international associations · andrew e. rice (u.s.a.) executive secretary of the society for...

UNION OF INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

Executive CouncilComité de Direction

President : President :F.A. CASADIO, Directeur. Societa Italiana perI'Organizzazione Internazionale (Italie) :

Vice-Présidents : Vice-Presidents :W. ETEKI-MBOUMOUA (Cameroun).Ancien Ministre de l'Education et de la Culture.Mohamed Aly RANGOONWALA (Pakistan)Chairman of the Pakistan National Committee ofthe International Chamber of Commerce.

Membres : Members Th. CAVALCANTl, (Brésil),Président de l'Institut de Droit Public -de laFondation Getulio Vargas.F.W.G. BAKER, (U.K.)Executive Secretary, International Council ofScientific Unions,Nikola A. KOVALSKY (U.R.S.S.)Directeur adjoint de l'Institut du mouvementouvrier international de l'Académie des sciencesde l'U.R.S.S.

Roland RAINAUT (France)Ancien Directeur de l'Information et de la Presse

de l'O.E.C.E,Andrew E. RICE (U.S.A.)Executive Secretary of the Society for Inter-national Development.Mohamed Aly RIFAAT (R.A.U.)Former Secretary-GeneraI of the Afro-AsianOrganisation for Economic Cooperation.S.K. SAXENA (India)Secretary-General of the International Coope-rative Alliance.Louis VERNIERS (Belgique)Secrétaire Général Honoraire du Ministère Belgede l'Education et de la Culture.Secrétaire Généra! : Secretary-General :Robert FENAUX (Belgique).Ambassadeur honoraire de Belgique.

« International Associations »

Editorial Committee :Comité de Rédaction :

Robert FENAUXGeorges Patrick SPEECKAERTGeneviève DEVILLEJere W. CLARKAnthony J.N, JUDGE.Ghislaine de CONINCK

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS23e ANNEE 3-1971 23nd YEARMARS MARCH

ASSOCIATIONS INTERNATIONALES

Editorial 138

La Coordination dans le cadre de l'ELEP,par P. Van den Wijngaert . . . . . . . . .

141

English summary 147

Wanted : New Types of Social Entity

Part 1 : The Role of the « Potential Association » . 148

Résumé français . . . . . . . . 152

Part 2 : Matrix Organization and OrganizationalNetworks . . . .

154

Résumé français . . . . . . . . . . 170

Les Forces transnationales, par Marcel Merle . . . 171

The Functions and Forms of Internationa! Congressesof Psychology, by Harold P. Van Cott . . . . .

173

Operation : Man to Mankind . . . . . . . 178

News from International Associations . . . . . . 181

A l'écoute des associations internationales . . . . 181

Congressalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

New International Meetings Announced . . . . . . 189

Copyright 1971 UAIViews expressed in the articles, whether signed or not, do notnecessarily reflect those of the UAI.

Published MONTHLY byUnion of international Associations (founded 1910)Annual subscription : $ 11 or £ 3.75Editor, Administration : 1, rue aux Laines, 1000 Brussels (Belgium)Tel. (02)11.83.96.Advertising Manager : Roger Ranson,,35, boulevard de la République, Saint-Cloud, 92 France.Tél. 605 - 39.78.Methods of Payment ; see last page of this issue.Other UAI Publications : see last page of this issue.

Copyright 1971 UAILes opinions exprimées dans les articles, signés ou non, ne reflètentpas nécessairement les vues de l'UAI.

MENSUEL publié parUnion des Associations Internationales - UAI (fondée en 1910)

Abonnement un an : 450 FB, 45 FF, 40 FS.Rédaction, Administration : 1, rue aux Laines, 1000 Bruxelles (Bel-gique) - Tél. (02)11,83.96.Délégué, Direction de la Publicité : Roger Ranson,35 boulevard de la République, Saint-Cloud, 92 FranceTel, 605 - 39.78. Modes de Paiement : voir dernière page de ce numéro,Autres publications de l'UAl : voir dernière page de ce numéro.

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS, 1971, No 3 137

Editorial

A propos d'un livre réédité du Pr. Merle.

De l'International au Transnational

« Notre monde de plus en plus complexe dans sa solidarité serait en péril.de grande confusion s ' i l était sans moyens. d'orientation, de liaison, decontacts.

C'est précisément à ce besoin de cohésion et_ de connexion qu'à répondul'Union des Associations Internationales dont la mission propre est à lafois : appréhension universelle des relations humaines, étude et impul-sion de la fonction internationale privée à laquelle va se joindre désor-mais la fonction transnationale; rassemblement des connaissances et dif-fusion des données chaque jour plus nécessaires aux services publics etaux entreprises privées. »

Pierre HarmelMinistre des Affaires Etrangères de Belgique.

Message à l'UAI lors de son 60e anniversaire (1970).Au commencement était l'Etat souverain et la diplo-matie des temps modernes a longtemps servi — etsuffi — à régler les « relations internationales ». Horsle réseau des transactions commerciales, seule l'auto-rité spirituelle de l'Eglise ne connaissait pas de fron-tières.Actuellement c'est toujours de l'Etat souverain qu'ils'agit, malgré la venue de l'organisation internatio-nale. Certes, de grands changements sont intervenusdans les faits, révolutionnant l'ordre économique etsocial, bouleversant les valeurs scientifiques et cul-turelles, mais, juridiquement, la société internationaleest demeurée à peu prés la même qu'autrefois et lesinstitutions intergouvemementales, d'apparence su-pranationale, ne sont encore que l'accord fragile d'unecoopération volontaire. Nul n'a peut-être jamaismieux mis en relief cet étrange retard de la structureinternationale sur les faits, que M. Marcel Merle, pro-fesseur à la Faculté de droit dé Paris, dans « La Vieinternationale », son ouvrage de 1963 dont il vientde publier une troisième édition entièrement revueet mise à jour (1). Toute loi doit encore être préala-blement admise par les Etats auxquels elle est desti-née : « Aucune autorité supérieure aux Etats et capa-

ble de leur imposer ses vues n'a jamais été instituéedepuis l'effondrement de la chrétienté médiévale ».

* * *

Cependant les faits se font si pressants qu'ils ontcontraint notre auteur à remanier substantiellementla partie de son livre-manuel qu'il nomme avec bon-heur « les forces en action » et singulièrement « lesforces transnationales » (2). Des forces qui ignorentelles-mêmes leurs propres virtualités et auxquellesle fier pouvoir des Etats condescend trop souventencore à n'accorder qu'une considération de compé-tence technique. .Notre auteur dit quelque part : « Le brassage univer-sel des hommes et des idées soulève de nombreuxproblèmes et appelle des solutions neuves ». Il estvrai que le phénomène contemporain de la solida-rite oblige les Etats autant que les associations pri-vées.

(1) Marcel Merle. « La Vie internationale ». 3ème édition.Paris, Armand Colin, 381 p.(2) Nous publions plus loin un premier extrait du chapitre« Les forces transnationales ».

138 ASSOCIATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1971, No 3

M. Merle, dans son avant-propos, nous promet unautre manuel qui constituerait' l'étude de ces problè-mes de « relations internationales » en disciplineautonome, en vue d' « atteindre à une compréhen-sion globale des phénomènes » et il conclut par unephrase essentielle : « Les structures ne peuvent indé-finiment masquer les dysfonctions du système, ni con-tenir la poussée du nombre ». Cet avertissement nevise certes pas seulement le secteur des organisa-tions non gouvernementales, mais il s'applique par-faitement à la crise actuelle des relations entre lesEtats et les associations internationales. Une crise quitient à un défaut d'information de l'opinion et plusencore des cadres de la fonction publique, nationaleet internationale, donc à une carence des études —enseignement et recherches.

** *

Or voici que surgissent des initiatives heureuses. AParis la Faculté de droit, à l'inspiration de M. Merle,prépare un important séminaire consacré à la solida-rite transnationale et notamment à un essai dedéfinition des « internationales ».A Louvain, la vénérable université belge a récem-ment confié une chaire nouvelle de « sociologie del'organisation "internationale » à un ancien, directeurdes services de l'Information au Conseil de l'Europe,le Professeur M. G. Lévy.Ainsi, après une longue indifférence, l'Université sepenche enfin sur les nouveaux aspects de la vie inter-nationale et. notamment de la coopération interna-tionale et transnationale privée. Cela vient à pointau moment où les dernières avanies essuyées par lesOING dans leurs rapports avec les Nations Unies .ont fait déborder le vase des malentendus.

** *

On remarquera l'entrée en scène des sociologuesaprès.les moralistes de la fraternité humaine, les juris-tes du droit international et les documentalistes de la .paix par le savoir. La tendance est désormais detransférer aux sciences humaines une bonne partdes problèmes de la paix et de la solidarité long-temps réservée aux disciplines de la philosophie, dela morale et du droit. Les études de polémologie,cette nouvelle science de la guerre, de ses causes etde ses remèdes, soulignent cette tendance : on nevise plus tant, de nos jours, à la paix par le droit qu'àla connaissance de ce qu'Henri Bergson appelait déjà« les motifs rationnels » qui déterminent l'instinct de

guerre, des motifs très variés dans l'Histoire qui seréduisent aujourd'hui, disait-il, à des causes démo-graphiques et économiques. Les jeunes juristes dudroit international se veulent sociologues, comme onl'a vu à leur conférence de Bangkok il y a deux ans.

* * *

Les mots eux-mêmes changent avec la chose. Le mot« international », à peine né au siècle dernier en1802, ne répond déjà plus au fait transnational. Maisl'habitude est résistante et il pourrait être dommagede la brusquer. L'UAI y a réfléchi pour elle-mêmeavant de s'en tenir à sa vieille enseigne. M. Merle,sous son titre de « forces transnationales » mélangeles concepts d'internationalité et de transnationalité •en traitant successivement des «internationales»politiques et syndicales, des « forces religieuses »,des « groupements d'intérêts privés » et de l'« opinionpublique internationale ». Il est vrai qu'un grandnombre d'associations sans but lucratif et même lesprincipales d'entre "elles, sont composées de sectionsnationales, bien que les intégrations régionales,comme celle de l'Europe insèrent un nouvel échelonentre le national et l'universel. Les groupements d'in-térêt, au sens lucratif du mot, réunissent aussi dessociétés dotées d'une nationalité, d'un siège socialsitué sur un territoire d'Etat et dont les capitaux pro-viennent d'apports nationaux divers. Ainsi le veut lastructure juridique du monde actuel. Mais, en fait, lessociétés multinationales, qui croissent avec le mouve-ment rapide de la concentration des affaires, traversentcontinuellement les frontières, du moins dans lemonde de la libre entreprise, sans autres entravesque les lois nationales.

** *

Concluons pour l'instant que dans notre univers enpleine transformation, l'information pénètre par-tout par le miracle des ondes, n'en déplaise à ceuxqui voudraient l'entraver et ne le peuvent plus. L'in-formation instruit les ignorants, éveille les conscien-ces, crée l'opinion, modère les puissants et protègeles faibles. Le progrès est là et les forces transnatio-nales y prennent une part de plus en plus influentesans laquelle, comme le soleil de Rostand, les chosesne seraient que ce qu'elles sont.

Robert FENAUX.


LA COORDINATION DANS LE CADRE DE L'ELEP*La voie entre l'intérêt commun des associations

et le respect absolu de leur autonomie.

P. Van den Wijngaert,Secrétaire Général de la

Fédération Européenne des Associationscontre la Lèpre.

I Le problème de la lèpreLa lèpre est une maladie vieille comme le mondeet elle constitue un problème social autant quemédical. Nous connaissons tous le « conceptlépreux » qui confère à la lèpre le caractère d'unemalédiction divine et qui, pendant des siècles, aprovoqué les pires excès : ségrégation barbare,mise au ban de la société etc... Ce n'est que depuis25 ans que, grâce aux sulfones, une thérapeutique efficace a pu être appliquée. Il n'en reste pasmoins vrai que sur 15 millions de lépreux qui,d'après les estimations les plus courantes, viventsurtout dans les pays du Tiers-Monde, seulement1 sur 5 est en traitement.L'éradication de la lèpre, vue sous cet angle uni-quement — mais elle compte beaucoup d'autresaspects complexes —, constitue déjà un objectif-difficile à atteindre et qui, par conséquent, n'estpas près de se réaliser.Aussi, est-ce le souci de donner une plus largeextension, un meilleur développement et une plusgrande efficacité à leurs activités qui a poussé lesassociations bénévoles, s'occupant de la lèpre, àcoordonner leurs efforts — tout en conservant leurautonomie — et à se grouper au sein de la Fédéra-tion Européenne des Associations contre la Lèpre(ELEP), à l'occasion d'une réunion, tenue à Berneen 1966, sous la présidence de Raoul Follereau.

II Le problème de la coordinationComment se présente ce problème dans l'organi-sation de la campagne contre la lèpre entreprise parles associations-membres de l'ELEP ? Voici unevue schématique qui permet de se faire une premièreidée, aussi superficielle soit-elle, de l'envergure duproblème.D'une part, il y a une vingtaine d'agences béné-voles, ayant leur siège en Europe principalement,qui récoltent des fonds en faisant appel — presqueexclusivement — à la générosité du public, et quiorganisent à cet effet une campagne d'information,particulièrement à l'occasion de la « JournéeMondiale des Lépreux », fondée en 1954 par RaoulFollereau.

(*) European Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations.

La coordination sous toutes ses formes est a l'ordredu jour, particulièrement au niveau des organismesinternationaux, tant privés que publics. Partout onessaie de mettre au point une stratégie généralede la coordination et de dégager les principes et lescritères qui doivent la commander.Il nous paraît utile aujourd'hui de soumettre àl'appréciation de nos lecteurs un exemple concretde coordination, conçue et en voie de réalisationdans une association internationale non-gouver-nementale qui se consacre à un problème bienprécis : l'éradication de la lèpre.Cet exemple pourra inspirer peut-être ceux qui sontconfrontés avec des problèmes analogues decoordination ; ils se rendront compte des difficultésà surmonter mais aussi des résultats obtenus etqui pourraient les encourager à tenter une expérien-ce similaire.

D'autre part, il y a quelque 75 pays endémiques quibénéficient de ces fonds, lesquels sont répartisentre plus de 500 centres et projets de lutte contrela lèpre.

