamotene

Trans-α-Bergamotene

Aromadendrene Germacrene D Germacrene B

Zingiberene - Gurjunene ar- Curcumene Valencene - Muurolene

H

H

H

- Cadinene cis- -Bisabolene Seychellene

Trans-Calamenene

Epi-Bicyclosesqui phellandrene

H

-Elemene β- Sesquiphellendrene

β-Farnesene α-Farnesene

Fig. 5. (c) Structures of Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons from ginger oil


___________________________________________________________________________________

10

OH

OH

OH

β-Elemol E-Nerolidol Zingiberenol

HO

OH

HO

β-Eudesmol - Eudesmol α- Bisabolol OH

OH

O

Trans-cadinol (Z)-α-Trans-Bergamotol Trans, trans-Farsenal OH

O

HHH

10-epi -- Eudesmol Tou- cadinol

Fig. 5. (d) Structures of oxygenated sesquiterpenes from ginger oil

Non-volatile compounds

Gingerols, pungent principles of ginger, are biologically active components that may

make a significant contribution towards medicinal applications of ginger. Structurally,

gingerols are related partially to capsaicinoids from chilli, which are known for their pungency.

These are normally found as yellow oils, but individual compounds can also form low melting

crystalline solids. The total content of the active principles is not uniform and can vary

significantly between plant varieties and regions in which ginger is grown. The structures of

the non-volatile compounds reported from ginger are provided in fig. 6. These include

gingerols, shogoals, paradols, gingerdiols, gingerdiones, gingerglycolipids, diaryl heptanoids

and their derivatives.


___________________________________________________________________________________

11

…….. continued

Fig. 6. Structures of compounds from ginger


___________________________________________________________________________________

12

…….. continued


___________________________________________________________________________________

13

…….. continued


___________________________________________________________________________________

14

…….. continued


___________________________________________________________________________________

15

…….. continued


___________________________________________________________________________________

16

…….. continued


___________________________________________________________________________________

17


___________________________________________________________________________________

18

Yoko et al., (2003) isolated two anthocyanins and characterized viz., cyanidin 3-O-β-D-

glucopyranoside and peonidin 3-O- (6-O-β-L-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside from

Japanese ginger rhizomes. Peonidin 3-rutinoside was the main anthocyanin constituent (0.67-

2.38 mg/100 g of fresh ginger rhizome), and its concentration was upto 43 times higher than that

of cyanidin 3-glucoside. These two anthocyanins were present in the lower stem and rhizome.

These are not reported from Chinese ginger. These results suggest that the anthocyanin

formation in ginger varies according to the part of the plant, and the place of cultivation. Hori et

al., (2003) isolated five sulfonated compounds, namely 4-gingesulfonic acid and shogasulfonic

acids A, B, C and D, along with seven earlier reported compounds including [6]-gingesulfonic acid

from rhizomes. Their structures were characterized by spectroscopic analysis. Jolad et al.,

(2004) examined organically grown fresh Chinese white and Japanese yellow varieties of ginger

and identified 63 compounds, of which 31 reported previously as constituents of ginger and 20

were unknown compounds using gas chromatography in conjunction with mass spectrometry.

The identified components included gingerols, shogaols, 3-dihydroshogaols, paradols,

dihydroparadols, acetyl derivatives of gingerols, gingerdiols, mono- and di-acetyl derivatives of

gingerdiols, 1-dehydrogingerdiones, diarylheptanoids, and methyl ethers of some of these

compounds. [6]-, [4]-, [7]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerols were identified along with methyl [4]-gingerol

and methyl [8]-gingerol. [4]-, [6]-, [8]-, [10]- and [12]-shogaol were characterized alongwith methyl

[4]-, methyl [6]- and methyl [8]- shogaol.

Jolad et al., (2005) also examined commercially processed dry ginger using the same

techniques, utilized in their earlier study. They identified a total of 115 compounds. Of these, 45

had been recorded previously for fresh ginger (Jolad et al., 2004) and 31 compounds that were

reported for the first time in dried ginger include - methyl [8]-paradol, methyl [6]-isogingerol,

methyl [4]-shogaol, [6]-isoshogaol, two 6-hydroxy-[n]-shogaols (n = 8 and 10), 6-dehydro-[6]-

gingerol, three 5-methoxy-[n]-gingerols (n = 4, 8 and 10), 3-acetoxy-[4]-gingerdiol, 5-acetoxy-[6]-

gingerdiol (stereoisomer), diacetoxy-[8]-gingerdiol, methyl diacetoxy-[8]-gingerdiol, 6-(4'-hydroxy-

3'-methoxyphenyl)-2-nonyl-2-hydroxytetrahydro pyran, 3-acetoxydihydro-[6]-paradol methyl ether,

1-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-2-nonadecen-1-one and its methyl ether derivative, 1,7-bis-(4'-


___________________________________________________________________________________

19

hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-5-methoxyheptan-3-one, 1,7-bis-(4'-hydroxy-3'- methoxyphenyl)-3-

hydroxy-5-acetoxyheptane, acetoxy-3-dihydrodemethoxy-[6]-shogaol, 5-acetoxy-3-deoxy-[6]-

gingerol, 1-hydroxy-[6]-paradol, (2E)-geranial acetals of [4]- and [6]-gingerdiols, (2Z)-neral acetal

of [6]-gingerdiol, acetaldehyde acetal of [6]-gingerdiol, 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2,4-

dehydro-6-decanone and the cyclic methyl orthoesters of [6]- and [10]-gingerdiols. However,

none of these compounds were isolated and characterised individually by these authors. The

concentrations of gingerols in the dry ginger were reduced slightly in comparison to fresh ginger,

whereas the concentrations of shogaols increased. The structures of the thermal degradation

products of ginger compounds identified using GC-MS analyses are presented in fig. 7.

Thirty-one gingerol-related compounds, belonging to different homologous series and

differentiated by structural differences on the alkyl chain and the aromatic ring, were identified in

methanolic crude extracts from fresh-frozen ginger rhizome by LC/ESI-MS/MS coupled to diode

array detection (Jiang et al., 2005a). The fragmentation behaviors of compounds in both (+) and

(-) ESI-MS/MS were used to infer and confirm the chemical structures of several groups of

compounds, including the gingerols, methylgingerols, gingerol acetates, shogaols, paradols,

gingerdiols, mono- and diacetyl gingerdiols, and dehydrogingerdiones (Table 2). However, none

of these compounds were isolated and characterised individually by these authors.


___________________________________________________________________________________

20

Fig. 7. Thermal degradation products from ginger detected by GC-MS


___________________________________________________________________________________

21

Table 2. Mass spectral data of some of the gingerol-related compounds detected by LC-ESI-MS (both negative and positive mode) in ginger rhizome extracts (Jiang et al., 2005)

Compound

(-)ESI-MS

(m/z)

(+)ESI-MS

(m/z)

[4]- gingerol 265 [M-H]- 249 [M+H-H2O]+ ; 284 [M+NH4]+ ; 289 [M+Na]+

[6]- gingerol 293 [M-H]- 277 [M+H-H2O]+ ; 312 [M+NH4]+ ; 317 [M+Na]+ ;



[12]- gingerol 377 [M-H]- 305 [M+H]+

[6]- shogaol 275 [M-H]- 277 [M+H]+

[8]- shogaol 303 [M-H]- 305 [M+H]+

[10]- shogaol 331 [M-H]- 333 [M+H]+

[12]- shogaol 359 [M-H]- 361 [M+H]+

Diarylheptanoids have been found to possess antioxidant, antihepatotoxic, anti-

inflammatory, antiproliferative, antiemetic, chemopreventive, and antitumor activities, which lead

to an increasing interest in the recent years. The diarylheptanoids comprise five distinct groups

(homologous series), which are differentiated by structural differences on the heptane skeletons,

whereas homologues within each group differed by substitution patterns on the aromatic rings.

Characteristic fragmentation behaviour in (+) and (−) ESI-MS/MS analyses for each group of

homologues, as well as information regarding polarity obtained from retention time data, allowed

the identification of 26 diarylheptanoids in the crude methanolic extract from fresh ginger

rhizomes (Jiang, 2007). Fifteen of them were reported for the first time and 18 of them were

acylated, which was found to be different from the diarylheptanoids of turmeric (Curcuma longa),

another species from Zingiberaceae. However, none of these compounds were isolated and

characterised individually by these authors.


___________________________________________________________________________________

22

Zhou et al., (2007) reported three diarylheptanoids, viz., sodium (5S,2E)-1,7-bis(4-

hydroxyphenyl)-1-hydroxy-2-hepten-5-sulfonate, sodium (5R,2E)-1,7-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-

hydroxy-2-hepten-5-sulfonate and 3,5-diacetoxy-1-(3-methoxy-4,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-7-(4-

hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) heptane from ginger. The antioxidant activities of the isolated

compounds were assayed in in vitro models involving DPPH free radicals and superoxide anion

radicals. Zhao et al., (2007) reported a cyclic diarylheptanoid, 1, 5-epoxy-3-hydroxy-1-(3-

methoxy-4, 5-dihydroxyphenyl)-7-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-heptane, and monoterpene glucoside, 10-O-

β-D-glucopyranosyl-hydroxy cineole from ginger. The structures of compounds were established

based on their spectral data and their antioxidant activity determined.