Ill Les étapes de la coordinationII va sans dire que la coordination de ces activitéspose une série de problèmes à la solution desquelsil a fallu procéder par étapes.En voici les principales :Liste coordonnée des centres et des projetsEn premier lieu, il a fallu délimiter le terrain d' ac-tion des différentes associations, et localiser lemieux possible les 500 centres et projets soutenuspar elles. Quand on songe que les léproseries setrouvent bien souvent au fond de la brousse, là oùles noms géographiques n'existent plus guère, onconstate que le problème est de taille. Il a falluaussi éviter le double emploi dans les noms descentres à orthographe compliquée ou à adresseinextricable, comme c'est le cas dans certains paysd'Extrême-Orient. La solution a été trouvée dans unclassement décimal, comportant sept chiffres parcentre ou projet. Ces sept chiffres se décomposentcomme suit : le premier chiffre indique le continent,les deux suivants le pays, les deux suivants laprovince, région ou Etat et les deux derniers re-présentent le numéro d'ordre de chaque centre.

< Photo OMS : La lèpre est aujourd'hui une maladie comme les autres qui peut être traitée dans les centres appropriés.


Exemple : POLAMBAKKAM — 4.25.07:29 —

4 = Asie25 = Inde07 = Etat de Tamil Nadu29 = numéro d'ordre du centre

Exemple : PERAMIHO —1.85.12.02 —1 = Afrique

85 = Tanzanie12 = Région de Ruvuma02 = numéro d'ordre du centre

Ce système de localisation a mis fin à toute con-fusion et permet dans lés échanges entre le Bureaude Coordination et les membres, de préciser avecexactitude le centre ou le projet dont il est question.De plus, ce système a été conçu pour être utiliséen ordinateur. A ce point de vue, il constitue unpremier jalon dans la mécanisation de l'informa-tion.

La liste est mise au point et régulièrement tenue àjour par le Bureau de Coordination. Elle est rééditéetous les ans et envoyée aux membres de l'Elep.Petit à petit, ceux-ci utilisent cette numérotationdans leur propre classement.

Budget CoordonnéLe problème du classement des centres résolu,il a été possible de s'attaquer au problème qui,dès le début, s'était posé aux membres de l'Elep :celui du double emploi des fonds.On peut facilement imaginer que cinq associationsqui ne se connaissent pas, donnent, sans le savoir,des fonds à un même centre, pour couvrir peut-êtreles mêmes dépenses ! etc...L'élaboration d'un Budget coordonné de l'Elep arésolu ce problème. Chaque association com-munique en temps voulu ses prévisions budgétairesau Bureau de Coordination. Celui-ci, en utilisant l eclassement décimal, établit la liste des centresaidés et place en regard de chaque centre lesdons que lui destinent les différents membres del'Elep. Ainsi, d'un coup d'œil, on peut se rendrecompte de ce que reçoit chaque centre et d'oùproviennent les fonds. On a de même une vued'ensemble sur ce que reçoit chaque province,pays ou continent, etc... (voir figure n° 1).La mise au point du budget coordonné se fait entrois étapes. Il n'est pas inutile de donner iciquelques détails. Vers la mi-décembre, les associa-tions, membres de l'Elep, se réunissent en Sessionde Travail. Les échanges qui s'y font permettent àchaque association d'élaborer ses propres prévi-sions budgétaires, lesquelles constituent l'infor-mation de base qui permet au Bureau de Coordina-tion d'éditer le Projet de Budget Coordonné del'Elep.

Au printemps, au cours d'une nouvelle session deTravail, est examiné le « Projet de Budget Coor-donné » pour passer en revue tous les centresaidés et spécialement pour supprimer les doublesemplois qui subsisteraient. Paraît alors le * Budget .Coordonné Prévisionnel ». Enfin, au début del'année suivante, les associations communiquentau Bureau de Coordination la liste des dons quiont effectivement été distribués l'année précédente.Ces données permettent de publier le « BudgetCoordonné Définitif ».Techniquement, les trois versions du Budget. Coor-donné de l'Elep sont réalisées par un seul petitprogramme pour ordinateur, élaboré à partir d'uneanalyse faite par le Bureau de Coordination detoutes les données descriptives, opérationnelles etfinancières du Centre. Il a ensuite suffi de prendrecontact avec un quelconque centre d'informatiquetravaillant à façon sur ordinateur. Ce Centre a conçule programme requis.La programmation en a été facilitée grâce au clas-sement décimal des centres. Le programme, unefois mis au point, le coût de chaque édition, ycompris l'impression, ne dépasse pas 200 dollars,pour une plaquette de 20 pages avec couverture,tirée à 140 exemplaires. Ce qui revient à 600 dollarspar an. L'amortissement en deux ans des frais deprogrammation représente 100 dollars par édition.Ce qui fait, pour les deux premières années, unbudget de 800 dollars au lieu de 600 dollars.Il est difficile pour ce prix de réaliser manuellementle même travail, celui-ci comprenant la frappe, lesinnombrables calculs, les conversions monétaires(le budget coordonné est établi en dollars, alorsque le budget de chaque association est souventprésenté en monnaie locale). Par ailleurs, lesdonnées d'ordinateur sont toujours réutilisables,ce qui n'est pas le cas lorsque le travail est faitmanuellement. Enfin, le travail par ordinateur estbeaucoup plus rapide.Comme on peut s'en rendre compte aisément, cestrois Budgets Coordonnés constituent pour lesassociations, membres dé l'Elep, un instrument detravail et de référence, exceptionnel et peu coûteux.

FormulairesII va sans dire que l'utilisation des Budgets Coor-donnés ne se limite pas à la suppression du doubleemploi dans les fonds. Très vite s'est posée laquestion de l'utilisation judicieuse de ces fonds. Cequi plaçait l'Elep devant un autre problème : celuide l'information provenant des centres et de l'éva-luation des projets.Sur le plan de l'information, il était nécessaire de trouver le moyen d'obtenir les renseignements,autant que possible précis et complets, sur les

• activités des centres et leurs projets. Il fallai t, deplus, trouver un système pour communiquer

142 ASSOCIATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1971, No 34 MEMB ASSOCIA *TOTAL * COUNTRIES, * APD * TLM

*ALES *

DAHW * FFF

* AL

* DIVERS *ELEP *

CENTRES *

* *

*

*

* * * * *

42507 TAMIL NADU * * *

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4250701 ARISIPALAYAM * 13140 * * * * * * * * * 13140*4250702 ARNI * * * * 750* * * * * * 750*4250703 CHETPUT * * * 63* 47076* * * * * * 47139*4250704 CHINGLEPUT * * 120 * * * * OC 996* * * 120*4250705 DHARMAPURI * 43198* * * 18750* 5000* * FO 1000 * FL 2500* SC 35000* 106444*4250706 DINDIGUL * 3000* * * * * * FL 1000 * * * 4000*4250707 ERAIYUR * * * 205* * * * * * * 205*4250708 FATIMA NAGAR * * * * 5397* * * SC 320 * * * 5717*4250711 KARIGIRI * * 60000* * * * * * * * 60000*4250712 KARUR * * 360* * * * * * * * 360*4250713 KATPADI/CHES * * * * 3567 * * * * * 35067*4250714 KILANJUNAI * * 2400* * * * * * * * 2400*4250715 KOVILOOR * * * * * 363* * CL 2000* * * 2363*4250716 KUMBAKONAM * 15000* * 56560* 19999* 5000* 2384 * SC 10000* OC 122* * 109065*4250717 MADRAPAKKAM * * 420* * * * * * * * 420*4250718 MADRAS/BEATIT * * * * 542* * * * * * 542*4250720 MALAVANTHANGA 4000* * 5382* 5243* * * OC 1200* * * 15825*4250721 MANAMADURA * 7800* * * * * * * * 7800*4250722 MUTTATHUR * * 360* * * * * * * * 360*4250724 NEYYOOR / * 2160* * * * * * * * 2160*4250725 ODDANCHATRAH * 480* * * * * * * * 480*4250726 PAMMAL * 144* * * * * * * * 144*4250727 PEIKULAM * 2880* * 5271* * * * * * 8151*4250729 POLAMBAKKAN 7850* * * * * * CL 50* * * 7900*4250730 PULLAMBADY * * 61* 6210* 436* * * * * 6707*4250731 RAJATHANI * * 2102* * * * * * * 2102*4250732 RANIPET * 600* * * * * * * * 600*4250733 SETTIPATTY 1161* * * 55261* 254* * OC 192* * * 56868*4250734 SRIVILLIPUTTUR 440* * * * * * * * * 440*4250735 THALAVADI * * 9757* 13750* * * * * * 22507*4250737 TIRUPATTUR * * * 1250* * * * * * 1250*4250738 TUTICORIN 1040* * 2691* 3231* 910* * * * * 7872*4250740 VADATHORASSAL * 27600* * * * * * * * 27600*4250741 VELLORE CMC * 4932* 3889* 375* * * * * * 9196*4250743 VALLORE / AROKIA * * * 558* * * * * * 558*4250744 MANDIWASH * 360* * * * * * * * 360*

4250748 VELLORE MSU * * * 6272* * * * * * 6272*4250750 JALARPET * * * * * *CL 3200* * * 3200*4250799 TAMIL NADU V * * * * * *CL 1000* * * 1000*

39 CENTRES* ** **

88829***

110616***

80710***

193502***

11963***

2384*CL*NL*

6250*FO*SC*RD

1000*FL45320*SF*OC

3500**2510*

*SL*FP546584*

Figure 1.

Voici un extrait du « Budget Coordonné Définitif »> de 1969. Il concerne l'Etat de Tamil Nadu (Madras)en Inde. A gauche paraît le nom du centre, précédé de son chiffre. Une colonne est attribuée à cha-cune des six associations les plus importantes. Les autres associations figurent sous la rubrique « Di-vers ». La dernière colonne fait ressortir les totaux des dons accordés à chaque centre par les mem-bres de l'Elep.

Après la liste des centres, apparaissent horizontalement les totaux des dons distribués par chaqueassociation, le total de tous les dons faits par l'Elep au Tamil Nadu ainsi, que le nombre de centresde cet Etat.


facilement ces informations et les faire circulerparmi les associations. Enfin, les informationsrecueillies devaient permettre aux associationsd'évaluer le mieux possible les demandes d'aideet les projets.Les efforts conjugués de la Commission Médicalede L'Elep et du Bureau de Coordination ont abouti àl'élaboration de formulaires standardisés a l'usagede tous les membres de l'Elep.Ces formulaires ont été conçus de façon à faciliterle travail des centres qui doivent les remplir. Lesquestions sont posées de telle sorte que la réponsepuisse être exprimée par un oui, un non ou unchiffre. Les informations recueillies dans les for-mulaires rendent possible une évaluation du centreau point de vue valeur et efficacité du travail et aupoint de vue du coût. Par ailleurs, toutes les donnéesfournies par les formulaires peuvent être codéeset utilisées en ordinateur; ce qui offre des possibi-lités immenses.

Deux formulaires sont utilisés :

— La Demande d'Aide. Ce formulaire comprendquatre rubrique :1. Informations générales (fiche d'identifica-

tion) en 13 questions.2. Activités du centre (données sommaires) en

5 questions plus un tableau récapitulatif desdifférentes catégories des malades.

3. Financement (coût du centre ? origine desdons ? etc...) en 13 questions.

4. Demande proprement dite (description dé-taillée du projet, fonds requis, etc...)

— Le Rapport Annuel. Celui-ci comprend quatrechapitres :1. Description détaillée des activités-lèpre du

centre en 22 questions plus 5 tableaux ex-plicatifs.

2. Installations et équipement du centre en 8questions.

3. Description des activités non-lèpre en 6questions qui permettent de constater ledegré d'intégration dans les services médi-caux généraux.

4. Rapport financier (voir figure N° 2).

Les associations, membres de l'Elep, adressent,six mois à l'avance, le formulaire de Demanded'Aide. Au cours du premier trimestre de l'année,elles envoient le Rapport Annuel sur les activitésde l'année écoulée.Une copie de toutes les réponses, accompagnéed'un avis de transmission, est adressée au Bureaude Coordination. Le Bureau se charge de com-muniquer les copies aux associations concernées.Ainsi, chaque membre de l'Elep reçoit les informa-tions qui l'intéressent.

Par ce moyen, le Bureau de Coordination est àmême de constituer une documentation complètesur tous les centres.

Coordination des CentresLes informations provenant du Budget Coordonné,et surtout des formulaires-Elep, ainsi que deséchanges de vues qui ont lieu au cours des Sessionsde Travail, ont multiplié les possibilités de coopé-ration sur le terrain entre les associations, membresde l'Elep.Certaines de ces possibilités ont été codifiéescomme, par exemple, « la Coordination des Cen-tres ». Il s'agit d'un système de coordination,appliqué lorsque plusieurs associations aident lemême centre. Dans ce cas, un des partenaires peutêtre nommé « coordonnateur ». A ce titre, il secharge d'obtenir tous les renseignements désirésd'un centre, de coordonner les aides et de super-viser l'exécution du programme, au nom des par-tenaires et en accord avec eux. Ce système decoordination est parfois étendu a tout un pays.Lorsqu'un projet comporte un programme trèsimportant, surtout sur le plan financier, il est parfoisfait appel aux membres de l'Elep pour participerlibrement au financement du « Projet en Commun ».La gestion complète d'un tel projet est confiée à undes partenaires. C'est ainsi que le projet de Dhar-mapuri, dans l'Etat de Madras (Inde), dont le pro-gramme est de contrôler médicalement une régioncomportant 40.000 malades de la lèpre, est financépar sept associations dont l'une d'elles gère leprojet. La « Coordination des Centres » et les« Projets en Commun » constituent déjà des résul-tats appréciables de la coordination dans le cadrede l'Elep.

Répertoire ELEPLa prochaine étape, envisagée actuellement, estl'élaboration d'un Répertoire où figureraient tous lescentres aidés par les membres de l'Elep, et qui,pour chaque centre, fournirait — eh guise de fiched'identification — des informations chiffrées sur lesmalades, le personnel et les activités.Ce répertoire, mis à jour chaque année, permettraitd'établir des statistiques sur les activités globalesde l'Elep. Il serait possible, par exemple, de savoir,au niveau de la Fédération, combien de maladessont en traitement, combien sont guéris, combiende médecins, d'infirmières et de paramédicauxsont au service de l'Elep etc...Les formulaires fourniraient les informations néces-saires à l'élaboration de ce Répertoire, Celles-cipouvant être codées, il ne serait pas impossiblede l'établir mécanographiquement.Les formulaires, aussi bien remplis soient-ils, nesont pas toujours faciles à analyser. Ils représentent


9.9. FINANCEMENT

Prière de nous faire parvenir une copie de votre Rapport Financier pour 19 . .Si celui-ci répond aux questions posées ci-dessous, inutile de remplir le chapitre 9.