Three diarylheptanoids viz., 5-[4-hydroxy-6-(4-hydroxyphenethyl)tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-

yl]-3-methoxybenzene-1,2-diol; sodium (E)-7-hydroxy-1,7-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)hept-5-ene-3S-

sulfonate; sodium (E)-7-hydroxy-1,7-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)hept-5-ene-3R-sulfonate; and

hydroxycineole-10-O-β-D-glucopyranoside were isolated from ginger together with four other

diarylheptanoids. The antioxidant activities of the isolated diarylheptanoids were evaluated by the

in vitro models of scavenging superoxide anion radicals and inhibiting the formation of lipid

peroxides in liver microsomes. The diarylheptanoids were found to possess potent antioxidant

properties in all the above assays. On the other hand, these compounds did not possess any

appreciable cytotoxiciy on KB cells and on rat liver hepatocytes (Tao et al., 2008). An enantio

selective synthesis of (+)-(S)-[n]-gingerols via the l-proline-catalyzed aldol reaction was

developed (Shichao et al., 2009).

Chen and Yeh, (2011) reported the isolation of two phenylalkanoids, 5- hydroxy-1-(4',5'-

dihydroxy-3'-methoxy-phenyl)-decan-3-one and 1-(4',5'-dihydroxy- 3'-methoxy-phenyl)-dec-4-en-

3-one, along with 11 earlier reported compounds, which are three benzenoids (vanillin, 4-

propanal-2-methoxy-phenol, and hydroferulic acid), six phenylalkanoids ([4]-shogaol, [6]-shogaol,

[6]-gingerol, 1-dehydro-[6]-gingerol, (3R, 5S)-[6]-gingerdiol and 6-dehydrogingerdione) and two

diarylheptanoids (gingerenone A and 1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-phenyl)heptan-3-one) from

methanol extract of the rhizomes of Chinese ginger.


___________________________________________________________________________________

23

Biosynthesis of compounds

Teperenoids

Biosynthesis of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes present in essential oils extracted

from plants was studied widely (Rohmer, 1999; Dewick, 2002; Dubey et al., 2003) and the

Mevalonate pathway that leads to the generation of terpenes is presented in the fig. 8. Fujisawa

et al (2010) isolated cDNA from young rhizomes of Japanese ginger cultivar ‘Kintoki’ and

designated as ZoTpS1. They suggested that it catalyzes the (S)-β-bisabolene formation with the

conversion of farnesyl diphosphate to nerolidyl diphosphate followed by the cyclization between

position 1 and 6 carbons and mentioned as the (S)-β-bisabolene synthase gene in ginger.

Gingerols and related compounds

[6]-gingerol, the major gingerol in ginger rhizomes has been found to possess many

interesting pharmacological and physiological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic and

cardiotonic effects. Because of their importance to human health and nutrition, the biosynthesis of

the curcuminoids and gingerols were studied and reported (Denniff and Whiting, 1976; Macleod

and Whiting, 1979; Denniff et al., 1980).


___________________________________________________________________________________

24

Fig. 8. Overview of Mevalonate pathway leading to the generation of terpenes in plants (Rohmer,

1999; Dubey et al., 2003; Dewick, 2002)


___________________________________________________________________________________

25

Ahumada et al., (2006) reported the potential role of specific phenylpropanoid pathway

enzymes in the production of the gingerols (Fig. 9). Crude protein extracts obtained from young

leaves, shoots and rhizomes from ginger were assayed for the following activities - phenylalanine

ammonia lyase (PAL); hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA transferases (HCTs), including p-coumaroyl

shikimate transferase (CST), caffeoyl shikimate transferase (CaST), feruloyl shikimate

transferase (FST) and p-coumaroyl quinate transferase (CQT); caffeic acid O-methyltransferase

(COMT); caffeoyl-CoA O-methyltransferase (CCOMT); and polyketide synthases (PKS). All crude

extracts possessed activity for all of these enzymes, with the exception of PKS. The highest PAL

activity in ginger was found in crude extracts from developing leaves, which was significantly

higher than PAL activity in developing shoots. However, there was no significant difference in

PAL activity between developing leaves and developing rhizomes of ginger. This high level of

PAL activity in developing ginger leaves was surprising because ginger leaves are not known to

possess high levels of flavonoids, lignins or other commonly found phenylpropanoid pathway

derived compounds, yet the shoots and rhizomes would be expected to have significant PAL

activity because of the production of lignin in the developing xylem. The high level of PAL activity

in the developing leaves suggested that production of some group of phenylpropanoid pathway

derived metabolites was enhanced in the leaves. This result was explained by the identification of

thioesterase activities that cleaved phenylpropanoid pathway CoA esters, and which were found

to be present at high levels in all tissues, especially in ginger tissues.


___________________________________________________________________________________

26

Fig. 9. Biosynthetic scheme of [6]-gingerol (Ahumada et al., 2006). The enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathway to gingerols in ginger are as follows: PAL = Phenylalanine ammonialyase; C4H = cinnamate 4-hydroxylase; 4CL = 4-coumarate:CoA ligase; CST = p-coumaroyl shikimate transferase; CS3H=p-coumaroyl 5-O-shikimate 3-hydroxylase; OMT = O-methyltransferase; CCOMT = caffeoyl-CoA O-methyltransferase.


___________________________________________________________________________________

27

POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF GINGER

Slicing, drying and grinding of ginger

The effects of moisture content, size and surface area on the efficiency of mechanical

slicing of Nigerian ginger were evaluated. Physical properties such as surface area, volume,

eccentricity and longitudinal length of the rhizomes were studied. It was also found that grading

according to size saved the energy, time and efficiency of the slicer (Onu and Okafor, 2002).

Physical properties investigated included surface area (13.3-56.2 cm2), volume (7.4-64.0 cm3),

eccentricity (1.76-1.97), and longitudinal length (5.4-12.5 cm). The moisture content of the ginger

rhizome (45.6-82.4%) was found to influence the slicing time. Yields of standard slices and solid

losses were observed to be dependent on moisture content and surface area.

Dehydration of ginger varieties (Sidda, Cochin, Calicut and Chinese) was carried out

using an electrical dryer and the physico-chemical parameters such as dry matter content, oil,

and oleoresin were evaluated along with sensory quality (Abeysekera et al., 2005). Chinese

varieties dried at 50°C (15 h) and 60°C (7 h) were better than those dried at 40°C (23 h) in terms

of all the sensory attributes as well as oil and oleoresin content. Oil (and oleoresin) content

percentage of Sidda, Cochin, Calicut and Chinese varieties dried at 50°C were 0.35 ± 0.07 (8.49

± 0.32), 0.70 ± 0.14 (7.81 ± 0.41), 0.70 ± 0.28 (13.65 ± 0.42) and 1.50 ± 0.42 (11.66 ± 0.48) %,

respectively. Water activity of Sidda, Cochin, Calicut and Chinese varieties dried at 50°C was

0.36 ± 0.02, 0.48 ± 0.04, 0.45 ± 0.04 and 0.37 ± 0.09, respectively, and of dry matter yield was

12, 13, 13 and 10 %, respectively. The results conclude that the dehydrated Chinese variety was

found to be the most suitable to obtain essential oil whereas the dehydrated Calicut variety was

found to be the most suitable to obtain oleoresin.

Hawlader et al., (2006) studied and compared the loss of gingerol during drying of ginger

under normal air drying, modified atmosphere heat pump drying, freeze drying, and vacuum

drying. It was concluded that inert gas heat pump drying showed an improved effective diffusivity

and a better retention of flavour compared to most other types of drying.

Ginger slices were dried using a fluidized bed dryer in the temperature range of 50-80°C

after the pretreatment with calcium oxide (1 to 2.5%). Drying rate at 60°C air temperature


___________________________________________________________________________________

28

decreased from 0.43 to 0.17 g/s with the change in moisture content from 300 to 10% dry weight

basis. The volatile oil was decreased by 18% with increase in drying temperature. The colour

value (L*) varied in the range of 68 to 73 in the drying temperature (50-80°C) and calcium oxide

concentration (1-2.5%). The effect of drying temperature and concentration of calcium oxide on

colour L* (lightness) value and drying ratio was non-significant at P>0.05, however, these had

significant effect on rehydration ratio (Singh et al., 2008a).

The superfine ginger powder was easier to incorporate in foods, due to its dispersability

and also the solubility of the nutritive components increased after superfine grinding which lead to

better absorption by the body (Zhao et al., 2009).

Preservation of fresh ginger

Ginger rhizomes were irradiated with a single dose of 50 Gy and then dipped into paraffin

for coating, wrapped in a plastic film of low-density polyethylene, on perforated or non-perforated

polyvinyl chloride film and compared with the controls. After treatments, the rhizomes were

refrigerated at 13°C and 80% relative humidity. The results showed that dipping into paraffin and

wrapping with plastics resulted in decrease of weight loss of the rhizomes due to transpiration

and evaporation of water (Marco Antonio et al., 2002).

Fresh ginger was irradiated with a radiation dose of 5 kGy and stored at 10°C, which

extended the shelf life of fresh peeled and packed ginger for a period of more than 2 months,

maintaining superior microbiological quality, whereas non-irradiated (control) peeled ginger

spoiled within 40 days under similar storage conditions (Mishra et al., 2004). In another study,

fresh ginger rhizomes were gamma irradiated and stored for 2 months at ambient temperature

(28-30°C) in perforated low-density polyethylene (LDPE) bags. Changes in volatile aroma

constituents (zingiberene, β-sesquiphellandrene and curcumene) and pungent principles

(gingerols) were monitored during storage at intervals of 1 month. No significant qualitative and

quantitative differences were observed in the volatile aroma constituents of the control (non-

irradiated) and irradiated samples any time during storage. A decrease in gingerol content (21 to

10%) was observed in the irradiated samples during storage period (0-2 months). Gamma


___________________________________________________________________________________

29

irradiation at a dose of 60 Gy was found to prevent sprouting and extend the shelf life of fresh

ginger under ambient conditions (Variyar, et al., 2006).

The histological changes of cell structure in ginger during pre-treatment, steaming under

pressure and solvent extraction of the oleoresin were studied. Fresh ginger and dried ginger,

were steamed under pressure (at different times and pressures). Through light microscopy

studies, it was confirmed that drying was a vital procedure for pre-treatment to speed up

processing time. However, the reconstruction of parenchyma cell walls was observed after 30

min of steaming, which prolonged the steam distillation time and solvent extraction time for the

oleoresin (Azian et al., 2004).

Nilesh et al., (2010) studied the gamma rays and treatment with Ethyl Methane

Sulphonate (EMS) at different concentrations on the rhizomes and the variation of [6]-gingerol

content was determined by RP-HPLC analysis. The explants used were the shoot tips of sized 1-

2 cm long taken from rhizomes. The explants were pre-soaked and treated with EMS 8 h

treatments (0.10, 0.15, 0.20 and 0.25%) and EMS 4 h treatments (0.30, 0.40, 0.50, and 0.60%).

The antioxidant activity of extracts were assessed by DPPH radical scavenging method and

FRAP. EMS treatments at different doses resulted in a maintenance of the natural antioxidants

and increase in [6]-gingerol content for certain doses, which was necessary for the quality of

spices. There was a good maintenance or slight increase in the DPPH scavenging activity and

total phenolic content in all EMS doses. It was concluded from the study that the EMS treatment

retained [6]-gingerol content and significantly protected the natural antioxidants.

Processing of products from ginger

Ginger paste

The effect of temperature (20-80°C) on rheological characteristics and the effects of

storage temperature, packaging materials on the physicochemical and visual colour changes

during storage of ginger paste was studied (Ahmed, 2004). Ginger paste exhibited

pseudoplasticity with yield stress and the rheological behaviour was adequately described using

the Herschel–Bulkley model. The activation energies for viscosity and consistency index were

16.65 and 21.9 kJ mol-1, respectively. Storage of ginger paste for 120 days at 5°C and 25°C


___________________________________________________________________________________

30

revealed that there was no significant effect of packaging materials but temperature affected L

and a/b values significantly.

An enzyme-assisted process for the liquefaction of ginger for digestion was developed

(Schweiggert et al., 2008) on pilot scale employing established processing operations, which

includes operations of fine grinding, enzymatic hydrolysis, pasteurization and spray drying. An

enzyme mixture composed of cellulolytic and pectinolytic (2:1) activities at a dosage of 5000 ppm

at 40°C and pH 4.0 yielded maximal tissue digestion and highest retention of pungent principles

within 2 h. The ginger digest thus obtained was a valuable raw material, which can be further

processed into various ginger products. Pasteurization and spray drying resulted in homogenous

paste-like ginger preparations and spray-dried ginger powder respectively.

Encapsulated ginger powder

Sachin and Bhaskar (2003) optimized the process parameters for spray drying of ginger

extract using response surface methodology (RSM). Different parameters investigated include

inlet temperature (120-160°C), airflow rate (40–60 Nm3/h), feed rate (2.5-4 ml/min), and

atomization pressure (1.5–2.25 kg/cm2). Optimum drying conditions for spray drying were

decided on the basis of different responses such as moisture content, water activity (aw),

flowability, porosity, and percentage retention of [6]-gingerol. It was found that the air temperature

and airflow rate are the important parameters in case of most of the responses studied.

Toure et al., (2007) evaluated the performance of maltodextrin/whey protein (MD/WPI)

isolate as a wall material and its effect on surface oil in microencapsulated ginger essential oil

using the spray drying technique and to monitor the oxidative stability of microcapsules stored at

different water activities (aw) at 35°C. The extent of oxidation in a sample of oil can be expressed

in terms of surface oil and peroxide value. The effect of wall compositions on the surface oil was

studied using the washing method and the peroxides produced by peroxidation of the oil were

based on the ability to liberate iodine from potassium iodide. Microcapsules were stored at 35°C

at different water activities (aw). Oxidation was monitored using the measurement of peroxide

values. The changes in the amount of encapsulated oil were determined. The ratios of

maltodextrin/whey protein isolate MD: WPI (1:1) and core: wall (1:4) with 30% solid content


___________________________________________________________________________________

31

produced the lowest surface oil (0.07g/100g) and showed good storage life. Microcapsules stored

at aw in the range of 0.58-0.76 had a good stability against oxidation for at least 35 days.

Therefore, MD/WPI was considered as an effective microencapsulating agent.

Phoungchandang et al., (2009a) developed a simple agitated vacuum evaporator for

small scale processing of concentrated ginger powders, while retaining the highest [6]-gingerol

content. Juice was extracted from mature ginger (10-12 months old) using a hydraulic press and

evaporated in traditional pan, natural circulation and agitated vacuum evaporators. Quality

aspects of the ginger powders, such as moisture content, solubility, water solubility index, water

absorption index, bulk density, color values and [6]-gingerol content were evaluated. The

evaporators used showed no significant difference on water solubility index, water absorption

index and bulk density of concentrated ginger powders. The natural circulation and agitated

vacuum evaporators provided higher lightness of concentrated ginger powders than traditional

pan evaporator. However, the evaporators had no significant difference on yellowness (a/b) of

concentrated ginger powders, and L and a/b of reconstituted ginger powders. The agitated

vacuum evaporator provided the highest [6]-gingerol remaining (p>0.05).

Phoungchandang and Sanchai (2009) encapsulated ginger juice (which was extracted

using a hydraulic press) using double drum dryer. Maltodextrin was used as encapsulate. The

results revealed that a drum speed of 5.7 rpm retained higher [6]-gingerol than at 2.8 rpm.

Highest [6]-gingerol was found with 5% maltodextrin. Maltodextrin concentration and drum speed

did not affect the moisture content, solubility as well as the yellowness of the ginger powder.

Ginger oleoresins

Supercritical fluid extraction

The effect of the moisture content and drying method on the supercritical extraction of

oleoresin from ginger was investigated (Balachandran et al., 2006a). It was concluded that the

use of fresh ginger for supercritical extraction provides a greater yield than the oven or air-dried

ginger. In case of new seasonal fresh ginger rhizomes with high moisture levels, yielded a more

pungent extract with original flavour. The extraction rate of supercritical CO2 and the yield of

extraction of pungent compounds from ginger were found to increase with the use of ultrasound


___________________________________________________________________________________

32

energy (Balachandran et al., 2006b). The higher extraction rate was attributed to disruption of the

cell structures and an increase in the accessibility of the solvent to the internal particle structure,

enhanced the intra-particle diffusivity.

Optimum processing conditions for supercritical CO2 extraction of ginger were reported

viz., pressure 20 MPa, temperature 40°C and time 90 min (Zou et al., 2007). Results showed

that ginger extracts obtained by supercritical CO2 contained good natural antioxidants, and

addition of BHT, TBHQ and citric acid to ginger / its extract reported to show significant

synergistic effects. Li et al., (2007) had developed a method to separate and purify [6]-gingerol

from the supercritical fluidextract of ginger.

Microwave-assisted extraction

The influence of solvent, matrix dielectric properties, and applied power on the liquid-

phase microwave-assisted process of extraction of ginger was studied and inferred that the

presence of microwave absorbing modifier enhanced the yields in shorter time intervals (Alfaro et

al., 2003). Various factors such as microwave power, irradiating time, the ratio of solid to liquid

and grinding degree that effect the extraction process of gingerol were studied and compared

with the other methods of extraction (Liu, 2006). Microwave-assisted extraction was found to be

more fast and efficient.

The essential oils from dried plant materials (ginger) were extracted using an improved

solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) method by adding three types of microwave-

absorption medium to a reactor namely iron carbonyl powder, graphite powder, and activated

carbon powder to the sample. The extraction of essential oil was completed in ~30 min with a

microwave power of 85 W. The results were compared with those obtained using conventional

SFME without absorption media, microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) and conventional

hydrodistillation (HD). It was concluded that improved SFME was feasible for the extraction of

essential oils but with few compositional differences between the essential oils extracted by the

improved SFME and the other methods (Wang et al., 2006a).

Extraction characteristics of ginger under microwave energy and the functional properties

(viz., electron donating ability, inhibitory effect on tyrosinase and polyphenols content) of the


___________________________________________________________________________________

33

extracts were evaluated using response surface methodology (RSM). The parameters such as

microwave energy, time, and solvent were optimized, based on superimposition of 4 dimensional

RSM with respect to extraction yield, electron donating ability and polyphenol content under the

various extraction conditions. The optimum ranges of extraction conditions were - microwave

power: 10-80 W, extraction time: 3-10 min and ethanol 0-40% in water (Lim et al., 2007).

Isolation of gingerols

Sephadex LH-20 chromatography

Ginger oleoresin was subjected to Column chromatography using Sephadex LH-20 resin.

By repeated thin layer chromatography, gingerol was isolated, crystallised and identified using UV

visible and IR absorption spectrophotometry and mass spectrometry. Purified gingerol was used

for determination of gingerol content in foods (Huang and Zhang, 2005).

High Speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC) Method

Flash high speed counter-current chromatography (FHSCCC) is defined as a separation

process in which the flow rate of the mobile phase (ml/min) is equal to or greater than the square

root of the square of the diameter of the column tubing (mm), i.e. Fc/d2 ≥1, here d and Fc are the

inner diameter of the column tubing and the applied flow rate of mobile phase, respectively. The

The separation of gingerols and [6]-shogaol was reported on a HSCCC instrument equipped with

a 1200 ml column (5 mm tubing i.d.) at a flow rate of 25 ml/min (Qiao and Du, 2010). The method

employed the upper phase of stationary phase consisting of the n-hexane–ethyl acetate–

methanol–water (3:2:2:3, v/v). A stepwise elution was performed using the lower phase of n-

hexane–ethyl acetate–methanol–water (3:2:2:3, v/v) for first 90 min and the lower phase of the n-

hexane–ethyl acetate–methanol–water (3:2:6:5, v/v) for the second 90min. In each separation,

ethyl acetate extract (5g) of rhizomes of ginger was loaded, yielding 1.96g of [6]-gingerol (98.3%),

0.33g of [8]-gingerol (97.8%), 0.64g of [6]-shogaol (98.8%) and 0.57g of 10-gingerol (98.2%). The

FHSCCC is a single step process to yield pure monomers of gingerols compared to traditional LC

methods.

Zhan et al., (2011) developed a HSCCC method for the separation of the gingerols from

the crude ethanol extract of ginger. The two-phase solvent system such as light petroleum (bp


___________________________________________________________________________________

34

60-90°C)–ethyl acetate–methanol–water (5:5:6.5:3.5, v/v/v/v) was used and obtained 30.2 mg of

[6]-gingerol, 40.5 mg of [8]-gingerol, 50.5 mg of [10]-gingerol from 200 mg of crude extract in one-

step process. HPLC and NMR confirmed the purity and the structures of three gingerols.

HSCCC coupled with suitable extraction and pre-purification method was found to be an

efficient way for separation and purification of gingerols from an extract of the dried rhizome

(Wang et al., 2011). The sample was separated with petroleum ether–ethyl acetate–methanol–

water (1:0.2:0.5:0.7, v/v) and petroleum ether–ethyl acetate–methanol–water (1:0.2:0.7:0.5, v/v)

in a stepwise elution. Using a stepwise elution with two solvent systems, HSCCC yielded

hundreds of milligrams of the three compounds with high purity in a single run. The gingerols

obtained can be used as reference substances for research studies.

ANALYSIS OF THE MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF GINGER

Analysis of volatile compounds by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

The essential oil was isolated from ginger rhizomes from Cuba using Clevenger

distillation and its chemical composition was reported (Pino et al., 2004). The oil contained ar-

curcumene (22.1%), cadina-1,4-diene (12.5%), zingiberene (11.7%), β-bisabolene (11.2%), and

β-sesquiphellandrene (10.5%).

Malek et al., (2005) carried out the chemotaxonomic investigation of ginger variant. The

variants investigated were Zingiber officinale Rosc. var. officinale (young common ginger),

Zingiber officinale var. rubrum (jahe merah), Zingiber officinale Rosc. var. rubrum Theilade (halia

bara) and Zingiber officinale Rosc. var. rubrum Theilade (halia padi) which resulted in the

identification of 22, 40, 19 and 17 components comprising 71.8%, 89.7%, 74.4% and 84.1% of

the total oils, respectively. The investigation reported that closely related variants of ginger have

major components namely, zingiberene (3-17%) and geranial (7-29%). The major components of

the rhizome oils were as follows: Z. officinale Rosc. var. officinale (common ginger): zingiberene

(16.7%), (E,E)-α-farnesene (13.1%), geranial (7.6%); Z. officinale var. rubrum (jahe merah):

camphene (15.8%), geranial (12.6%) and ar-curcumene (9.7%); Z. officinale Rosc. var. rubrum

Theilade (halia bara): geranial (28.4%), neral (14.2%) and geranyl acetate (8.7%); Z. officinale


___________________________________________________________________________________

35

Rosc. var. rubrum Theilade (halia padi): geranial (28.6%), neral (15.5%), β-sesquiphellandrene

(6.4%).

Australian ginger oil has been known for possessing a particular ‘lemony’ aroma, due to

its high content of citral isomers (viz., neral and geranial). Fresh rhizomes of 17 clones of

Australian ginger, including commercial cultivars and experimental tetraploid clones, were steam

distilled and the resulting oils were characterized with very high citral levels (51-71%) and

relatively low levels of the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. Among the rhizomes, clone cultivar

‘Jamaican’, yielded oil with a substantially different composition, lower citral content, higher levels

of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and also significant higher concentrations of pungent gingerols

(Wohlmuth et al., 2006).

Guinean (West Africa) and Chinese ginger was steam distilled to obtain the volatile

compounds responsible for the flavour and its composition was determined (Toure and Xiaoming,

2007). Ninety components were separated and accounted for about 93.5 and 89.5% of the total

relative content of oil from Guinean and Chinese ginger respectively. Zingiberene (19.89 and

31.1% respectively) was the abundant compound in both the gingers.

Nirmala and coworkers (2007) isolated the volatile oil from both fresh and sun-dried

ginger from India by hydrodistillation and analyzed for their composition. Geranial (24.2%) and

zingerone (14.2%) were the major compounds in fresh ginger and their contents were found to

decrease during processing. Also, hydrocarbon content of the oil was increased whereas the

oxygenated compounds decreased. Aroma compounds responsible for the flavor of fresh ginger

were isolated using Amberlite XAD-2 chromatography.

Yu et al., (2007) carried out the isolation, extraction and concentration of volatile

components in ginger in one single step, using the microwave distillation and solid-phase

microextraction (MD–SPME) technique, and the analytes on the SPME fiber were analyzed.

Parameters such as SPME fiber coating, microwave power and irradiation time were optimized.

The optimal experiment parameters reported: 65 µm polydimethylsiloxane / Divinylbenzene

SPME fiber, a microwave power of 400 W and an irradiation time of 2 min. the feasibility of MD–

SPME was compared with conventional SPME for the extraction of essential oil compounds in


___________________________________________________________________________________

36

fresh ginger. Using MD–SPME followed by GC–MS, 54 compounds were separated and

identified in ginger, which mainly included zingiberene (15.4%), β-phellandrene (22.8%), β-

sesquiphellandrene (5.5%) and geranial (5.2%), whereas only 39 compounds were separated

and identified by conventional SPME followed by GC–MS.

The different sampling techniques such as headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-

SPME), petroleum ether extraction (PEE) and steam distillation extraction (SDE) were compared

for the volatile constituents of ginger. The effects of different parameters, such as extraction

fibers, extraction time, extraction temperature and particle size ranges, on the HS-SPME of

rhizome of ginger were investigated (Yang et al., 2009). Zingiberene (53.1%) was predominant

component of ginger samples in HS-SPME whereas 39.0% in the same samples in PEE and

35.0% in SDE. HS-SPME with PDMS fiber was more selective and particularly efficient for the

isolation of volatile phytochemical composition. Hence HS-SPME was found to be a powerful tool

for the extraction and semi-quantitative analysis of volatiles from rhizome of ginger.

Kerdchoechuen et al., (2009) studied the volatile compounds extracted by simultaneous

distillation extraction from three Zingiberaceae plants including ginger (Zingiber offcinale Roscoe).

Major compounds in ginger oil were 1,8-cineol, citral, camphene, verbenol and α-zingiberene

(17.87, 15.20, 12.47, 12.37 and 11.20% respectively). The other compounds such as α-

farnesene, α-curcumene, α-pinene, borneol, and citronellal were also found in ginger oil.

Indu and Nirmala (2010) analyzed the volatile oil from both fresh and dried ginger

rhizomes (Nedumangadu variety). Zingiberene was found as the major compound in both oils.

Fresh ginger oil contained geranial (8.5%) as the second main compound and possessed more

oxygenated compounds (29.2%) compared to dry ginger oil (14.4%). The dry ginger oil contained

ar‐curcumene (11%), β‐bisabolene (7.2%), -sesquiphellandrene (6.6%) and δ‐cadinene (3.5%).

Antimicrobial activity of the oils was assessed by disc diffusion method against Bacillus subtilis,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Trichoderma spp, Aspergillus niger, Pencillium spp.

and Saccharomyces cerevisiae and results obtained are comparable with the reference

compounds. The MIC values of the oils ranged from 1-10 µg/ml. The results showed wide scope

for ginger oil in the treatment of both bacterial and fungal diseases.


___________________________________________________________________________________

37

Bilehal et al., (2011) analyzed the essential oil obtained from Korean ginger by

concurrent headspace solvent microextraction coupled with continuous hydrodistillation (HD-

HSME). Forty-nine compounds were separated and identified. The major compounds were

zingiberene, curcumene, camphene, β-phellandrene, (E)-citral, α-farnesene, β-bisabolene, β-

sesquiphellandrene, zingerone, and [6]-gingerol. This method has advantage due to its minimal

sample preparation and can also be used in the quality standardization of ginger extracts for

pharmaceutical production. The method also will be very useful for rapid screening purpose of

plant samples for finding of selected quality ginger under the plant breeding program, genotypes

assessment, and export quality of ginger species.

Analysis of non-volatile compounds

Gas chromatography–mass spectrometric (GC-MS) and high-performance liquid

chromatography (Chen et al., 1986a; Yoshikawa et al., 1994; He et al., 1998; Nakazawa and

Ohsawa, 2002) methods were reported for the analysis of [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol in extracts.

The analytical methods were primarily developed for identification of gingerols (Harvey, 1981)

and the related pungent compounds. There are several limitations associated with GC and GC-

MS methods for analysing gingerols. For example, column temperatures in the gas

chromatography analyses were sufficient to convert gingerols to shogaols (Harvey, 1981; Chen et

al., 1986b).