Relevé des dépenses de votre centre pour l'année civile 19 ..

/ Dépenses d 'Investissement /

d

Fonds reçusde nous d'autres

9 . 1 Bâtiments neufs(voir 6. - page 6)9 . 2 Equipement nouveauEquipement médical (voir 5.1 - page S)Equipement général (voir 5 . 4 - page 6) (mobilier)Matériel de transport (voir 5.3 - page S)Matériel pour la réhabilitation (voir 5.2 - page 5)(machines, outils, instruments, etc..)TOTAL :

/ Dépenses de Fonctionnement /c9.3 PersonnelMédecinsInfirmièresPhysiothérapeutesParamédicauxTechniciens (laborantins , cordonniers, tailleurs, etc..)Autre personnel (administratif, entretien, chauffeurs,etc..)TOTAL :

Fonds reçusLe nous d'autres

9 , 4 Frais de formation(cours, stages, bourses d'étude, etc..) (voir 4.6 - page S9.5 Fournituresmédicales (médicaments, pansements, accessoires,fournitures de laboratoire)générales (nourriture, vêtements, couvertures, e tc.. )TOTAL :

...... .

......

9 . 6 Entretien et réparationsBâtimentsEquipementMatériel de transport (essence, huile, assurances, etc .. )Entretien général (eau, électricité, nettoyage,chauffage, etc..)TOTAL :

——— ————

9 . 7 Administration(fournitures de bureau, frais de poste, expéditions, etc.)9.8 Divers

...... .

......

TOTAL GENERAL:

Figure 2.

======== ========


bien souvent une sorte de radiographie qu'il con-vient d'interpréter judicieusement. Le Répertoireconstituerait pour chaque centre, une première in-terprétation, une première synthèse.Evaluation des Projets

Ce qui amène tout naturellement à se poser laquestion : comment évaluer lés projets à la lectured'un formulaire ? Il est évident que le formulaire neconstitue qu'un moyen, en soi incomplet, parmid'autres — contacts directs, visites, etc... — pourconnaître un centre et évaluer ses besoins. Iln'empêche qu'il contient déjà des données appré-ciables permettant de faire une bonne évaluation etque, bien souvent, il en demeure l'unique moyen.Aussi, le Bureau de Coordination étudie-t-il lespossibilités d'évaluation d'un centre, à partir duformulaire qui le concerne. Cela suppose, au préa-lable, la fixation des critères et l'élaboration desformules de calcul requises. Travail de longuehaleine, qui ne peut être le fruit que de très nom-breux tests sur les formulaires et le résultat que deconsultations répétées d'experts dans le domainemédical, social, économique et mathématique. Cesdifférents éléments techniques trouvés et expéri-mentés, l'évaluation du coût/efficacité doit êtrepossible mécanographiquement pour chaquecentre ou projet.A ce stade, les Associations qui le désirent pour-ront disposer de certaines données objectives quiles aideront à prendre les décisions qui s'imposent.Il est difficile, dès à présent, de mesurer l'impac td'un système uniforme d'évaluation sur la coordina-tion pratique des activités. Il est certain que cettecoordination sera grandement facilitée, que le coûtdes projets baissera sensiblement et que leur effi-cacité s'accroîtra. Ce qui est en fait le but del'Elep. On comprendra aisément que cette dernièreétape de la coordination ne pourra être franchieque progressivement et qu'elle suppose une cer-taine mutation de la part des associations.

IV. Repercussions de la coordination surles structures et la vie de l'ElepII va sans dire que les différentes étapes de lacoordination qui ont déjà été franchies, ont eu desrépercussions sur les activités de l'ELEP et qu'ellesont modifié profondément ses structures.Au cours de cet article, il a été question à plusieursreprises du Bureau de Coordination et de la Com-mission médicale, deux organes vitaux de l'ELEPqui ont joué un rôle de premier plan dans la coor-dination.Le Bureau de Coordination est en quelque sorte lecerveau et le moteur de la Fédération, son bureaud'études, et son dispatching. C'est lui qui essen-tiellement a élaboré et mis en œuvre les moyensde coordination. Son action ne se fait sentir direc -tement qu'au niveau des associations-membres, et

encore cette action est-elle souple, laissant touteliberté à celles-ci. Le Bureau de Coordination n'estpas opérationnel et il n'entre pas en contact avecles centres. Toutes les décisions dans le domaineopérationnel sont prises par les associations, quijouissent d'une autonomie absolue. Aussi, lesrencontres, telles que les Sessions de Travailsont-elles primordiales pour le bon fonctionnementde l'Elep. Les associations y ont appris à se con-naître parfaitement et à traiter librement entre elles,le plus souvent, en dehors du Bureau de Coordina-tion. Le budget du Bureau représente 1/2, % desfonds distribués annuellement. Le SecrétaireGénéral dispose d'une secrétaire plein temps etd'une coordinatrice à mi-temps.

La Commission Médicale qui se compose de lépro-logues éminents dont l'expérience couvre l'en-semble des pays endémiques, joue également unrôle vital dans l'Elep. Bien que simple organe con-sultatif, elle a pour tâche d'élaborer les lignes deconduite dans la lutte contre la lèpre et de fixerainsi une politique commune de l'Elep, ce qui, surle plan des motivations, constitue la base de toutecoordination. Par ailleurs, les associations ont laliberté de consulter la Commission Médicale pourleurs projets et leurs programmes.Le bon fonctionnement des structures que nousvenons d'analyser succintement, a rendu possiblel'application sur le terrain des divers systèmes decoordination dont les effets se font sentir de plus enplus par la suppression de tout double emploi dansles fonds, le personnel et les activités, par unedistribution plus judicieuse des ressources auxprojets les plus valables et par le respect desgrandes priorités dans l'organisation de la cam-pagne contre la lèpre.La coordination a permis aux associations de tra-vailler plus étroitement ensemble, soit dans desprojets en commun (au nombre de 5 actuellement)où l'un des partenaires devient le gestionnaire, soitdans les centres (au nombre de 97} où un membrede l'Elep devient le coordonnateur au nom desautres. Dans 23 cas, la coordination s'est faite auniveau d'une province ou de tout un pays.Toutefois, pour bénéficier pleinement des possibi-lités de coordination que leur offre l'Elep, les as-sociations doivent elles-mêmes harmoniser petit àpetit leurs propres structures. Tâche ardue, s'il enest !Il est néanmoins permis de conclure que la voie dela coordination est exaltante par les possibilitésqu'elle offre, mais qu'elle s'avère souvent trèsétroite, car il faut se frayer un chemin entre l'in -térêt commun de toutes les associations et le respectabsolu de l'autonomie de chacune d'elles. C'est auniveau de l'action, tout le problème de la coordina-tion.

Ht ASSOCIATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1971, No 3

English Summary of the article (p. 141) :

COORDINATION WITHIN THE EUROPEANOF FEDERATION

ANTI-LEPROSY ASSOCIATIONS

— The path between the common interest of asso-ciations and the absolute respect for their autonomy.

Coordination in all its forms is a topical issue, particularlyat the level of international organizations, whether publicor private. Everywhere attempts are being made to ela-borate a general strategy together with the principlesand criteria which underlie it.

The ELEP is concerned with the problem of relating thecontributions of some 20 benevolent agencies to the needsof some 500 leprosy centres in 75 countries.

The first move was the production of a systematic listof the centres, The second was to attack the problem oftwo or more agencies contributing funds to the samecentre — in some cases to cover the same expenses.

The solution was to produce a Coordinate Budget (seeFig. 1). This done with the aid of a computer programmewhich enables the annual budget to be produced at acost of S 200 (plus printing costs for 140 copies makinga total of S 600 per year). It is difficult to produce thesame result manually for the same cost. It is also pos-sible to produce trial budgets for the examination of themember agencies.

The third move was to set up a system of standard « aidrequest > and « annual report » forms to be filled in bythe 500 centres in order to evaluate the funds requiredby each centre.

Now that such information is available several agenciesassisting the same centre may group themselves looselyand name one of their number « coordinator ». The coor-dinator is responsible for obtaining all the informationfrom the centre, coordinating aid, supervising the execu-tion of the programme in the name of the other partners,etc. — in some cases this system may extend to cover awhole country. For expensive province or country-wideprogrammes, member agencies are sometimes requestedto group themselves to finance a « joint project ».Management of such a project is delegated to one of theoartners.

Editorial note : The ELEP system in effect functions as thesort of « potential association » described in the articleon page 148.

CONGRESS SCIENCEThe following volumes give solutions to the practical pro-blems of organizing an international meeting. They formpart of the International Congress Science Series. Mostvolumes are available in English or French.

165 —168 —

168a —

185 —

198 —

200 —

207 —

208 —

204 —

900 —

218 —

International Congress Organization - Theoryand Practice. (2nd Congress of InternationalCongress Organizers and Technicians, Lausanne,1960). 120 p., Price : US $ 2.00; £ 0.90; BF 100.(French only)Congress Organizers' Manual, by Lucien R. Du-chesne, Administrative Director of Interna-tional Chamber of Commerce. 100 p., Price •US S 4; 24 /- : BF 150. (French, n° 167).Programming wall chart (120 x 80 cm). Price for3 copies : US $ 0.60; £ 0.25; BF 25.Proceedings of the 3rd Congress of InternationalCongress Organizers and Technicians, Rome 12-15 November 1962 — Audio-Visual Equipment —Associated Exhibitions — Public relations, 1 1 5 pillus., Price : US S 4; £ 1.20; BF 150. (Frenchn° 184)Practical Guide for Users of Conference Inter-preting Services, by the International Associationof Conference Interpreters. 24 p., illus., PriceUS S 1 ; £ 0.40; BF 50. (French n° 197)The Various Types of International Arrangemen;of Rooms, Equipment and Services, by G.P.Speeckaert, 76 p.. illus., Price : US S 4; £ 1.20 ;BF 150. (French n° 199)4th International Congress on Congress Organi-zation, Copenhagen, 1966. Proceedings : Typesof international meetings and material arrange-ment for them. 84 p., illus., Price : US S 4; £ 1.20BF 150. (French, n° 206)Handbook on the Organization of InternationalMedical Meetings, by the Council for Interna-tional Organizations of Medical Sciences. 123 p.,Price : US $ 5; £ 2.40; BF 225. (French. n° 209)How to take part in International Meetings : 82ideas. 12-page pocket-sized handbook for allparticipants at international congresses. Price :US S 2.50 per 50 copies/Available in French(n° 203), German (n° 216), Spanish (n° 217).Location and Economic Consequences of Inter-national Congresses, by Ejler Alkjaer and Jorn L.Eriksen, published in Copenhagen in cooperationwith the Union of International Associations.Price .: US $ 5.00 : £ 2.05; BF 250.5th International Congress on Congress Orga-nization, Barcelona, 1970. Proceedings ; In-ternational organizations and the budgetaryand economic aspects of their congresses,ca. 120 p., illus. Price : US S 7.00; £ 3.00;BF 350. (French, n° 222).


WANTED : New Types of Social EntityPart 1 : The Role of the « Potential Association »

This article is reproduced from a new UAl StudyPaper entitled : « The Next Step in Inter-Organiza-tional Relationships; the use of information,' ratherthan organization, as the foundation for the inter-organizational activity of the future. »

The fragmentation, suspicion, duplication, un-necessary competition for limited resourcesand conscious or unconscious opposition tochange and new patterns of activity which isincreasingly characteristic of interorganizationalrelations, suggests the need for a new typeof social entity.

Federations of organizations or even groupingsof individuals - as the current solution to thismalaise - are considered a potential threat tothe autonomy and freedom of action of theproposed members, unless the grouping hasa highly specific function (in which case itscoordinative power is limited). Members donot want to have things said in their nameexcept on very specific issues with their appro-val.Is it not time that we examined the assumptionthat « organizations » as we have known them- and they do not differ fundamentally fromthe first associations and limited liability com-panies that were created several centuries ago- are the only possible form of organizing so-cial activity. This is an incredible absence ofdevelopment in a society characterized, bychange in all domains.

Perhaps we could bypass the impasse in inter-organizational relations and the legal reco-gnition of such entities by creating a new typeof social entity (*),As a first suggestion, why do we not « create »(or, really, « think in terms of ») what might becalled a « potential association » (« société

(*) Equally urgent, if less obvious, is the need for equi-valent new structures or processes to relate, « poten-tially », the activity of autonomous disciplines and as adevice for catalyzing individual integration.

potentielle » in French, as opposed to « socié-té anonyme »). Such an association would,as such, not have « members » in the senseof people subsribing in common to a parti-cular set of views or being represented in anyway via any election procedure. The relation-ship would be loose - almost to vanishing point- to avoid any threat to autonomy.The bodies brought into relationship via a po-tential association would be held, or, strictlyspeaking, would hold, themselves, in thisrelationship simply by the fact that they recei-ved information, whether on a paying basis oras some form of subsidized service, from acentral point on topics of interest to them.Such centres, each functioning as the secre-tariat for a potential association, could takeany existing organizational form - the fact thateach made available information (on a sub-scription basis, for example) to a list of peopleor organizations implies no membership rela-tionship whatsoever.But, and here lies the difference from the mul-titude of information distribution operations,the secretariat would also ensure that that each« potential associate » or « subscriber »was regularly and rapidly informed of the iden-tity and degree of « interest » or « deisre toact » of other associates, with respect to eachnew subject or issue (falling within the domainof that particular potential association) onwhich he had also registered his interest (ordesire : to act, to commit funds, etc.).Each associate therefore has a comprehensivepicture, updated weekly for example, of whatnew opportunities for joint action are open tohim.On such particular issues contact between agroup of associates, self-selected from thetotal « pool » of associates, is facilitated by the

1 4 8 ASSOCIATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1971, No 3;

secretariat. This could take the form of a list(of the names and addresses of all associateswho had registered the same degree of inte-rest in a given topic) sent to each person onthe list - or this could be extended so that awilling contact person was appointed and indi-cated on the list. Such a restricted « tran-sient » group (*) may then decide quite inde-pendently on the organizational form or jointaction it has to take, if any, (i. e. whetherformal or informal, profit or nonprofit, one-offmeeting, organization, joint letter, delegation,etc.) for the period of duration of common inte-rest in the subject. The potential associa-tion's central secretariat may, in some cases,then prove to be the most appropriate admi-nistrative structure to carry out the secretariatfunction of the specialized transient group. Inother cases" a separate secretariat may becreated.