High performance thin layer chromatographic (HPTLC) method

Sujay et al., (2006) reported a HPTLC method for quantitative analysis of [6]-gingerol in

methanol extracts of ginger from different sources, using n-hexane and diethyl ether (40:60 v/v)

as the mobile phase. Recovery studies showed the excellent reliability and reproducibility with

values from 99.79 to 99.84%. Melianita et al., (2007) developed a rapid as well as a simple

densitometric method for determination of [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol, which can be used for

routine analysis of ginger samples in quality control laboratories of herbal drug industry.

Imran et al., (2010) reported reverse phase high-performance thin-layer chromatographic

(RP-HPTLC) methodology for the quantitative estimation of gingerols in methanolic extract of

fresh ginger rhizome collected from different locations of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh of


___________________________________________________________________________________

38

North Western Himalayas (India). The samples were chromatographed on RP-HPTLC glass

plates pre-coated with RP-18 60F254 as the stationary phase, developed in twin trough glass

chamber saturated with ternary-solvent system consisting of acetonitrile–water–formic acid (7:2:1

v/v/v) at room temperature and latter plates were visualised at 500 nm. The Rf values of [6]-, [8]-

and [10]-gingerol were found to be 0.73±0.04, 0.59±0.08 and 0.36±0.05 respectively. Linearity

was found to be in the range of 140–840 ng/spot for [6]-gingerol, 168–1008 ng/spot for [8]-

gingerol and 136–816 ng/spot for [10]-gingerol with significantly high value of correlation

coefficient. The linear regression analysis data for the calibration plots showed linear relationship

(R2) and ranged from 0.9937 to 0.9992 for [6]-, [8]- and [10]-gingerol.

HPLC–UV methods

Schwertner and Rios (2007) reported a HPLC method suitable for the analysis of gingerol

composition in a wide variety of ginger-containing dietary supplements, spices, teas, mints, and

beverages. Gingerols were extracted with ethyl acetate from various ginger-containing products

and analysed on a C-8 reversed phase column at 282 nm which found to vary widely. HPLC

coupled with UV detector method was reported for the determination of [6]-, [8]-, [10]-gingerol and

[6]-shogaol in ginger-containing products (Zick et al., 2008).

Li et al., (2008) developed a HPLC-DAD (Diode Array Detector) method using a high

resolution column (sub-2 µm particles) to separate and quantify of [6]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerols in

three medicinal gingers. When compared with a conventional analytical column, which detected

three gingerols (Total time -20 min), this method was found to be simple, rapid, and selective with

good accuracy and reliability for the simultaneous determination of three active components. The

chromatographic separation of three gingerols was achieved within 4 min. Gradient elution was

performed using acetonitrile-water as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 1.0 ml/min. The detection

wavelength was 280 nm.

Nilesh and coworkers (2011) reported the antioxidant capacity and phenolic content from

the rhizomes of 12 ginger cultivars collected from different agro climatic zones of India. The

quantity of [6]-gingerol in the cultivars ranged from 0.1-0.2% as determined by RP-HPLC. The


___________________________________________________________________________________

39

Rajasthan and Rio De Janero cultivars with high [6]-gingerol content possessed strongest free

radical scavenging activities.

HPLC–MS methods

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS)

was reported for the qualitative analysis of ginger extract (He et al, 1998; Jiang et al., 2006a). [6]-

gingerol and [6]-shogaol in simulated gastric pH 1 at 37°C underwent first-order reversible

dehydration and hydration reactions to form [6]-shogaol and [6]-gingerol, respectively whereas

both [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol showed insignificant inter conversion between one another in

case of simulated intestinal fluids (Bhattarai et al., 2007).

Wang et al., (2009a) developed a sensitive and specific rapid resolution liquid

chromatography coupled with electro spray ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC–ESI-

TOF/MS) method for quantitative analysis of [6]-gingerol in plasma and various tissues. This

method was successfully applied to pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution and excretion studies of

[6]-gingerol after oral or intraperitoneal administration in rats. Wang et al., (2009b) also reported

HPLC–MS method for the simultaneous quantification of [6]-, [8]-, [10]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol in

rat plasma after oral administration of ginger oleoresin.

A tandem liquid chromatographic time-of-flight mass spectrometric (LC–TOF-MS) method

was developed for rapid separation and identification of diarylheptanoids and gingerol related

compounds in aqueous extracts of dried ginger (Li, et al., 2009a). Ten diarylheptanoids and ten

gingerol related compounds were observed, and the molecular formulae were inferred from an

accurate mass measurement.

HPLC- NMR methods

Methanolic extract of ginger was analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography

coupled to nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy using superheated deuterium oxide as the

mobile phase and a temperature gradient from 50 to 130°C at 4°C/min. On-line and off-line

HPLC–NMR analysis yielded spectra for vanillin, dihydroferulic acid, zingerone and ferulic acid,

which were confirmed by mass spectroscopy (Shikha et al., 2003).


___________________________________________________________________________________

40

HPLC- electrochemical methods

Electrochemical detection was employed in a clinical research of ginger in healthy human

subjects to determine free analytes in plasma (Zick et al., 2008) and tissues (Jiang et al., 2008).

Shao et al., (2010) developed a sensitive reversed-phase HPLC electrochemical array method for

the determination and quantification of 8 components, [6]-, [8]-, [10]-gingerol, [6]-, [8]-, [10]-

shogaol, [6]-paradol, and [1]-dehydrogingerdione, in 11 commercial products with higher

accuracy than previously reported. This method was valid with unrivaled sensitivity as low as 7.3-

20.2 pg of limit of detection and a range of 14.5-40.4 pg for the limit of quantification. The results

reported that both levels and ratios among the 8 compounds vary greatly in commercial products.

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES – IN VITRO AND IN VIVO STUDIES

Over the years, ginger and its extracts have received increasing attention because of its

pronounced antioxidant (El-Ghorab et al., 2010), anti-inflammatory (Minghetti et al., 2007), anti-

diabetic (Afshari et al., 2007) and anti-cancer activities (Shukla and Singh, 2007; Lantz et al.,

2007; Dugasani et al., 2010). However, some of the biological and physiological activities

reported for ginger during the last decade are tabulated (Table 4).

Several studies have shown that ginger is more efficient in reducing nausea than vitamin

B6 (Ensiyeh et al., 2009; Smith, 2010); other studies compare ginger to placebo (Ozgoli et al.,

2009; Vutyavanich et al., 2001) or to antiemetic prescription drugs (Pongrojpaw et al., 2007).

Levine et al., (2008) showed that administering high protein meals with ginger reduced the

delayed nausea of chemotherapy and reduced the use of antiemetic medications.

Pharmacological investigations have revealed that ginger and its major pungent

ingredients have chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects on a variety of cancer cell lines

and on animal models (Chen et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2008). Due to all these properties, ginger

has gained considerable attention in developed countries in recent years, especially for its use in

the treatment of inflammatory conditions (Lantz et al., 2007; Sang et al., 2009) as well as in

cancer cell lines (Hsu et al., 2012).


___________________________________________________________________________________

41

Table 3. Biological and physiological activities of ginger

Source Summary Reference

Anti inflammatory activity

Gingerols and

their derivatives

Gingerol compounds and their derivatives are more potent anti-platelet agents than

aspirin. Among these, [8]-Paradol was found to be the most potent COX-1 inhibitor

as well as anti platelet aggregation agent.

Tjendraputra et

al., (2003)

Crude organic

extracts of

ginger

Extract containing gingerols inhibited LPS-induced COX-2 expression while extracts

containing shogaol showed no effect on COX-2 expression. However, Mixtures of

the compounds were more effective than each of the individual components tested. It

may be due to synergistic effect.

Lantz et al.,

(2007)

Ginger extract Ginger extract inhibited macrophage activation and antigen presenting cells function,

and indirectly inhibited T cell activation.

Sudipta et al.,

(2008)

Gingerol-related

compounds

In vitro investigations of ginger preparations showed anti-inflammatory effects of

ginger including inhibition of COX, inhibition of nuclear factor κB and inhibition of 5-

lipoxygenase. However, separated compounds (viz., [10]-gingerol, [8]-shogaol and

[10]-shogaol) inhibited COX-2 but not COX-1.

Richard et al.,

(2011)

Anticancer activity

[6]-shogaol [6]-shogaol was effective in inducing the apoptotic cell death of Mahlavu cells via an

oxidative stress-mediated caspase dependent mechanism at >50 µM concentration.

Chen et al.,

(2007)

Gingerol-related

compounds

Among the selected compounds from ginger, [6]-shogaol exhibited the most potent

cytotoxicity against tumour cells and also inhibited the proliferation of the transgenic

mouse ovarian cancer cell lines.

Kim et al.,

(2008)

Gingerols and

shogaols

Shogaols possessed much stronger growth inhibitory effects than gingerols on H-

1299 human lung cancer cells and HCT-116 human colon cancer cells. [6]-shogaol

had much stronger inhibitory effects on arachidonic acid release and nitric oxide

(NO) synthesis than [6]-gingerol.

Sang et al.,

(2009)


___________________________________________________________________________________

42

[6]-shogaol [6]-shogaol inhibited cell proliferation by inducing cells to autophagic cell death

through AKT/mTOR inhibition in human non-small cell lung cancer A549 cells and

hence can be a promising chemo preventive agent

Hung et al.,

(2009)

[6]-gingerol [6]-

shogaol

[6]-shogaol and [6]-gingerol exerted anti-invasive activity against hepatoma cells

through regulation of MMP-9 and tissue inhibitor metalloproteinase protein.