In this way the existence of the central secre-tariat is continually facilitating and catalyzingthe creation and crystallization of a multitudeof transient groups - self-selected from thetotal pool of autonomous associates and dis-solving back into the pool on completion of theactivity for which they were created. Clearlyat any one time a given associate may be, bebecoming, or coming to be, a « member » ofa number of such transient groups with diffe-rent : constitutions, degrees of formality, go-vernmental character, continuity, degrees ofpermanence, binding power over members,types of programme, etc. Such specializedgroups may result, in the normal way, in thecreation of their own information systems oradministrative apparatus - and associates mayin fact have no further relationship with thepotential association from which the transientgroup « gelled ». Associates may even thenconstitute themselves into a more specializedpotential association but at no time is the auto-nomy of the associate infringed upon withouthis direct consent on the specific issue.The potential association constitues a develop-ment which is a « hair's breadth » beyond cur-rent practice. This is encouraging in that itindicates that the novelty would not be so

(*) See : Alvin Toffler. Future Shock. London, 1970,p. 133 (transient organizations), p. 340-3 (situationalgroups).

great as to jeopardize its use. Some organi-zational techniques which are related to it are :ad hoc committees and working parties, useof mission oriented •< task forces » in com-plex organizations in order to get collaborationacross jurisdictional boundaries (this is highlydeveloped in the International Telephone andTelegraph Corporation for example), « invisiblecolleges » of scholars, natural disaster or cri-sis contact groups, « situational groups » ad-vocated for people passing through the samelife situation at the same time (*), and workinggroups of NGOs in consultative status withECOSOC (**).The differences from these techniques arehowever highly significant. Firstly, the poten-tial association is given social recognition, itbecomes a social phenomenon which can belabelled, discussed and improved upon. Atpresent the processes encompassed leadingto the crystallization of such groups occur ina very haphazard, change-dependent, ineffi-cient way (to the horror and despair of mem-bers when they finally make contact and rea-lize the effort they have wasted). No informa-tion system has yet been designed to facilitatethis type of contact - the closest approachesare the high-volume, high-cost, highly specia-lized, profile-based, journal-abstract systems.Secondly, as a distinct organizational techni-que it can be active between hitherto partial-ly or totally isolated organizations - as such it

(**) « Due to the increasing desire on the part of anumber of NGOs to combine for consultation on spe-cific matters under the consideration of the Economicand Social Council or its subsidiary bodies, slowly anew approach has been gaining ground. Without chan-ging the basic concept, the Conference agreed that itor its Bureau may act as a convenor of meetings ofconsultative NGOs who wish to meet, consult and coo-perate on specific matters. The conference or its Bureau :should however hot bear any responsibility for the actionsof the, groups thus formed. This method which is cer-tainly" capable of further and wider application is notobjectionable, provided that there is always a cleardistinction defining the competence, the action and theresponsibility of the Conference and the Bureau on theone hand, and the competence, action, and responsibilityof the cooperating groups or ad hoc committees ofNGOs on the other hand. »(A review of the Aims and Objectives and the StructuralOrganization of the Conference of NGO's in Consulta-tive Status with ECOSOC. 11th General Conference ofNGO's in Consultative Status with ECOSOC, Geneva,1969, 11/GC/19. p. 9-10)

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS; 1971, No 3 149

The Coming Adhocracy

« We are, in fact, witnessing the arrival of a neworganizational system that will increasingly chal-lenge, and ultimately supplant bureaucracy. Thisis the organization of the future. I call it « Ad-hocracy ».Man will encounter plenty of difficulty in adaptingto this new style organization. But instead ofbeing trapped in some unchanging, personality-smashing niche, man will find himself liberated,a stranger in a new free-form world of kineticorganizations. » ( p. 113 )

« Organizations now change their internal shapewith a frequency - and sometimes a rashness.that makes the head swim. Titles change fromweek to week. Jobs are transformed. Respon-sibilities shift. Vast organizational structures aretaken apart, bolted together in new forms, thenrearranged again.» (p. 113-4)

« Gardner referred to the «crises of organization»in government and suggested that, in both thepublic and private sectors, « Most organizationshave a structure that was designed to solve pro-blems that no longer exist ». The « self-rene-wing » organization he defined as one that con-stantly changes its structure in response to chan-ging needs ». (p. 1 1 8 citing John Gardner, authorof Self-Renewal. Harper, 1963; a similar view isexpressed by Donald Schon who says that someorganizational structures are very much « a series .of memorials to old problems »).

« Transient teams, whose members come together ,to solve a specific problem and then separate,are particularly a charateristic of science and helpaccount for the kinetic quality of the scientificcommunity.» (p. 121)

« Clearly, there is nothing new about the idea ofassembling a group to work toward the solutionof a specific -problem, then dismantling it whenthe task is completed. What is new is the fre-quency with which organizations must resort to suchtemporary arrangements. The seemingly permanentstructures of many large organizations, often be-cause they resist change, are now heavily infil-trated with these transient cells. » (p. 121)

«...we need to create « self-destroying organi-zations... lots of autonomous, semi-attached unitswhich can be spun off, destroyed, sold... whenthe need for them has disappeared. » (p. 122citing Donald Schon, President of the Organiza-tion for Social and Technical Innovation).« What is now within our grasp... is a kind of

productive capability that is alive with intelligence,alive with information, so that at its maximumit is completely flexible; one could completelyreorganize the plant from hour to hour ifone wished to do so. » And what is true of theplant is increasingly true of the organization as awhole. » (p. 122 citing a management consultant).« This typically bureaucratic arrangment is ideallysuited to solving routine problems at a moderatepace. But when things speed up, or the problemscease to be routine, chaos often breaks loose.It is easy to see why... It takes more informationto cope with a novel problem than one we havesolved a dozen or a hundred times before. Itis this combined demand for more information atfaster speeds that is now undermining the greatvertical hierarchies so typical of bureaucracy. »(p. 125).

« You no longer have the strict allegiance tohierarchy. You may have five or six differentlevels of the hierarchy represented in one mee-ting. You try to forget about salary level andhierarchy, and organize to get the job done. »(p. 126 citing the Director for Personnel Planningfor International Telephone and Telegraph Cor-poration).

« Quile possibly... the only truly effective methodsfor preventing, or coping with problems ofcoordination and communication in our changingtechnology will be found in new arrangments ofpeople and task, in arrangments which sharplybreak with the bureaucratic tradition ». (p. 126citing Professor Read of McGill University).« Information surges through societiy so rapidly,drastic changes in technology come so quicklythat newer, even more instantly responsive formsof organization must characterize the future.What, then, will be the characteristics of the orga-nizations of super-industrial society ? « The keyword... will be « temporary »; there will be adap-tive, rapidly changing temporary systems ».Problems will be solved by task forces composedof « relative stangers who represent a set ofdiverse professional skills ». (p. 129 citing socio-logist Warren Bennis).« Once again, there is nothing new about peopleseeking advice from one another. What is newis our ability, through the use of computerizedsystems, to assemble situational groups swiftly,to match up individuals with counselors, and todo both with considerable respect for privacy andanonymity. » (p. 343).

Extracts from : Future Shock; a study of massbewilderment in the face of accelerating change,by Alvin Toffler (London, Bodley Head, 1970;Chapter 7 is entitled « Organization : the ComingAd-Hocracy »).


increases the whole pace, potential and flexi-bility of organized activity. Thirdly, by objec-tifying the tenuous concept of a group of bo-dies or persons which could link together indifferent transient patterns under differentappropriate conditions, the need to centre at-tention on existing organizations (with theirtendency to self-perpetuate and constituteobstacles to social change) is diminished infavour of recognition of the range of potentialpatterns into which the component entities could« gel » in response to new conditions. A mea-ningful and dynamic social framework for ordi-nary organizations is thus supplied,(*).Fourthly, at a time when the need for greaterparticipation is being felt, the « société ano-nyme » can be seen as crystallized out of asystem of potential relationship between asso-ciates known (i.e. non-anonymous) to one ano-ther. Namely the transient bodies in which agiven associate does not participate are nottotally alien to him (provided they arise from the

(*) Thus whilst society may, with the use of a techniqueof this type, form a highly ordered (low entropy) com-plex at any given time - satisfying short term, stabilityrequirements - the high probability of switching to com-pletely different high order patterns at later points intime supplies the « randomness » (high entropy) conditionessential to the facilitation of social change and deve-lopment in response to new conditions. In this con-nection, note Professor Johan Galtung's view on theimportance of high entropy for world peace :

« Thus the general formula is : Increase the worldentropy, i.e. increase the disorder, the messiness, therandomness, the unpredictability - avoid the clear-cut,the simplistic blue-print, the highly predictable, the exces-sive order... Expressed in one formula, this seems tocapture much of what today passes as peace thinking,particularly of the associative variety. »

(Johan Galtung. Entropy and the general theory ofpeace. Proceedings of the International Peace ResearchAssociation, Second Conference. Assen, Van Gorcum,1968; also published as Chapter 5 of Theories of Peace,prepared for Unesco under a contract with IPRA.)In other words we have a means of ensuring high socialstability at each point in time with low predictabilityover time, or alternatively, and paradoxically, we canthink of it as a potentially (i.e. unrealizable) highlyordered situation over time which « contains » a sequenceof very disordered situations. An advantage of thisis that people and power groups cannot take upfeudalistic roles in potential structures. (In this con-nection see : Johan Galtung Feudal systems, structuralviolence and the structural theory of revolutions. Pro-ceedings of the IPRA Third Conference. Assen, VanGorcum, 1971.)

same potential association) - the alienatingeffect of an ordinary organization is thus re-duced.Note that there is no limit to the number ofassociates of a potential association - nor tothe degree of sub-division or over-lappingbetween such associations. (Limits worth amoment's reflection are perhaps constituted bythe total world population or the total numberof groups.)Two other thorny problems are bypassed :(a) legal status is irrelevant since the asso-

ciation as such, does not « exist » in thepresent in any tangible form - it only existspotentially (hence « potential association »)as a future possibility, and then only par-tially, through any of an infinite (or a leastvery large) combination of possible sub-patterns called into existence by particularconditions - it is these sub-patterns whichmay take on forms which could usefullyacquire some form of legal status for theirusually limited duration - there is howeverno need for them to « recognize » one ano-ther or be recognized by non-member asso-ciates.

(b) control of the centra] secretariat is not thecritical problem it is in the creation of anormal organization. Its operation couldeven be carried out under contract or becarried out by an organization totally dis-sociated from the transient groups which« gel » out of the potential association.Control could be in the hands of a few or allof the associates by their constituting them-selves for that administrative purpose onlyinto a limited liability group or even someform of « Committee of the Whole » (atechnique used by the United Nations Gene-ral Assembly). Alternatively, the minimumadministrative operations could be carriedout as a normal subscriber-service by perio-dicals - overlap between such services tocommon associates would merely confirmthen effectiveness.

By implication, both governmental and nongo-vermental, and profit and nonprofit, bodies atany level could be associates of the same poten-tial association. The feasibility of a given pat-tern gelling into some effective ad hoc, formalor informal, joint operation would be deter-mined by negotiation as part of the « life »

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS, 1971. No 3, 151

of the potential association in terms of the poli-tical and other constraints valid for the proposed

pattern over the period in question.(It could be instructive to speculate on the

results of constituting the many thousands ofbodies which make up the UN into a potentialassociation. The same applies to the whole

intergovernmental system, the nongovernmentalsystem and could be equally interesting at the

national and local levels).It should be clear that it is precisely this type

of method of ensuring a constant, very high andflexible interaction rate which would ensuregeneration of the maximum amount of self-coordinated new activity, commitment andinvolvement by associates of potential asso-ciations. It is this sort of approach which could

be catalyzed by the UN to increase the amountof activity related to development, peace and

other UN programme objectives. This could-be done for the local and national levels, where

the centres of interest lie, to strengthen grass-roots interaction, with the recognition that this

will build up and overflow naturally and of itsown accord onto the international level and

from the developed to the developing coun-tries. This can be achieved without the need

for the UN to be responsible for the organization,control or political implications of whatever

joint activity gels out - except where SpecializedAgency departmental participation, as an asso-ciate in a given activity, is appropriate. It isthe increase in the, absolute amount of suchinteraction which will ensure maximum colla-boration with, and support for, the sub-set con-stituted by UN programmes.What social processes, pressures or bodiescause new UN programmes to be evolved(i.e..voted) in recognition of. new problems ?Does the UN believe that-non-UN joint activitycan contribute to the achievement of UN long-term objectives without necessarily being tiedto the UN definitions of methods and priorities -if so, what needs to be done to facilitate suchactivity (as a striking opportunity for accelerateddevelopment rather than as a politico-adminis-trative problem of selective « recognition » ofappropriate organizations ?) (*)

A.J.

(*) For specific proprosals for the use of computers tofacilitate high inter- and intra- organizational interaction,see A.J.N. Judge. Information systems and inter- orga-nizational space. In : Annals of the American Academy ofPolitical and Social Science Association, Special Issue onSocial Intelligence (for Development), Winter 1970-71. Seealso : International Organizations and the Generation ofthe Will to change; information systems required. Brussels,Union of International Associations, 1970 (INF/5).

Resume français de l'article (p. 148) :

ON DEMANDE : UNE NOUVELLE ENTITE SOCIALE— le rôle de « l'association potentielle »

pourraient se réunir sur une base ad hoc pour se dis-soudre leur travail une fois terminé dans le pool généralde la société potentielle.Une telle société potentielle serait ainsi le catalyseur dela création de sociétés au sens habituel du terme, maisn'aurait pas une « existence » organisationelle qui posetoute une série de problèmes bien connus, d'ordre juri-dique ou autres.Les lecteurs français remarqueront que l'article intitulé« La Coordination dans le cadre de l'ELEP » (page 141 )décrit l'opération d'un système d'information qui fonc-tionne d'une manière similaire à ce//e d'une sociétépotentielle.

Nous signalons qu'un article en français paraîtra pro-chainement au sujet des « associations momentanées »entre les OINGs. Une société potentielle est le cadre« fictif » qui pourrait faciliter la création de telles asso-ciations.