Weng et al.,

(2010)

[6]-shogaol [6]-shogaol was found to be potent inhibitor of MDA-MB-231 cell invasion, and the

molecular mechanism involves the down-regulation of MMP-9 transcription by

targeting the NF-kB activation cascade.

Ling et al.,

(2010)

[4]-shogaol [4]-shogaol effectively inhibits the metastasis of breast cancer by decreasing NF-κB

and Snail, sequentially resulting in the reinforcement of Raf kinase inhibitor protein

(RKIP) expression, inhibition of cell migration and invasion.

Hsu et al.,

(2012)

Antioxidative effect

CO2 extract of

ginger

CO2 extract of ginger inhibited the lipid per oxidation. Stoilova et al.,

(2007)

Ginger The intake of ginger was found to Inhibit lipid peroxidation and protect DNA from

LPS-induced oxidative damage.

Ippoushi et al.,

(2007)

Antispasmodic effect

Aqueous ginger

extract

Ginger extract showed a spasmogenic effect in isolated guinea-pig ileum with 8-50

times more potency than in rabbit jejunum and ileum and also exhibited a stimulant

effect in vivo in mice and enhanced the intestinal transit of charcoal meal.

Ghayur and

Gilani (2006)

Effect on nausea and vomiting

Ginger essential

oil

Essential oil of ginger was found to be effective in prevention of post-operative

nausea and vomiting (PONV), when administered pre-operatively, naso-cutaneously

concurrently with conventional therapies to general anaesthesia patients.

Geiger, (2005)

Ulcer prevention

Ginger extract Ginger extract reduced acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis, a chronically recurrent

inflammatory bowel disease.

El-Abhar et al.,

(2008)


___________________________________________________________________________________

43

zingerone Zingerone inhibited colonic motility in vivo via direct action on smooth muscles in

rats. Zingerone might exert beneficial therapeutic effects on hypermotility-induced

diarrhea by abrogating excessive gastrointestinal motility.

Momoe et al.,

(2011)

Ginger powder Ginger powder prevented the aspirin-induced gastric ulcer formation by reducing

mucosal iNOS activity and the plasma levels of inflammatory cytokines but does not

affect gastric juice or acid production or mucosal PGE2 content.

Wang et al.,

(2011)

Antiallergic potency

Compounds

isolated from

ginger

[6]-gingerol, [10]-gingerol, [6]-shogaol, hexahydrocurcumin and [6]-

dehydrogingerdione from ginger are capable of inhibiting allergic reactions and

useful for the treatment and prevention of allergic diseases.

Chen et al.,

(2009)

Hepatotoxicity Dietary ginger

(1%)

Dietary ginger (1%) may have protective role against the ethanol-induced

hepatotoxicity.

Mallikarjuna et

al., (2008)

Ethanol extract

of ginger

The ethanolic extract of Z. officinale significantly reduced the serum glutamate

pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) and serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase

(SGOT) when ginger ethanolic extract was administered first followed by CCl4.

Ezeonu et al.,

(2011)

Detoxifying effect

Aqueous ginger

extract

The water extract of ginger showed significant amelioration on the changes both in

liver and brain tissues due to alcohol. Water extracts had detoxifying and antioxidant

effects and recommended to avoid alcohol toxicity.

Shati and

Elsaid, (2009)

Ginger extract Pre-treatment with different doses of ginger extract prior to bromobenzene -

treatment alleviated its toxic effects on the tested oxidative stress parameters.

El-Sharaky et

al., (2009)

Anti-diabetic activity

Ginger powder Ginger caused a decrease in lipid peroxidation, an increase of plasma antioxidant

capacity and a reduction in renal nephropathy induced by diabetes.

Ali et al., (2007)


___________________________________________________________________________________

44

[6]-gingerol [6]-gingerol inhibited D-ribose induced damage by increasing the growth of MC3T3-

E1 cells and caused significant elevation of alkaline phosphatase activity, collagen

content and osteocalcin secretion in the cells, and hence useful in the treatment of

diabetes-related bone disease

Kim et al.,

(2007)

[6]-gingerol [6]-gingerol exhibits a significant potential as an anti-hyperglycaemic, lipid lowering

and antioxidant agent for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Singh et al.,

(2009)

Ginger juice Fresh juice of ginger produced a significant time dependent decrease in blood

glucose level in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats.

Asha et al.,

(2011)

Ginger juice The intake of ginger roots as a drink was reported to be beneficial for diabetic

patients who suffer from sexual impotency as their extracts induce antidiabetic

activity and enhance male fertility in diabetic rats.

Hafez (2010)

Effect on knee and muscle pain

[6]-shogaol [6]-shogaol reduced the inflammatory response in Freund's adjuvant monoarthritic

model, and protected the femoral cartilage from damage of the knee joint.

Levy et al.,

(2006)

Raw ginger

supplement

Daily supplementation with ginger reduced muscle pain caused by eccentric

exercise.

Black et al.,

(2010)

Ginger Ginger significantly suppressed rheumatoid arthritis onset / progression in rat

adjuvant-induced arthritis.

Ramadan et

al., (2011)

Antimicrobial activity

ginger extract Antifungal activity of the ethanol extract of ginger was observed against two strains

of Candida albicans (PTCC 5027 and ATCC 10231).

Atai et al.,

(2009)


___________________________________________________________________________________

45

Solvent extracts

of ginger

Among different solvent extracts (n-hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanol and water) of

ginger, ethanol extract showed maximum antimicrobial activity against Colliform

bacillus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Streptococcus viridians by inhibition of

bacterial growth.

Malu et al.,

(2009)

Larvicidal activity

[10]-gingerol [10]-gingerol showed higher larvicidal than hexahydrocurcumin, mebendazole and

albendazole against Angiostrongylus cantonensis a round worm.

Lin et al.,

(2010a)

[10]-gingerol [10]-gingerol showed 100% lethality against the larvae of Anisakis simplex, a

parasitic nematode, which present in fish and other marine mammals.

Lin et al.,

(2010b)

Anthelmintic property

Aqueous ginger

extract

Aqueous extracts of ginger possess significant anthelmintic activity against the

earthworm Pheretima posthuma

Dubey et al.,

(2010)


___________________________________________________________________________________

46

TECHNOLOGIES FOR PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM GINGER

Ginger was incorporated in different pharmaceutical compositions as one of the major

ingredient in various forms (viz., raw, powder, extract) that may be used in the treatment of wide

array of ailments including arthritis, rheumatism, sprains, muscular aches, pains, sore throats,

cramps, constipation, indigestion, vomiting, hypertension, dementia, fever, infectious diseases.

However, inventions were carefully selected based on the various aspects related to ginger

processing and products for food and pharmaceutical applications and are summarised according

to the year wise chronological order in table 4.

Table 4. Summary of the selected patents describing processes, product compositions and uses of ginger

Inventors Description

Processing of ginger

Yasumoto et al.,

(1992)

Ginger enzyme formulation prepared using ginger enzyme extract along with

sugars, amino acids, carboxylic acids or their salts as a stabilizing agent for

meat-softening and preservation over a long period.

Takeda (1995)

A preparation of crushed raw ginger was reported and contains the following

steps: skinning of raw ginger, optional cutting of the skinned ginger to a

proper size, crushing and sealing in a vessel and later stored at -5 to -40°C

in frozen state. This had stability for ≥10 days.

Hirasa et al.,

(1996)

A grated ginger composition comprising raw or frozen ginger containing

acetic acid (to maintain pH 3 - 4.5) was heat- treated at 48-60°C for 0.5 h on

two days and packed into a container, sealed and heat-treated.

Saulo et al.,

(2003)

A method for obtaining an extract from ginger using butter as an extraction

medium was reported.

Kato and

Yamaguchi,

(2003)

Method for large-scale production of shogaols was reported for industrial

uses, which are useful in foods, perfumes, drugs, quasi drugs and

cosmetics.

Gaedckeand

Feistel, (2003;

2005)

Ginger extracts were prepared and stabilized using chemical auxiliary agent

(viz., polyvinylpyrrolidones). Solid galenic dosage forms such as capsules,

and tablets containing the stable ginger extract preparations were also

described.

Ishida et al.,

(2006)

Equipment was designed for cutting of the irregularly shaped ginger roots,

which comprises of a conveyor, an imaging and a cutting device.


___________________________________________________________________________________

47

Lim et al., (2006) A method for preparation of extract from fresh ginger subjected to ultrasonic

treatment at a frequency 20-30 kHz for 20-60 min was reported.

Sudo (2007) A method for the production of grated ginger was reported, wherein the raw

ginger with the outer skin was cooked with oil and then pasted, sterilized to

inactivate the thermo-resistant bacteria.

Li et al., (2007) A method to separate and purify [6]-gingerol from the extract of supercritical

fluid extraction of ginger was reported.

Zhang (2007) A method for manufacturing ginger condiment through cooking in vegetable

oil to obtain golden-coloured granules that can be stored for long time was

reported.

Kono et al.,

(2009)

A method for the bulk preparation and distribution of fresh ginger base from

a central location was described and it contained the selection fresh ginger

root and pasting it.

Qunli (2009) A method for extracting gingerol from ginger with high efficiency was

reported.

Kubo and

Nakada (2010)

A method for preparation of the porous dried ginger from freeze-drying raw

rhizome was described.

Yamahara (2011) A method to identify the kind of ginger was described by utilising the whole

DNA and by performing a PCR reaction on it.

Umehara et al.,

(2011)

A method to inhibit the colour deterioration of ginger juice / beverage with

time by adding organic acid and maintaining the pH in the range of 3.5-5.5

was described.