Pour faire face aux problèmes de coordination des pro-grammes des organisations qui se veulent indépendanteset craignent tout lien qui risquerait de nuire à leur au-tonomie, il y a lieu de considérer la possibilité de conce-voir une nouvelle forme de liaison entre personnes ouorganisations — une nouvelle entité sociale qui éviteraitces problèmes.

L'auteur suggère la création d'une « société potentielle ».Une telle société n'aurait pas de membres, simplementdes « associés » qui recevraient l'information d'un servicecentral quelconque, ressemblant peut-être à un abonne-ment a une revue. Une différence cependant dans l'actionsupplémentaire du secrétariat de cette « société ». Celui-ci réunirait de la part de chaque associé des indicationssur les questions qui l'intéressent et distribuerait à chacundes listes mentionnant l'identité des autres associés ayantindiqué un intérêt pour le même sujet que lui. Cette tech-nique faciliterait la formation de groupes spécialisés qui

Part 2 : Matrix Organization and Organizational Networks

...turbulent environments require some relationship between dissimilar organizations whose fatesare, basically, positively correlated. This means relationships that will maximize cooperation andwhich recognize that no one organization can take over the role of « the other , and becomeparamount. We are inclined to speak of this type of relationship as an organizational matrix.Such a matrix acts in the first place by delimiting on value criteria the character of what may beincluded in the field specified — and therefore who. This selectivity then enables some definableshape to be worked out without recourse to much in the way of formal hierarchy among mem-bers.

(F.E. Emery and E.L. Trist. The Causal Texture of Organizational Environments.)

The potential association technique is closely rela-ted to a technique used to handle complex multi-disciplinary projects, such as the effort to get a manon the moon. Projects of equivalent complexity arethe essence of development and the regenerationof urban areas, for example. This new technique,of proven worth, is known as the project or ma-trix organization.

The success of the program to get a man on themoon is not only a technological triumph. « Apollo11 has been referred to as the most complicatedpiece of hardware ever conceived by man. The mindboggles when one tries to envision the total con-figuration of this undertaking from the millions ofhardware parts through to the actual mission flightencompasses a world-wide communications net-work. The managerial dimensions of the task arestaggering .... The administrative-managementsegment is perhaps less glamorous, and is proneto be overshadowed during the elation of ac-complishment, but it is one that plays a vital rolein achievement » (*).Development, peace and environmental problemsare coming to be perceived as enormously complex— whether they are as complex as the task ofgetting a man to the moon is not yet clear. Manypeople would have wished that the resourcesdevoted to the Apollo project could have beendiverted into development type programs. Butwhatever one's views of the significance of theApollo project and criteria of success, there isno reason why the technique used to manage thiscomplex multidisciplinary program should not beexamined for relevance, as a technique, to theproblem of relating the many organizationsworking to solve different aspects of the popula-tion-food-health-environment-peace crisis.

(*) W. Litzinger, A. Mavrinac, and J. Wagle. The MannedSpacecraft Center in Houston; the practice of manage-ment. Revue Internationale des Sciences Administratives1970, 36, p. 2-8.

The management techniques developed by NASAare unorthodox because they must tie together :fundamental research on new approaches, de-velopment of research insights into realistic projects,contracting out aspects of the research , developmentor manufacturing programme (to industry, univer-sities, governmental agencies, professional associa-tions, etc.) programme initiation, programme imple-mentation, coordination of the programmes of amaze of semiautonomous departments and institu-tions, human relations of a high order to blendtogether creative talent, highly individualistic andsensitive to réstrictions to their autonomy in theirarea of expertise, and external relations (with the

The points made here concerning the NASA mana-gement concepts are based on the article by W.Litzinger, A. Mavrinac and J. Wagle entitled « TheManned Spacecraft Center in Houston; the prac-tice of management » (Revue internationale dessciences administratives, 1970, 36, p. 2-8). Thecriticism of traditional models of the disseminationof policy and other information is based on the1970 BBC Reith Lectures given by Donald Schon,President of the Organization for Social and Tech-nical Innovation (« The Listener », November-December 1970, BBC Publications, 35 MaryleboneHigh street, London W1M 4AA; a book by DonaldSchon « Beyond the Stable State », London, Mau-rice Temple Smith Ltd, May 1971, will develop thepoints made in the lectures ). We strongly recom-mend that anyone concerned with the future ofinternational organization study Donald Schon'sviews. They seem to be a key to the solution of theproblems of the relationship between internationalgovernmental and nongovernmental organizations.It is only to be regretted that so many people ofhis calibre concentrate primarily on the problems ofnational organizations. Why are the views of suchpeople never evident in the « Jackson Reports » ?This article is reproduced from a new UAI StudyPaper entitled « The Next step in Inter-Organiza-tional Relationships; the use of information, ratherthan organization, as the foundation for the inter-organizational activity of the future ».


Figure 1

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general public, the press, government, industry, theacademic community, and special interest groups).At the same time priorities and organizationalpatterns are constantly changing. To succeed in thiscomplex situation necessitates the abandonment ofmost of the standard rules of management practice.Each of the features noted above is present in theelaboration of development-peace-environment-food programmes. It is therefore probable thatthe NASA techniques may contain importantclues for the improvement of such programmes.But programmes depend for their final success (inproblem-solution rather than administrative perfor-mance terms) on the participation of many peoplefrom different backgrounds, organizations (e.g.,government, industry, universities, professional as-sociations, youth groups, etc.), and disciplines(economics sociology, psychology, management,statistics, agriculture, communications, etc.) withinprogramme frameworks which are as unrestrictiveon decentralized initiative as is feasible.Consider some of the elements of the NASA philo-sophy. NASA decided that it would act as technicalmanager of a government-contractor-university-team rather than be the designer and manufacturerof its various requirements — namely a team effortbetween essentially different types of organization.This meant an emphasis on contracting out workto non-NASA controlled bodies (whether govern-ment, industry, university or professional associa-tion).

Matrix Organizational Structure.A very important decision was the switch to theconcept of a « matrix organizational structure » incontrast to the traditional hierarchial,one-man-one-boss structure. Within this new structure, eachparticipating body — whether controlled by NASAor not — is considered to be at the intersection of.influences from other parts of the structure anditself in turn influences several others. It is asystem which tends to diminish the visibility of

authority and to emphasize consensus as an opera-tive mode. Every participating organization or de-partment is therefore at the point of intersection ofcompeting forces with each part giving particularexpression to the overall system's goal. Operatingdecisions are part of the give and take of specializedunits struggling for a share of the system's totalresources.

A key part of matrix management is the presenceof elements with the power of precise decision,able to freeze the dialogue of decisionmaking at adhoc points. In place of a rigid hierarchy and thepressure to conform to directives from the top,matrix management tries to substitute operatingunit drive for expression within a climate of mutualrespect united around fundamentals.

Why the expression « matrix » organization ? Con-sider a simple example in Fig. 1.

The project is divided into 5 Phases and requiresthe participation of 10organizationsofvarioustypes.Organizations participate to a different degree atdifferent Phases. At each Phase there is a problemof coordination between the participating bodies.Between Phases there is the problem of ensuringcontinuity. Phases may of course overlapone anotheror run in parallel. In a real case several departmentsfrom each organization might be involved at different.Phases, and there would probably be many morePhases. The matrix would be very much larger.In a matrix organization each Phase has its owncoordinating body which exists only for the durationof the Phase. The manager of the coordinating bodyhas no formal line of authority over the participatingfunctional units — but he does have deterministicauthority over the units which do participate. Withinthe project as a whole, therefore, the activities ofone participating body are coordinated by severalsuch bodies — the one-man, one-bose approach isdropped — with the result that the span of controlbecomes very large.


NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATIONMANNED SPACECRAFT CENTER

Houston, Texas

« Issues like human relations, trust, people under-standing one another — which we used to think ofas the frills of a business organization — nowbecome absolutely central. When TRW Systems wasrunning the Minuteman project, the heads of eachof the resource pools and of the projecting groupmet together for an hour at eight o'clock everymorning, every day of the week. Not because theywere nice fellows or thought that human relationswere a good thing, but because the informationalcomplexity of running a matrix was so great thatwithout that sort of meeting they couldn't manageat all. »

(Donald Schon. BBC Reith Lectures 1970. TheListener, 3 December 1970, p. 774).

Each organizational unit can therefore be seen asan area of tension between the forces of integrationand fragmentation which cut through the system.Matrix management attempts to enhance boththese tendencies.

Disintegration tendencies derive, in a development-environment-food problem example, from : the« economists » responsibilities to propose me-chanisms to improve the availability of funds todeveloping countries. Similarly « human rightsNGOs » must focus on the social aspects and con-sequences of development. The « peace resear-chers » must attempt to isolate factors whichhinder moves towards the reduction in interna-tional tensions and an increase in world stability.

The « medical organization » must attempt tostrees the importance of health in relation to de-velopment, pollution and malnutrition. The « purescience bodies » must stress the importance ofnew understanding of ecology, control of naturalphenomena, etc. The « mass media bodies »must stress the importance of informing and edu-cating the general public on their responsibili-ties. And so on.Each such autarky — and it is as such that NASAviews many of its sub-systems — is however relatedto the others. Certain unifying techniques are pro-vided. These have been well illustrated by the con-trast between the traditional formal organization(one-man-one-boss) structure as shown in Fig. 2and the new diagrammatic representation as inFig. 3. In the NASA case, the first is judged as nolonger reflecting the reality of the matrix environ-ment. The second is considered to be a closerapproximation to the management dynamics. Thisis more than a « space age » portrayal of a struc-tural-functional system. Just as the components ofour own social system are held in juxtaposition bythe forces of nature, so also does each « planet »in the matrix organization owe its position to morethan just gravitational interaction with the « sun »or its « moon(s) ». Each planet interacts with allcomponents of the system to bring about a balanceor stability which serves to maintain the system.But is this solar system diagram relevant to theproblems of interrelating IGOs, INGOs, Multinational


Figure 2.

Reproduced from : W. Litzinger, A. Ma-

cecraft Center In Houston; the practice

des sciences administratives, 1970, 36,p. 2-8.

corporations, Governments, National bodies,etc. ?There never has been any question that they couldall be considered as linked within some overallstructure with formal lines of authority such as inFig. 2. Even in the case of limited groups of organi-zations the formal lines of authority are practicallynon-existant — this is one of the greatest « weak-nesses » of international organization.

Solar System ModelBut suppose that instead of focusing on the formallines of authority we look at the flows of information,resolutions and law, namely the information whichregulates — directly or indirectly — activities withinthe world system. We could perhaps draw out somesort of rigid hierarchy with the United Nations at thetop. Each line would then represent some flow ofregulative information. But just as in the NASA casethis could not be considered an adequate picture ofthe way such processes actually work. In particular,many organizations would not wish to think ofthemselves as beholden to others — there is a muchgreater impression of autonomy and freedom ofaction. In addition, we can not clearly see how in-formation flows from the UN down to the nationallevel — the lines in the « world organization chart »are not all known. In many cases the informationflow lines can be only dotted in. We are dealing witha system of autarkies.It is therefore much more useful to think of theorganic relationship between all the organizationalelements of the world system as based on the solarsystem model. Each area of interest functions quiteindependently within its own « planetary » orbit,together with its own sub-interests in their respec-tive « lunar » orbits.Each body influences every other body, just as thegravitational influence of each planet influencesevery other planet. Stability is maintained becauseall bodies revolve about a common central point.But in the case of the world system there is no bodywhich sits at the central position as a meeting pointor origin for coordinative information. For some a« world government » would take this central posi-tion. For others a governmental structure organizedin terms of the concepts current in national govern-ment would be a disaster. This position can there-fore be considered a future or potential development— an idea for which we do not yet have an ade-quate organizational form. This approach does nothowever prevent us from treating this common (or« virtual ») point as the centre of a solar systemmodel. (The « inhabitants » of a particular body donot have to think of it in these terms — just as it ispossible for someone on the surface of the Earth tosay both « the Sun rises » and « the Earth revolvesaround the Sun ».)

As a first attempt at organizing thinking in theseterms, governmental, business-industry, and non-profit-academic organizational forms have beentreated as three planetary systems in Fig. 4. Thistherefore stresses the importance of the equilibriumbetween the three basic types of organizationpresent in the social system.To include more details, we can now treat each ofthese planets as a solar system in its own right.The first treated in this way is the governmentalsystem shown in Fig. 5. This stresses the geogra-phical territorial aspect of the coordination problem.Namely that the planets closer to the centre re-present the most coordinative bodies (e.g. the UnitedNations). Further out, the smaller regional inter-governmental organizations are shown, then thenational governments, then local governments.The second system is that of the non-governmental,non-profit organizations. This is shown in Fig. 6.Again the non-existent « plenary conference » ofall international nongovernmental bodies is shownat the centre — this is a potential or future de-velopment for which the adequate organizationalform and function had not yet been evolved. In thenearest orbits around this move the various coor-dinating conferences of INGOs. These have differentdegrees of substantiality, depending upon whetherthere is an organization with a secretariat, a commit-tee with no secretariat, or merely an infrequentmeeting. Each of these bodies may of course haveits own « moons » in the form of sub-committees orworking parties. In this case, the larger the orbit ,the more specialized and limited is the coordinativefunction in both geographical and subject areaterms.A similar attempt could be made to sketch out thebusiness-industry complex in terms of a solar sys-tem model. Significant features would be the mul-tinational corporations, world trade centres, etc.In each case we now have a way of looking at amaze of independent and semi-autonomous bodies.In each case the important point is that this approachshows how justified each body is in consideringitself independent — but at the same time attentionis drawn to the extent to which each body is relatedto others. It is a truism to say that everybody isdependent upon everyone else in society, but wehave enormous difficulty in balancing this integra-tive concept against our individually felt justificatio nfor a sense of independence and freedom. This iswhat a solar system model accomplishes. It ba-lances centrifugal and centripetal forces, justifyi ngboth.In a rapidly changing society one must expect thefeatures of the solar system model to evolve. Poten-tial structures which have acted as focal points maytake on an organizational form. Existing planets


Figure 4.

SUGGESTIVE OUTLINE SKETCH

M AP OF WO RLD S Y S T E M

(BASED ON A SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL)

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS , 1971 , No 3 159

IGO = Intergovernmental organization,INGO = International nongovernmen-tal organization (non-profit).BINGO = Business INGO (Multinatio-nal corporation).

Figure 5.