Morita and

Kanetani (2008)

Shogaol enriched ginger product was produced by heating ginger in a

hermetically sealed container without quality deterioration.

Li et al., (2008)

Sequential extraction of ginger species to yield an essential oil fraction, a

gingerol fraction, a phenolic fraction, and a polysaccharide fraction was

provided.

Application for food use

Iwahata et al.,

(1998)

A ginger-flavored composition possessing refreshing flavour included ginger

extract along with one or more extracts obtained from pepper, cardamom,

ajowan, beefsteak plant, nutmeg, rosemary, oregano, lemon, lemongrass,

Japanese pepper, savory, celery, thyme, marjoram, lime and orange.

Kake (1999)

Improved ginger decoction powder containing ginger extract, sugar, starch,

glucose, raw sugar, arrow root starch, epigallocatechin gallate and

cyclodextrin was prepared using selected processing steps such as pasting,

extraction, and sterilization.


___________________________________________________________________________________

48

Yoshifuji et al.,

(2000)

Ginger food with improved ginger taste was prepared using alternate

sweetener viz., sucralose as taste-improving agent was reported.

Theuer (2000)

A baby-food composition comprised of blanched ginger puree together with

one or more fruits or vegetables at suitable levels was reported, which can

be used to reduce gastrointestinal reflux.

Miyashita (2002) Ginger coffee reported using a mixture of canned coffee, instant coffee, cup

coffee along with ground raw ginger or powder ginger.

Torigoe (2005)

Preparation of grated fresh frozen ginger pieces with shortened dietary fibres

as well as with retention of freshness was described, which was easy to eat

in a serving dish.

Fukuda (2005)

A method for producing the ginger having white color with soft texture, giving

crispness to the teeth, containing a hot component in an amount

corresponding to a fraction of the hot component content of ordinary ginger,

having rich taste and flavor and eatable in raw as salad, and the like was

reported using selected harvesting techniques, periods and seasons.

Kuboi (2006) Beverage having health-promoting effects was developed using yeast

fermented ginger grains.

Sachindra et al.,

(2007)

A process for the preparation of ready to use chicken soup mix containing

ginger was disclosed.

Takaoka (2007)

A method for preparation of granulated organic ginger brown sugar was

reported using ginger powder, Caiapo potato fine powder and brown sugar

at a selected ratio.

Endo (2007) An acidic beverage containing carbohydrates, vitamins (B6, C & folic acid)

and minerals (ammonium iron citrate, calcium gluconate, calcium lactate,

magnesium carbonate) along with ginger juice was formulated for pregnant

women.

Archer (2010) An energy enhancing drink containing ginger extract, leaves of Cymbopogon

citratus, peppermint along with sugar or other sweeteners was formulated.

Sahara et al.,

(2010)

A method for the preparation of ginger vinegar was reported. This ginger

vinegar was prepared by the acetic acid fermentation of the ginger juice and/

or extract along with carbohydrates and ethanol.

Kuzumi et al.,

(2010)

A food composition containing major ginger ingredients (viz., extract, juice

processed from ginger using a selected technique), along with a saccharide

was described.

Otero (2011)

An improved herbal beverage prepared from mixture of extracts of ginger

root along with China root, Bejuco indio and Pimento leaves was described.


___________________________________________________________________________________

49

Kuma et al.,

(2011)

A method for production of fermented milk drinks as well as foods, involved

culturing of animal milk using lactic acid bacteria in a medium containing its

growth promoter (viz., selected from ginger extract, tea extract, green onion

extract, oleic acid and derivatives) was explained.

Kaneko et al.,

(2011)

A powder composition for making ginger pudding was described. This

composition contained ginger powder, milk protein, wheat protein, calcium

lactate, carrageenan and lactic acid bacteria. All the ingredients were mixed

with cow milk and heated in a microwave oven.

Application for pharmaceutical use

Scaloni (1995)

Ginger-root infusion for mouthwash or as an additive to toothpaste, ointment,

wax was prepared and useful for desensitizing teeth and gums to

temperature changes.

Patwardhan

(1996)

A method for treating degenerative musculoskeletal disease (such as

rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis in animals) was reported. The

composition contains extracts of ginger, Withania somnifera roots, Boswellia

serrata, turmeric rhizomes, and gum exudates.

Suzuki (2000)

An agent for the treatment of infections (viz., virus, fungal infections, etc.)

comprising from the group consisting of aconite-alkaloids, aconite tuber,

gingerol from ginger rhizomes.

Staggs (2000)

A new class of anti-infective agents was extracted from ginger, pepper, and

other plant species containing vanillyl and piperidine ring structures. The role

of these structures was demonstrated in the topical treatment of

dermatophyte infections, tissue injuries, and abnormal proliferations of

keratin.

Newmark and

Schulick (2001a)

An herbal composition containing supercritical extract of ginger and

rosemary to promote stomach, liver and intestinal health; reduce

inflammation; support blood platelet health and cardiovascular function; and

provide antioxidant benefits was reported.

Wu et al., (2001) A method of preparing a product potent in anti-inflammation or in anti-platelet

aggregation from rhizomes of ginger was reported.

Newmark and

Schulick (2001b)

An herbal composition was prepared using ginger, green tea, pumpkin seed

oil, urtica root extracts, selenium, watermelon and rosemary for promoting

prostate health in men.

Newmark and

Schulick (2001c)

An herbal composition containing supercritical extracts of ginger, rosemary

and evening primrose oil and supercritical extracts of black cohosh, dong


___________________________________________________________________________________

50

quai, schizandra berry, and chaste tree berry was reported for the treatment

of symptoms associated with hormonal imbalance in women.

Kelly and Perry

(2001)

An herbal composition containing ginger root extract along with white willow

bark extract, kava kava root extract, feverfew extract, guarana extract, and

vitamin B6 was reported that can be used to relieve pain in migraines and

headaches.

Bok et al., (2002)

A health-improving spice composition comprising of ginger, garlic, onion,

jujube, and citrus peel or an extract thereof with naringin/hesperidin was

reported.

Lintner (2003)

Preparation of microcapsules of ginger oil was described. These

microcapsules were useful to eliminate swelling and heavy leg sensations,

as these capsules deliver the ginger oil topically.

McDaniels (2003)

An herbal ointment mixture comprising of ginger oil, clove oil, wintergreen

oil, peppermint oil along with ginger root powder, cayenne powder and

petroleum jelly was formulated for soothing aches and pains.

Rosenbloom

(2003)

A composition containing ginger powder, turmeric extract, horse radish root

powder along with a carrier was reported for the treatment of symptoms such

as common cold, sore throat, congestion, laryngitis and mucous membrane

inflammation.

Rosenstiel

(2003)

An herbal composition containing ginger essential oil, cayenne extract, myrrh

essential oil, frankincense essential oil, cinnamon essential oil, and

powdered saffron in carrier oil, preferably safflower oil was reported that aids

in the relief of symptoms caused by edema, cyanosis, blood stasis,

neuropathy and related conditions.

Zhang and Fu

(2003)

A pharmaceutical composition comprising of ginger, Fructus jujubae, Radix

astragali, Radix glycyrrhizae, Ramulus cinnamomi, and green tea mainly

effective against Type I allergy was reported.

Fasano (2003)

An herbal composition containing a combination of ginger root, sage leaf,

red raspberry leaf, bayberry bark, capsicum pepper, damiana leaf, licorice

root, vaierian root, black cohosh root, red clover extract and kudzu root was

reported for women for the treatment of premenstrual syndrome.

Shibuya et al.,

(2003)

A water-soluble essence of ginger was described using water or hydrated

alcohol extract of ginger and reported that it was useful to control or inhibits

the growth of the hair.

Kim (2004)

Preparation of soap containing ginger essential oil was provided, which

possessed excellent bactericidal activity and excellent ability to remove body

smell.


___________________________________________________________________________________

51

Hawkins (2005) Extracts and components isolated from the rhizome of ginger possessed

activities with applications in many fields, including research reagents,

pharmaceutical and nutraceutical product development, manufacture of

improved high-value foods and feeds as well as production of alcohol from

cereals, and waste treatment.

Iyer and Shivraj,

(2005)

A soft gelatin capsule or tablet containing evening primrose oil along with

calcium, magnesium, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, St. John's wort, ginger

oleoresin and Gymnema sylvestre was prepared for the treatment of pre-

menstrual syndrome.

Wu et al., (2005)

An anti-fungal pharmaceutical composition prepared from ginger was

described for treating a patient suffering from a disease associated with

Trichophyton mentagrophytes or Pityrosporum ovale.

Naka (2005) A lotion from ginger skin was described, which was useful to promote blood

circulation and to activate metabolism.

Wang et al.,

(2006)

Ginger juice along with honey was incorporated in toothpaste, to remove the

mouth smell, to prevent oral ulceration and to diminish inflammation,

promote regeneration of the skin tissues.

Shibuya et al.,

(2006)

The water-soluble ginger extract was obtained using water or anhydrous

alcohol. Ginger extract causes less skin irritation because of being

substantially free of gingerols, and possesses excellent body-hair growth

inhibiting effects and was useful as a hair growth inhibitor.

Ishiguro et al.,

(2007)

A pharmaceutical composition containing ginger extract was developed for

inhibiting human drug transporters for positively influencing the oral

bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of active substances.

Dharmesh and

Siddaraju, (2007)

A bioactive fraction was isolated from ginger rhizome which possessed

potential anti-ulcer activity was reported.

Vad (2007) A composition comprising ginger, glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate or

methylsulfonylmethane was reported, that can be used to cure pain and

shortened onset of pain control effect in arthritis.