S UG G E S T IV E O U T L I N E SK E T CH

M A P OF GOVERNMENTA L SYST EM

160 ASSOCIATIONS INTERNACIONALES 1971, No 3

cease to be considered useful and may disintegrate_ « releasing » any dependent bodies (which re-tain their usefulness) to gravitate into some neworbit. A solar system model can * contain » concep-tually and portray such social dynamism in a veryadequate manner.Another important feature of the model is that itcan suggest or draw attention to the possibility ofnew structures and thus speed up evolution of thesocial system to new forms.

The solar system model can be interpreted inanother way. If two bodies are placed close togetheron the model, then communication between them —the transfer of new concepts and information on newproblems — will be relatively easy compared to thecase where the bodies are far apart on the model.Increased distance means increased difficulty incommunication.

This is a very important point because there is atendency to treat the centre of any such social systemas the « controller » of all « dependent » bodies.From this it is just one step to suggesting that thecentre should instruct all dependent bodies on theaction they should take under any given set of cir-cumstances.

This view completely loses sight of the fact thatprecisely because bodies on the periphery are notat the centre they have a better understanding ofproblems developing in their sector. And it is be-cause such peripheral bodies feel that they shouldmodify their own actions to respond to the problemsthey detect, before the centre has registered theimportance of these problems (due to the communi-cation lag) that the peripheral bodies feel justifiedin stressing the importance of a high degree ofautonomy. The centre just does not respond tocrises quickly enough, on top of which it is usuallyso over-burdened — when attempting to controleverything — that it is not sensitive to informationon « minor » (from its own perspective) crises. Theseare therefore allowed to grow, until the centre canrecognize the crisis as worthy of its attention withdisastrous consequences to the peripheral bodiesin the sector in question. A more organic approachsees the peripheral bodies handling all the problemsto which they can respond effectively, only re-ferring to more central bodies when the problemoverflows their sector.

The centre-periphery or solar system model hasrecently been criticized by Donald Schon (BBC ReithLectures, 1970. Published in « The Listener », No-vember-December, 1970.) in a very interesting waywhich throws much light on the direction in whichforms of organization can expect to develop.

He is concerned with social changes and changesin institutions, as a consequence of the spreading of

something, whether it be a new product, a newconcept, a new technology, or a new type of insti-tution. Social change becomes a by-product of thediffusion of information.He argues that society's diffusion systems changeover time and evolve and that this evolution is ab-solutely critical to how it is that society works andthat management of the society depends on ourability to spread things in it, for novelty to arise atpoints and then to spread throughout the rest ofsociety.

He takes as a classic model of the diffusion processthe solar system with a centre and a periphery to itIn following his criticism it is important to note thathe is only concerned with the analogy to the diffu-sion of « light » from the sun as centre point. He isnot concerned with the analogy to the « gravita-tional » influence of each body (whether at thecentre or not) on every other body, as is the case inthe NASA solar system model.In the case of international organizations, the centrein the following argument could represent either theinternational NGO (with its members or its public asthe periphery), the United Nations system (withnational organizations and the general public as theperiphery). The « novelty » is peace or development-oriented thinking.

In the limited model, which he criticizes, the noveltyto be spread is at the centre and the potentialadapters or users of the novelty are at the periphery.This is the model of diffusion that is practised in theclassroom. It rests on a series of assumptions :— that which is to be diffused or spread exists

before the spreading begins— the growth or spreading of new things takes

place by the movement of these things out fromthe centre to a periphery

— that which is spread is a product or a technique

The model has certain limits built into it :— only a certain amount of energy or resources

can be concentrated at the centre (i.e., the centredoes not have the time and energy to do every-thing all the time)

— depending on the number of points on the peri-phery, the distance from the centre to theperiphery, the effectiveness of the communica-tion system between centre and periphery, thework that must be done by the centre to get theperiphery to accept novelty may be considerablyincreased

— the ability of the system to function is dependenton how well the feedback mechanism works.Namely the centre must respond to informationfrom the periphery, modify its own behaviour inconsequence and transmit new information backto the periphery.


Figura 6.

SUGGESTIVE OUTLINE SKETCH

HA P OF NON -GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM

(BASED ON A SOLAR SYSTEM MOPEDINGO = Internationa!nongovernmentalorganization.NGO = National nongovernmentalorganization.


« Proliferation of Centers » Model.A modification of the simple centre-periphery modelhas been developed in response to these limitations.Schon calls this the proliferation-of-centres model.In this case the original primary centre is replicatedso that a new kind of centre is now created in themiddle and a series of miniature centre-peripherymodels now operate on the periphery. He cites asan example the Roman Army in which the primarycentre in Rome trains and develops the capabilityof the colonies to function as secondary centres. Inthis way the scope of operation is enormously in-creased. Whereas previously activity was boundedby the distance to the periphery and the resourcesof the centre, now new centres can be replicated atconvenient distances from the periphery, pushingthe limiting boundary further away from the originalcentre.The replication is not perfect, however, and suchsocial structures tend to fail when the peripheryand secondary centres get out of control — thetraditional conflict between the centre and theregion or branch. But as Schon says :

« Perhaps the major source of failure in the proli-feration-of-centres model has to do with the rigidityof central doctrine in relation to what's going on atthe periphery. You have what looks, after the fact,like the stupidity of the Third International with res-pect to revolution according to the likes of eachcountry, the stupidity of the Church, for example, inthe delays they practised before allowing the liturgyto be Chinese in China, the stupidity of Coca-Colawhich for a long time insisted on providing brownliquid for Africans when Africans didn't l i ke brownliquid : they liked orange liquid. The need to modifythe central message according to the requirementsand the lights of the periphery poses great pro-blems for the proliferation-of-centres system, be-cause the whole structure of the system, its effec-tiveness, depends upon the simplicity and the uni-formity of that message.

It is apparent that such systems were not organizedto be sensitive to change. Schon notes however thatthey did adapt, and « learn », but only in spite offorces opposing such adaptation :

« The great proliferation-of-centres models of thelate 19th and early 20th centuries turn out to havebeen learning systems in spite of themselves. Thatis to say, when change occurred which was respon-sive to the special conditions which obtained at theperiphery, the centre always found it necessary todisengage, to react against that change, no matterhow adaptive the change may have been. The overallpattern runs roughly this way. A primary centreemerges, it develops a diffusion system, it replicates.itself in many secondary centres. The primarycentre specialises in the creation and managementof secondary centres and in the management of theoverall network, and then the diffusion systemfragments, the centre loses control, the network

disintegrates, the secondary centres gain indepen-dence, or they decline, or they themselves assumethe role of primary centre. The reasons for thatdecline or lor that disintegration may be several.I'hey may have to do with the limits of the infra-structure, the limits of the technology for the flowof information if the centre can't reach the outpostsadequately. They may have to do with a constrainton the centre's ability to manage that complexity.They may have to do with the motivations of theagents of diffusion. »

Schon contrasts this model which is currently usedin most large organizational systems, whethergovernmental, business or nonprofit, with a modelwhich he describes as being pioneered by certaintypes of « business-system » corporations and theyouth-peace-civil rights movement in the U.S.A. Inthe latter case, for example, there is no clear centre— or rather a shifting centre, and no stable mes-sage. Theories arise spontaneously, modify them-selves and bear only a family resemblance to oneanother. Nothing is radiating out from one centre toa periphery.

« It's a kind of amoeba, with very unclear bounda-ries, with no clear centre, with no clear structure, butwith a very powerful, informal, interpersonal net-work that pulls the whole thing together. And notonly does it survive, but it turns out to be darn nearinvulnerable, and its invulnerability in part dependson precisely those ways in which it is different fromthe centre-periphery model. There is no clear, stablecentre, nothing to strike at. »

Such social organization depends very heavily uponthe existence of a highly effective communicationssystem but also upon the « strange and wonderfulnetworks of interpersonal connection stretching overthe entire nation which enable the pieces of thissystem to connect together. »The movement and the business-systems firm aretherefore highly able to transform themselves withoutdisruption and to modify their behaviour in responseto the requirements of changing situations — despitethe fact that they are apparently the most anti-thetical to one another, their methods of organiza-tion appear to be converging upon a common or-ganizational structure :

« The classical models for the diffusion of innova-tion took a product or a technique as the unit to bediffused. The business systems firm and the youthmovement are biased toward a functional system ofthought and action as the unit to be diffused. Theclassical model is a centre-periphery one; thebusiness-systems firm and the social movementsassociated with youth and Vietnam have a patternof systems-transformation which is not centre-periphery. The classical model has a fixed centreand clearly defined leadership; the youth movementand the business-systems firm both tend to haveshifting centres and ad hoc leadership as the re-quirement arises. The earlier system had relativelystable messages and a pattern of application of a


A NEW ECUMENICAL GEOMETRY PROPOSED

Whilst preparing the article on « Matrix Organi-zation and Organizational Networks » for printthe editors were delighted to discover that oneinternational nongovernmental organization wasalready applying the solar system type model des-cribed in the article to its own area of specialconcern. Meeting in Addis Ababa in January, the120-member 24th Central Committee meetingof the World Council of Churches « countered theinstitutional and financial crises of the Churchwith speeches, statements and declarations thatshould usher in a new chapter of the modern ecu-mencial movement. »The report of the Chairman of the Central Com-mittee, Dr. M.M. Thomas, Director of the Chris-tian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society

At Uppsala and since, we have been discussingthe relation between the horizontal and verticaldimensions in the work of the World Council ofChurches. I think the horizontal work has allbeen done now.But it seems to me that another figure from geo-metry which has been employed from time totime in WCC discussions is more meaningful —that of the centre and the other paris of the circle,such as for example the radii, which extend fromthe centre and are kept in place by the centripeta,pull of she centre, and at the same time expressor define the centre, and the periphery whereeverything is seeb as marginal. So the questionswe would ask are :

(i) What is the centre or central concern of thefellowship in thought, life and activities of(he World Council ?

(ii) Do the many aspects of the life of the Coun-cil radiate from and express this centralconcern, and if so how ?

(iii) Do some activities of the Council give undueimportance to things which are marginal ?

These are questions which are being raised by theworld outside the World Council constituencyand sometimes, as in the recent past, by parts ofthe WCC membership itself. We should be gratefulto them, for these are questions the Central Com-mittee must ask itself as it seeks to evaluate thepolicies it lays down and the programmes it asksthe Executive Committee and the staff to imple-ment.

in Bangalore (India) is of particular interest.Extracts (including the heading above) are pro-duced below from the Ecumencial Press Service's« This Month ».We leave it to readers to judge the problems ofthe approach mentioned by Dr. Thomas in thelight of the views on the solar system model exa-mined in the article. The WCC is concerned withthe progressive definition of a « centre » as aconcept around which everything revolves, thediffusion of the message from the centre, therelationship of its member organizations to thatcentre, the need to permit them full autonomy andfreedom to explore and respond to the problemsthat they detect, and the need to establish relation-ships with organizations « beyond the periphery ».

The distinctions between the centre, the radius andthe periphery become, increasingly important asthe Council seeks, under the mandate of theUppsala Assembly, to enlarge the circle, on theone hand, and to become more militant on theother.The Council, which began with an overwhelmingpredominance of churches of the established Pro-testant traditions from Western Europe and NorthAmerica, has now in its fold not only most of theOrthodox churches and many of the churches ofAfrica, Asia and Latin America related to establis-hed Protestant missions but... churches which aredeeply oriented toward indigenous African cultureand for Pentecostal spirituality. This expansionof membership has brought into the circle of theWorld Council the human hopes and despair ofthe countries and cultures in ail parts of the wideworld in the midst of which the churches struggleto witness to their faith and life in Christ. This iswhat I mean by the enlargement of the circle.Allong with this has come to the World Councilmembership, as expressed through the assemblies,a new sense that the Council should not merelybe engaged in the study of comparative ecclesiolo-gy, comparative theologies of mission and compa-rative social ethics as in the, churches, but alsomust seek together to define more precisely inthe light of common faith their common goatswith regard to unity, witness and service, andwithin certain limits make the Council itself aninstrument of the churches for mutual help andefforts to realize these goals...

164 ASSOCIATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1 9 7 1 , No 3

The Centre

Obviously, the centre of the Council is given inits Basis, according to which the WCC is « a fel-lowship of churches which confess the Lord JesusChrist as God and Saviour according to the Scrip-tures and therefore seek to fulfill together theircommon calling to the glory of the one God,Father, Son and Holy Spirit ». The fellowship ofchurches which we are is centred in our commonconfession of faith in Jesus Christ and our glorifi-cation of the Triune God... The central concernis theological — not in the sense of a reality apartfrom our total life, but of one which expressesitself in the pull which it exerts on the totality —Christ-centred and therefore seeking and action.The new theological advance here is that theprinciple of catholicity is offered as criterion notonly of the life of the the Christian communitybut also of the life of all mankind. Thus the WCCsees that il is committed, in its central confessionof Christ and his Church and as one of its essen-tial constituent aspects, to a new ethics of catho-licity by which « we must judge and repudiatetragic distortions of humanity in the life of man-kind ».

It is this faith-ethics commitment that Uppsalaconsidered the very centre of the Council's fellow-ship, because the unity of mankind is « part andparcel of God's own relevation ». This is behindthe suggestion mooted at Uppsala that churcheswhich deny the ethics of world community shouldbe considered guilty of heresy — not just of moralheresy but of clear theological heresy. And itseems to me that some Christians and probablysome member churches may be finding it difficultto understand the centrality of this theologicalfocus... All the programmes of study and actionin the World Council today are attempts to clarifythe nature of this dialectical theological centreto which we are committed...

The Radii

Recently many parts of the constituency of ourmember churches have been in serious dialoguewith traditional or emerging cultures and religions.The Asian and African churches, as they havegrown to maturity and become new united chur-ches or come together in regional councils, havebeen awakened to the need for shaking loose fromthe Western confessions and for finding new waysof confessing and communicating the faith and of

expressing their common life in terms of thethought-forms and life-forms of indigenous cul-tures, which have been traditionally shaped byreligious visions other than that of Christianity,and which are now being reshaped by the impactof secular ideologies and Christian ideas. Thesechurches are also called upon to participate inthe building of their nations and to work forcommon social and political goals in active coo-peration with people organised in other religiouscommunities and with parties and groups for-med around secular ideologies.Similarly in Europe and the Americas the chur-ches have been compelled to enter into dialoguenot only with the growing secular culture butalso with the secular humanistic faiths of both libe-ral and Marxist persuasions which infuse it...

Beyond the Periphery

Recently the World Council has organised underits own auspices conversations on faith and poli-tics with world Jewry, Muslims and Marxists.And as authorised by Canterbury, a consultationof Christians with representative Hindus, Budd-hists and Muslims was organised at Ajaltoun toexplore questions of inter-religious dialogue onMan and his temporal and ultimate destiny inthe context of the struggle for world communityand increasing inter-religious contacts. Followingit, a consultation of theologians at Zurich evalua-ted Ajaltoun and explored the Christian theologyof dialogue.. . . I would say that the only effective answer tosyncretism (understood as confusion between theliving God and idols at the spiritual centre) is aproprer positive theological approach to indigeni-sation, cooperation and dialogue. And here morethan in any other field we need to define thecentre of our faith, where Jesus Christ as Godand Saviour is alone ultimate and excludes allother gods and saviours and schemes of salvationwhether religions or secular, at the same timedistinguishing the ultimate Centre from the penul-timate area of symbols, ideologies, values, insti-tutions and experiences of Christianity, otherreligions and secular ideologies where interpéné-tration is necessary and possible and where ourconcern is to see how they may be redeemedfrom the spirit of idolatry and selfrighteousnessand from the inhumanity arising from them andtransformed into expressions of the Humannmand the common humanity of ail men in Christand bearers of the faith, life and message of theChurch...


central message; the latter ones have evolvingmessages. The earlier systems were limited in theirscope by resources and energy at the centre andby the capacity of the spokes; the latest systemsare limited only by the qualities of the technologicalinfrastructure of the time. The reason I dwell atsuch length upon this development is that I think itcontains within it the seeds of what it means to bea learning system in our time. »

Schon then uses these ideas about organizationalstructures as learning systems to look at governmen-tal structures, namely the third basic type of organi-zation. He first notes that one negative but notentirely inappropriate way of looking at governmentagencies is as a series of memorials to old problems.As a general rule agencies come into being aroundproblems that are perceived as critical problemsand then go on living long after those problems havebeen solved or become insignificant.

The « learning » systemPublic organizations have proved singularly inept atresponding to new situations — in functioning as alearning system. Any problem that can be namedhas a number of very interesting ideas for its solu-tion. The difficulty has been that of carrying outany policy for social change to respond effectivelyin terms of such solutions. Schon scotches the ideathat inability to respond has been due to the lack ofcommitment to the needed programmes in that onecould equally well argue that the failure of thesepolicies and our inability to implement them, restson a radically inadequate theory about the processof implementing any policy. The current theory ofpublic learning is based on the following :

— that the issues and problems are given, that weknow what they are, and although we may in-vestigate them, the investigation does not usuallytake into account the process by which theissues came to be perceived as important inthe first place;

— that it is possible to make a radical distinctionbetween the formation of a policy and its im-plementation;

— that the process by which a policy comes to beimplemented is a centre-periphery process withgovernment disseminating policy from its centrepoint;

— that policy, once developed, can remain steadyover a long period of time which permits aspectsof the policy to be handled by compartmentalizedunits which correspond to the departments andagencies of government, namely one-agency-one-policy;

Against this theory he raises three questions :— how do ideas come into good currency, how do .

issues come to be powerful for action, how dowe decide what needs to be worked on ?

— how can government change in response to anew problem ?

— how can government go about developing andcarrying out a policied solution to a new problemwhen it is clear that the problem has to beworked on but it is not clear what the solutionis, and when no solution is going to be adequatefor more than a short time ?

As an example he cites the problem of the citiesand notes that no governmental agency in the U.S.A.is not involved in this problem. Namely the problemfragments the existing pattern of agencies with eachagency tackling that aspect of the problem relevantto its own concerns. The same is true of developmentand intergovernmental agencies. Another exampleis the current problem of the environment. Thecurrent solutions to this difficulty are :

— to form inter-agency committees, which accor-ding to Schon have never been known to workand quickly fall victim to the baronial instinctsof the various agencies so coordinated;

— to reorganize and consolidate the system ofagencies, which again falls victim to the tempta-tion for each modified agency to continue tofunction in the old way but under new headings,each with the support of its traditional consti-tuency;

— to create a new agency, but if the number of newproblems found to be serious each year is in-creasing this will lead to a proliferation of agen-cies, particularly if there is only an ineffectivemechanism for dissolving them;

— to create a series of pools of competence whichare relevant to the implementation of policy ina broad sense. These would be drawn upon on atemporary basis by project organizations suchthat people and resources move effectivelybackwards and forwards between their pools ofcompetence and project organizations as theyare created and dissolved for the life-cycle of aproblem. This is in effect a description of onevariety of the matrix organization describedearlier.

It has the advantage that it permits loyalty to andidentity with government at a very high level ofaggregation or generality, i.e., not to a depart-ment but possibly to the national government perse. The movement of people in and out of spe-cific projects helps to avoid over-identificationwith a given organization with all its consequen-ces for the creation of organizational memorialsto dead problems. This is a problem for the UNto consider.

The information system which Schon points outwould be necessary to help identify the newproblems and draw together the appropriateteam makes this type of social organization

166 ASSOCIATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1 9 7 1 , No 3

resemble the potential association describedearlier. There is one important difference however.In this case the information system is still con-trolled from the centre. It is the centre whichidentifies which problems are critical and thendecides which competence pools should bedrawn upon. In the case of the potential assoc-iation, no such centre exists.

Schon notes that the centre can disseminate policyin a number of ways :— the policy may be promulgated;— the policy may take the form of a law that is en-

forced;— resources may be made available which en-

courage the actuel implementation by agencieswishing to obtain funds;

— government may formulate policy and inviteparticipation — funding the regions or agencieswhich do and depriving those that do not.Schon noted that this is the principal methodused in the U.S.A.

The weakness of the centre-periphery model asused by government and the United Nations is illus-trated by Schon's example of a U.S. Federal Govern-ment programme to ensure the dissemination of thelatest medical expertise to practising physicians in55 regions, are :— the actual goals of the regional agencies are in

fact different from these of the central -agencyand they therefore used the allocated funds intheir own ways with some degree of consciousor unconscious subterfuge on the part of theregional agencies;

— it was discovered that the effects of large-scalemedical insurance might not be to assure carebut to increase medical cost;

— no region was found to be like any other regionand it was difficult to modify the programmeadministration to handle each case on its ownterms;

— each region had to be regarded as open-ended,namely there was no model of medical care thatcould be imposed and could last for any region.

There could therefore be no central policy.

« All one could say was that there were certainthemes of policy — themes, for example, like theshortage of medical manpower. The generation ofcentral policy had to be inductively derived from theregions, and regions became developers of varia-tions upon policy themes. The centre couldn't there-fore go out and evaluate what the regions weredoing according to any central model. They couldonly press the regions to develop evaluation systemsof their own which were appropriate to their ownpolicies. The centre could pull the regions togetherin a kind of learning network so that they couldlearn from one another in their own efforts to carryout transformations of the system of medical care.

Now the regional medical programme — not as ilwas conceived but as it developed — has begunto be a learning system for government in the mode of implementing policy. It isn't in the centre-peripherymodel but looks more l ike the network model of thebusiness-systems firm or the student movement. Itstand in contra-distinction to the idea of govern-ment as an experimenter for the nation, of govern-ment as a trainer of the nation. It fits the notion ofloss of the stable state. It fits the notion of changeas the foreground condition against which govern-mental action must work. Where the public problemis new, there is no established policy solution orinstitution corresponding to it. The centre's role isto announce themes of policy to the periphery, toinitiate facilitate and support learning effortsr : themovement is then as much from periphery to peri-phery, from point to point on the periphery, as it isfrom centre to periphery. It is an inductive ratherthan a deductive process, and it is a process com-parable, in its overall character, to the learningsystems which we have seen in the evolution ofbusiness firms and of different systems for techno-logical innovation. «

From this we see the need for the additional re-quirement that the regions be able to adapt centralpolicy themes. Schon does not go so far as to des-cribe a system which would :

— assist regions to detect problems to which theycould respond by initiating policy which mightlater be generalized by the centre;

— assist bodies not previously within the system tosignal problems to it and to facilitate any jointprogramme formulation and implementation.

1NGO PoliciesThis is an even looser concept which would permitmany more organizations to be interrelated insociety's response to problems whilst makingmaximum use of the fact that unknown and unre-cognized bodies may in fact be more able to detectproblems before they develop to unnecessarily cri-tical proportions. It is this concept of an organiza-tion which is foreshadowed in the potential assoc-iation which permits the creation of transient orga-nizations (whether matrix organizations or not.)It is this sort of approach which can be used byinternational non-governmental organizations torelate themselves and their programme within aloose network of « INGO policies. » INGOs must beable to collaborate effectively with UN and UNDRprogrammes when they take on a matrix form asthey are bound to do in order to master the multi-disciplinary and multi-agency problems. Hopefullythe United Nations will develop its own approach topermit its agencies to relate through such an in-formation system to the activities and problems ofINGOs.Whilst the United Nations should expect to be ableto formulate central policy themes, the INGOs (as


secondary centres) should be able to develop de-tailed policies and introduce variations for their ownsectors, just as the governments develop policy fortheir own countries. Once the United Nations or anyother such centre (e.g., the OECD) can respond toperipherally developed policy variations, it will haveceased to be a rigid promulgator of necessarily,out-of-date policy and will have adapted to the roleof catalyzing a « world learning system ».

Schon summarizes his views as follows :

« The map of organizations or agencies that makeup the society is, as it were, a sort of clear overlayagainst a page underneath it, which represents the

reality of society. And the overlay is always out ofphase in relation to what's underneath: at anygiven time there is always a mismatch between theorganizational map and the reality of problems thatpeople think are worth solving...There's basically no social problem such that onecan identify and control within a single system allthe elements required in order to attack the problem.The result is that one is thrown back on the knittingtogether of elements in networks which are notcontrolled and where the network functions andnetwork roles become critical...That means that the inside of the system is a tem-porary system which is fluid and able to shift.Change becomes the foreground condition ratherthan the background condition....functional systemsmust be able to provide security for their membersat the level of functional systems and not at thelevel of specific organizations within them...We have young radicals who would like to createcommunity organizations which are separate econo-mic, political and social units, and we have youngpeople who would like to go off into the woods andform communes. All these efforts towards decen-

tralization are reactions against the repressive anddehumanizing character of central government andof central institutions. But this response is not anadequate one : the same technological changes thatproduced the loss of the stable state connect everypiece of society to every other and no separateenclaves can survive. If decentralization is a re-sponse, it must be connected decentralization. »

NGOs in particular should not be deterred fromlooking at the current ideas emerging from businessmanagement research for clues to new methods oforganizing their own activities. The fact that thebusiness system's, the youth-peace-civil rights mo-vement, and possibly even the Mafia, are all con-verging on the same flexible structure in responseto similar problems clearly illustrates that it is theoperating advantages of these new structures whichshould be considered and not the objectives forwhich they are used. Unfortunately many NGOs tendto imitate the UN's organizational structure, with itsbuilt-in inter-Agency coordination problems, ratherthan experiment with flexible evolving structuresadapted to the new understanding of problemcomplexity and the need for organizational net-works.The solution to the problem of inter-organizationalrelationships lies not in a monolithic centralizedorganization of coordination but in an adequateworld-wide information system in which all can par-ticipate freely to determine with which groups andproblems they should temporarily concern them-selves — namely a network of social activity coor-dinated by information and not by organization.


Résumé français de l'article (p. 154) :

LES ORGANISATIONS « EN MATRICE » ET LES RESEAUX D'ORGANISATION.

Les conceptions du management mises au point par laNASA (U.S.A.) permettent, et même exigent une grandeflexibilité et une grande autonomie de la part des diversorganismes (sociétés industrielles, agences gouverne-mentales, centres de recherches, facultés universitaires,associations professionnelles etc.) qui participent au pro-gramme. Ceci est essentiel au rassemblement des connais-sances nécessaires pour réusir la tâche complexe de met-tre un homme sur la lune. De telles conceptions créent unetension fructueuse entre la fragmentation résultant du be-soin d'autonomie des organismes spécialisés et l'intégra-tion nécessaire à tous les niveaux pour réussir l'exploit.L'image de ces relations est plus clairement donnée parun modèle de l'organisation basée sur celle du systèmesolaire (Fig. 3) que par l'organigramme traditionnel (Fig.. 2).Pariant de ces idées, on peut envisager l'utilisation deces nouvelles possibilités de relations entre organisationsindépendantes pour mettre en évidence une solution aux

problèmes de relations entre les grands groupes d'organi-sations (Fig. 4), entre les groupements gouvernementaux(Fig. 5), et finalement entre les organisations internatio-nales non-gouvernementales elles-mêmes (Fig. 6).Le modèle « solaire » de la NASA s'appuie sur les rela-tions — multiples et multilatérales entre organisationsillustrées par les forces de gravité entre les corps célestesen mouvement continu dans un tel système dynamique.Par contre, la tradition bureaucratique et étatique est baséesur des relations unilatérales, et ainsi beaucoup moinscomplexes, illustrées par la diffusion de la lumière à partirdu centre d'un tel modèle solaire — un modèle qui re-prend ainsi les caractéristiques de l'organigramme tradi-tionnel. Un résumé d'une analyse des limitations de cedernier modèle fait par Donald Schon montre clairementla direction de l'évolution des systèmes d'organisationvers une conception basée sur des réseaux d'organisa-tions interdépendantes sans centre principal bien défini.