Sha (2007)

A dietary supplement composition comprising water/alcohol extract of

ginger, Strobilanthes cusia, Panax pseudo-ginseng, Eucommia ulmoides,

Momordicae grosvenori, licorice root, and Allium fistulosum was described

for ameliorating inflammatory changes in influenza process.

Hawkins (2007) Extracts and/or components isolated from ginger rhizome, were used in the

treatment of infections caused by pathogenic micro-organisms including

viruses, bacteria, protozoa and parasites.


___________________________________________________________________________________

52

Murakami (2007) Ginger -containing oral composition reported to contain ginger and glutamine

was obtained by adding a base that possess resistance to gastric juice and

can dissolve in the small intestine and hardly soluble in the stomach and

enteric. The oral composition with enhanced analgesic action and anti-

inflammatory action was described with the addition of valine to the above

composition.

Gokaraju et al.,

(2008)

A composition comprising of a synergistic mixture of ginger, boswellia

extract, salts of glucosamine, and curcuminoids optionally containing

bromelain, chondroitin, methylsulphonylmethane, resveratrol, extracts of

white willow and quercetin was formulated, for controlling inflammatory

conditions, preventing and curing cancer in mammals.

Rosenbloom

(2008)

An anti-microbial composition containing ginger root powder, green tea

extract, turmeric extract along with a carrier was reported.

Ko et al., (2009) Low polarity solvent extract of ginger was subjected to reverse-phase

chromatography column to obtain a potent product to treat diseases

associated with Helicobacter pylori.

Kim (2009) Invention related to the use of compounds isolated from turmeric, gingko and

ginger, and synthetic chemical analogues for the treatment of a beta-amyloid

protein-induced disease was described.

Gurney et al.,

(2009)

A formulation containing ginger extract and bisabolol or an extract containing

bisabolol was formulated for treating or eliminating irritation and/or

inflammation reducing effect on endodermal tissue of the respiratory as well

as gastrointestinal tract.

Herrmann et al.,

(2009)

A formulation consisting of compounds from ginger and bisabolol was

formulated. The composition was selected in such a way that both

components function synergistically to reduce skin irritation.

Rashan et al.,

(2009)

A composition comprising of aqueous extracts of ginger rhizome, radish

seeds, celery seeds and black seeds was formulated and administration of

composition was said to enhance fertility.

Mazzio and

Soliman (2010)

An herbal formulation comprising of ginger, black walnut, wormwood,

turmeric, garlic, licorice, chamomile, clove, nutmeg combined with aloe vera

and niacin was disclosed for treating dyshidrosis and dry skin disorders.

Ge et al., (2010) A pharmaceutical composition for preventing or treating of learning

disorders, memory disorders, Parkinson’s disease, or ischemic

cerebrovascular disease containing ginger extract or shogaols along with a

pharmaceutically acceptable carrier was reported.


___________________________________________________________________________________

53

Rosenbloom et

al., (2010)

Composition containing ginger, turmeric and green tea (0.001-90% by wt.)

could be employed for reducing the incidence of contracting infectious

bronchitis or reducing the transmissivity of infectious bronchitis in birds.

Varani and

Johnson (2010)

A skin augmentation composition comprised of a therapeutically effective

amount of a combination of a gingerol (0.1-10%, w/v) and a curcumin (1-

20%, w/v) along with a cosmetically or pharmaceutically acceptable carrier

was reported.

Rathi and Risbud

(2010)

A novel synergistic anthelmintic compositions was developed for the

prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal nematodes in dairy animals,

comprised of a combination of therapeutically effective amount of ginger

extract (1-10g) with proteolytic enzyme and fibre degrading enzymes.

Sakasai (2010) Treating the ginger oleoresin with activated carbon produced purified ginger

oleoresin with reduced colouring as well as viscous components, and

improved in reducing irritation.

Tchoungui (2010) A method for processing the ginger rhizome into syrup for nutri-therapeutic

use was reported. This syrup was used to cure human health problems by

nutri-therapy.

Kim et al., (2010) The present invention explained a pharmaceutical composition for

preventing or treating learning disabilities, memory disorders, Parkinson's

disease, or ischemic cerebrovascular disease. The pharmaceutical

formulation contained ginger extract or shogaol and a pharmaceutically

allowable carrier.

Engels (2010) Ginger compositions containing ginger and camomile or camphor and

various plant extracts and/or essential oils were disclosed. Uses of said

composition were also disclosed.

Bombardelli

(2010)

A combination comprising lipophilic ginger extract and Echinacea

angustifolia extract was provided for the prevention and treatment of

oesophageal reflux and chemotherapy-induced emesis.

Shimoda et al.,

(2011)

A composition comprising of gingerol and anthocyanidin from red ginger

extract along with glucosamine and/or its salt for inhibiting of inflammation

was described.

Smith (2011)

An organic composition containing powdered ginger, turmeric, cumin, fennel,

cinnamon, red pepper flakes, chia seed, celery seed, and hibiscus petals

was formulated for treating and/or preventing certain physical ailments such

as pain in a person.

Ge et al., (2011) Synergistic antioxidant effect was exhibited by a mixture of herb extracts-

(licorice, ginger, kudzu, sophora and thyme), that can be used for skin care


___________________________________________________________________________________

54

preparations are described.

Khoo et al.,

(2011)

The inventors examined the effects of ginger (0.5-2%) in the diet of pet

animals (cats and dogs) for preventing, ameliorating the symptoms of or

treating an arthritic condition or gastrointestinal inflammatory disorder.

Castor (2011) A formulation containing ginger extract (20-40mg) along with olive oil, can be

administered for the treatment of nausea in humans.

Stojan (2011) This invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions useful for prevention

and treatment of metabolic disorders, including insulin resistance syndrome,

type 2 diabetes, weight gain, and cardiovascular disease. More specifically,

this invention comprises compositions and therapeutic methods utilizing

such compositions to increase insulin sensitivity.

Coffindaffer et al.,

(2011)

A personal care composition comprising of bisabolol and ginger extract

(0.001-10% by weight of the total composition), and a surfactant derived

from a triglyceride such as olive oil (80-95%) can be used for down

regulating cytokines irritation.

Cyr et al., (2011) Herbal composition comprising of ginger and goldenrod was described for

the prevention and/or treatment of cold and/or flu infection.

Ishii et al., (2011) Ginger beverage formulation containing ginger or derived product was

described without reduction of its original pharmacological effects.

Hirayama and

Nakagawa (2011)

A synergistic composition containing ginger or its extract and L-carnitine for

regulation of biological rhythm originally provided in the body and reduction

of sleepiness, melancholic feeling and weariness was described.

Kim et al., (2011) A pharmaceutical composition containing ginger extract or shogaols along

with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for preventing or treating of

learning disorders, memory disorders, Parkinson’s disease, or ischemic

cerebrovascular disease was reported.

Ko et al., (2011) A method for treating the diseases associated with Helicobacter pylori (such

as gastritis, gastric ulcer or duodenal ulcer) was provided by the use of a

potent product extracted from ginger extract. The potent fraction was

substantially free of both [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol.

Trivedi and

Gittins (2011)

An oral composition of ginger extract along with an orally acceptable carrier for treating and preventing a variety of oral disease including gingivitis was reported.

Bombardelli

(2012)

A combination of a lipophilic ginger extract along with Cynara scolymus

extract to improve gastric emptying and digestive function, possesses anti-

dyspeptic activity was described. It was also useful for the prevention and

treatment of gastro-oesophageal reflux and irritable bowel syndrome.


___________________________________________________________________________________

55

CONCLUSIONS

Ginger is most widely cultivated and used as spice around the globe and it forms a part of

the traditional medical practices of all the ginger-growing countries. Indians consider it as

Mahaoushadha (the great medicine). The refreshing pleasant aroma, biting taste and carminative

property of ginger make it an indispensable ingredient of food processing throughout the world.

Fresh ginger, ginger powder from dry ginger, oleoresin and oil are all used for this purpose.

Over the years, many investigations had been reported that ginger and many of its

chemical constituents possess many health benefits. Ginger is reported to contain numerous

chemical constituents and these vary depending on the place of origin and whether the rhizomes

are fresh or dry. Chemical constituents of ginger rhizomes include volatiles and non-volatiles.

Review describes that the compounds reported from ginger viz., isolated / characterized or

partially identified by chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques. Its extracts have been

reported to possess potential anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antithrombosis, and cancer chemo

preventive activities and to be effective in reducing the symptoms of arthritis in humans. In

addition, phytochemicals isolated from ginger species were documented for the treatment of

chemotherapy-associated nausea, the suppression of platelet aggregation, and the inhibition of

COX-2 and nitric oxide synthase. Recent studies gave an insight on the efficacy and possible

mechanism of action of [6]-gingerol regarding its various pharmaceutical properties. [6]-gingerol

has shown to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, to suppress cytokine formation

and to promote angiogenesis. Moreover, it is natural source showing no toxicity, which is

considered as ‘generally recognized as safe’ (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

of the United States. Due to all these properties, ginger has gained considerable attention in

developed countries in recent years, especially for its use in the treatment of inflammatory

conditions. Ginger and its active components are effective inhibitors of the carcinogenic process.

The nutraceutical properties of ginger compounds have been of great interest in the food

processing and pharmaceutical industries. Therefore, further studies are required for the

validation of the beneficial medicinal uses to which ginger is currently laid to, and perhaps

development and formulation of new products and new usages may emerge in the years to come.

introduction - shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/45074/11/introduction.pdf ·...

Documents