LES FORCES TRANSNATIONALES

Le professeur Marcel Merle de la Faculté de Parisa mis à jour une nouvelle et troisième édition deson ouvrage paru en 1963 « La Vie internationale ».Le remaniement apparaît surtout au chapitre quel'auteur intitule avec bonheur « Les forces transna-tionales ».Nous en extrayons les passages suivants :

Si les Etats demeurent les principaux acteurs dujeu international, il existe d'autres forces et d'autrescourants qui ne dépendent pas d'eux et qui lesdépassent. La solidarité nationale peut en effet êtreconcurrencée ou supplantée par d'autres formes desolidarité qui s'exercent par-dessus les frontières .Il peut s'agir de solidarités politiques (les inter na-tionales de partis), professionnelles (les internat io-nales syndicales), confessionnelles (les Eglises),scientifiques ou humanitaires (les innombrablesassociations créées dans ce but), etc. Toute activitésociale et toute démarche intellectuelle ou spirituellepeuvent avoir leur prolongement au-delà des frontiè-res et susciter la formation de groupements privésqui pourront exercer une certaine influence sur lecomportement des responsables de la politiqueextérieure. C'est exclusivement sous cet angle quele problème sera envisagé ici.L'importance du rôle joué par ces organisationsdépend essentiellement de deux séries de facteurs.Le premier a trait au statut juridique de ce genrede groupements. On sait que les Etats disposentsinon d'un monopole absolu, au moins d'un privilègeen ce qui concerne l'exercice de la compétenceinternationale. Les autres sujets de droit ne peu-vent disposer que d'une compétence spéciale, dansles limites fixées par les Etats eux-mêmes; c'est lasolution qui prévaut (cf. première partie) pour lestatut des organisations internationales fondées parles Etats". Or le droit en vigueur ne comporte au-cune disposition générale qui permette aux diver-ses catégories d'organisations non gouvernemen-tales de jouir de la personnalité juridique et de l acapacité internationale.Les rares exceptions ne font que confirmer la règle :si l'Eglise catholique apparaît comme une institu-tion internationale, c'est parce que, à la différen cedes autres confessions religieuses, elle a été recon-

nue comme telle par un certain nombre d'Etats. Lasolution adoptée par les accords du Latran (1929)présente d'ailleurs cette particularité d'offrir àl'Eglise catholique les attributs, au moins symbo-liques, d'un Etat traditionnel : un territoire (la Citédu Vatican), un gouvernement indépendant etsouverain (le Saint-Siège) et une population (cons-tituée par « les personnes ayant une résidencestable dans la Cité du Vatican »). C'est en s'ap-puyant sur ces caractéristiques, empruntées pourles besoins de la cause au statut des Etats, que leSaint-Siège peut exercer les compétences d'unepuissance souveraine : droit de traiter (les Concor-dats), droit de légation actif (les nonces apostoli-ques) et passif, et, par extension, accès aux orga-nisations internationales. Mais il est évident que lesaccords du Latran, conclus entre le Pape et l'Italie,seraient vidés, de toute signification si les autresEtats refusaient d'entretenir des relations diploma-tiques avec le Saint-Siège, de conclure des trai-tés avec lui ou de l'admettre dans les organisationsinternationales. Cela confirme la spécificité d'unesituation qui dépend, dans son principe commedans ses applications, de l'accord des autres Etats.L'autre exception notoire est celle de la Croix-Rouge, institution privée fondée en 1863 par uncitoyen suisse, Henri Dunant, pour venir en aideaux blessés, puis, par extension aux prisonniers etaux victimes de la guerre. Cette institution exerceeffectivement des fonctions internationales délicateset du plus haut intérêt en cas de conflit. Mais celane peut intervenir que dans la limite des pouvoirsqui lui ont été accordés par les Etats dans le cadredes conventions internationales en vigueur. Lacapacité d'agir, attribué au Comité international d ela Croix-Rouge et à ses filiales nationales, est di rec-tement fonction de l'accord préalable entre lesEtats.


On peut évidemment imaginer que de nouveaux ac-cords reconnaissent l'existence de telle ou telle

institution privée et lui contèrent le droit d'exercerdes fonctions déterminées. Mais cela ne résoudraitpas le problème d'ensemble posé par l'existence

des organisations non gouvernementales. Aussilongtemps que les Etats n'auront pas convenu d'éla-borer un statut à leur usage, ces organisations n'au-

ront, dans la société internationale, qu'une existencede fait. C'est pourquoi, faute de pouvoir obtenir

une personnalité internationale et une capacitéappropriée à leur vocation, ces organisations sont

obligées d'emprunter au droit national les élémentsindispensables à l'exercice de leurs activités :

elles n'ont d'autre ressource que de fixer leur siègesur le territoire de l'un des Etats et de sollicit er,

l'octroi du statut que cet Etat accorde aux per-sonnes morales de droit privé (loi sur les associa-

tions ou sur les sociétés commerciales), sans pou-voir bénéficier d'un régime particulier, sauf en

Belgique où une législation spéciale a été édictéeen leur faveur. Qu'un organisme privé internationalne puisse avoir d'existence légale qu'à travers lesformes et les règles du droit national constitue uneanomalie, mais confirme bien la situation de mono-

pole dont les Etats bénéficient dans l'aménage-ment des rapports juridiques internationaux.

Il convient cependant d'introduire ici une distinc-tion importante : certains de ces groupements

(ceux qui poursuivent des objectifs non lucratifscomme les syndicats ou les diverses associations)

bénéficient, depuis la seconde guerre mondiale, d'unstatut consultatif auprès des grandes organisations

intergouvernementales, universelles ou régionales.A défaut d'un régime juridique approprié, cesgroupements voient au ' moins reconnaître leurexistence et peuvent exercer leur influence officiel-

lement. On peut donc suivre le développement deleurs activités et mesurer, d'une façon assez pré-

cise, l'efficacité de leurs interventions sur la sc ène

internationale. Les organismes à but lucratif (essen-tiellement les sociétés commerciales) demeurent,par contre, officiellement ignorés. Leur identifica-tion et l'observation de leur conduite sont doncbeaucoup plus difficiles à effectuer. Le silence etl'obscurité qui les entourent prêtent naturellementaux accusations les plus graves (le complot destrusts, l'internationale des marchands de canonsetc.) qu'il est aussi difficile de démontrer que deréfuter. La différence de statut juridique n'impliq uepas forcément une hiérarchie d'influences; mais elleaffecte sérieusement les conditions dans les-quelles cette influence peut être appréciée et éva-luée.Le second facteur qu'il faut prendre en considé-ration tient à la nature des groupes en question.Aux yeux d'une grande partie de l'opinion, touteinitiative privée dans les affaires internationalesse trouve entourée d'une sorte de défiance instinc-tive. La seule existence d'un groupe ne permetcependant pas de conclure à l'efficacité et encoremoins à la nocivité de son action. Certains groupe-ments privés ne sont que le paravent d'entreprisesgouvernementales. La puissance des autres dépendde nombreuses conditions : nombre mais aussicohésion des adhérents; rigidité ou souplesse del'organisation interne. Enfin, il ne faut jamais oublierque les forces transnationales sont rarement enmesure, par suite de la structure actuelle de lasociété internationale, d'exercer directement leuraction au plan des relations internationales; ellesse trouvent le plus souvent obligées d'agir en fai-sant pression sur les détenteurs du pouvoir dedécision, c'est-à-dire sur les dirigeants des Etats.C'est pourquoi le rendement de leurs démarchesdemeure subordonné, dans la plupart des cas, audynamisme et à la docilité de leurs sections natio-nales. L'affrontement des idéologies ou des inté-rêts, qui peuvent naître des initiatives privées,,passe encore par l'intermédiaire des Etats.


*

THE FUNCTIONS AND FORMS

OF INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF PSYCHOLOGY (1)

Harold P. Van Cott

Director, Office of Communication Management and Development, American Psychological Association,

Since the first international scientific congress held in168V the congress has become a major medium ofscientific information exchange. As a part of the totalsystem of scientific communication, the internationalcongress is one of the first of a series of filters throughwhich acts of communication pass into the archivalrecord of science. At this filter point ideas and fin-dings are evaluated, modified and sometimes discar-ded. The congress is also an important part of thesocial system of science, for it is a point at which thecontacts that occur and the ideas that are exchangedtranscend national, cultural and language barriers.International congresses directly relevant to psycho-logy have been held since 1889.3 At least ten majorpsychology congresses were held in 1969 alone. Thesecongresses are large, frequently involving hundreds ofparticipants, and they appear to be increasing in sizeand number. As a result, they exert increasing de-mands on scientists not only to attend them but alsoto organize and finance them, and even to justify theirvalue. (Garvey 1968).One of the most important psychological congressesis the International Congress of Psychology. Its impor-tance derives from its size, its distinguished history,and the role it plays in the international exchange ofinformation on psychology as a science, as distinctfrom psychology as a technology or profession.

The Functions of an International Scientific Congress.Although a congress serves many purposes, from anescape from routine to the chance to claim priority of

(1) Presentation made to the Executive Committee of theInternational Union of Psychological Sciences, October 15,1970; Washington, D.C. Director, Office of CommunicationManagement and Development, American PsychologicalAssociation.(2) International Medical Congress, Rome.(3) International Congress of Physiological Psychology, Paris.

discovery, there is general agreement on the mainobjectives (Garvey 1968; Noyes 1968; et al) ;1. The exchange of information - about research in

progress, completed research, plans for research,and unpublished research techniques.

2. The formulation of agreements - on symbols, unitsnomenclature, and other standards.

3. The provision of an organizational framework forinternational scientific cooperation.

4. The establishment of personal contacts - as abasis for subsequent exchange, as a means ofidentifying active scientists in one's own field,and for comparing the approach and quality ofone's research with that of other countries.

5. The reduction of the technological gap betweencountries - by making research in scientificallyadvanced countries available trougnout the inter-national community.

6. The continuing education - of the increasinglynarrow and specialized scientist who has difficultyin maintaining a current awareness of generaldevelopments in his discipline.

Of these objectives, there is agreement that the mostimportant is the exchange and filtering process andthe accompanying confirmation of information aboutresearch that is currently in progress - research at theleading or cutting edge of science.

What We Know About the International Congress ofPsychology.In a noteworthy study of information exchange at the1966 International Congress of Psychology, Garvey(1968) uncovered a wealth of data that dispels popularmyths about congresses and identifies areas in whichthe congress can be improved in the future.Garvey found, for example, that while most authorsdo report at a congress, work that has previouslybeen reported, less than a third of the attendants areaware of this information. In that sense, reportedwork is new work. He found that many participants


indicated that they had made important contactswhich had helped in their work, and that they plannedto follow-up on the contacts through correspondenceand travel.

In asking for comments and suggestions on the com-gress, Garvey found that a desire for better methodsof distributing copies of presentations was frequentlycited. The need for more time for discussion was stres-sed by a third of the respondents. Half of the partici-pants felt that the general congress format and organi-zation should be changed, and a variety of suggestionswere given. Among other frequently made suggestionswere the need for small meetings of persons workingin specific areas, and the very great importance ofincreasing opportunities for informal communication.Suggestions of this kind are not unique to the 1966congress or to psychology congresses. They occurrepeatedly in the literature on congresses and werestated many times in the interviews the author hadwith psychologists and congress organizers. Thus,there does appear to be some basis for perceiving theneeds and desires of the participants of a congress aswell as observing their information exchanging beha-vior.

What We Don't Know About Congresses

While there is ample evidence that scientists arespending more time in informal communication,bypassing increasingly the massive and often impene-trable written record, we know nothing about theeffectiveness of formal and informal oral meetings.There is no accepted measure of the effect on re-search quality or productivity of any communicationtechnique, oral or written.

Since informal communication normally precedespublication, we should also know how efficiently oralinformation is transformed into the documents thatbecome part of the scientific record. We do not. Infact, there is no general agreement on the value orethics of publishing the proceedings of a conventionor congress, or even separate publication of a papergiven at a congress.The largest gap in our knowledge is our lack ofunderstanding of the conditions under which actsof oral communication lead to acts of creativity.Thus, although we might manipulate the mechanicalarrangements under which communication occurs,until we better understand the creative process, wecannot fully exploit the potential of the congress as amedium of information exchange (Orr, et al, 1964).

Factors Affecting the Quality of an InternationalCongress,

Since time precluded an examination of the innume-rable factors that affect the quality of a scientificcongress, only a few of the most important and theseemingly most tractable are discussed here. They

are : (a) program format, structure and content, (b)selection and scheduling of presentations, (c) sessionchairmen and speakers, (d) discussion and informalcontacts, and (e) language.Program Format, Structure and Content. While thetraditional congress format has imitated the lectureapproach of many universities, it has obvious limita-tions both as a medium of instruction and as a sti-mulus to group discussion. Within the last 20 yearsthere has been a trend away from the lecture andtoward the use of a variety of other formats : thesymposium, seminar, workshop, and leaderless dis-cussion group. We recommend that this trend beencouraged and accelerated, and that a variety ofnew formats be tried out at future meetings with parti-cular emphasis on formats that permit and stimulatethe widest possible group participation and discussion.Several special formats appear to merit specific men-tion. The first, the discussion model, requires thatpapers be distributed to attendants from 2 to 3 weeksin advance of a congress. The author, rather thanreading his entire paper, gives a summary, and theremaining period is used for discussion. This techni-que has been acclaimed a success whenever it hasbeen used, and despite the problems of acquiring,translating and distributing papers in advance of thecongress, we recommend its use be encouraged.Another format worthy of attention is the action-oriented session. Most scientific meetings are designedto facilitate the exchange of information, but theprocess is usually a passive one - the pouring of infor-mation by a speaker into the heads of an audience.However, another function of the congress is to fosterinternational cooperation, and this objective providesa rationale for the action-oriented group. In theopinion of several of our interviewees, cooperationis enhanced when participants at a meeting must worktogether to achieve a common goal or objective, suchas the solution of a mutual problem : for example,the adoption of a standard. The fact of attempting toachieve a solution, rather than its attainment, is bene-ficial in stimulating information exchange as well.We recommend that one or two problem- or action-oriented sessions, small in size, and diverse withrespect to participants, be considered for future pro-grams, and we would propose that the Executive Com-mittee select the problem topics.With respect to program content, we recommend theexploration of a variety of formats and media.Interviewees, both congress organizers and psycholo-gists, suggested that one of the most valuable contri-butions of an international congress was the exchangeof information about the research in rapidly deve-loping areas. Therefore, we recommend that severalsessions be devoted to review papers. These papersmay be of two types : highly specialized papers forspecialists in a particular area and more general,


broad and « vulgarized » review papers for the psy-chologist interested in becoming aware of currentactivity outside of his own specialty.There is ample evidence that it is difficult to imposea rigid or detailed structure on a congress, for likeother social institutions a congress has its own sub-culture and ethic. Different persons, from differentcultural backgrounds, respond differently to the sameformat or subject matter presentation. Therefore, werecommend as a general principle that the congressprogram provide a variety of choices of topic andprogram format to the author and the attendant.You may recall the cafeteria feeding studies donewith young animals in the 20's. These studies demon-strated that given a variety of nutrient substances,animals chose diets that equal or surpass the bestman-made diets. We believe the analogy may applyto the congress, and that a potential speaker and theparticipant, by the choices they make, can provideuseful information for structuring future congresses.Therefore, we propose that an attempt be made torecord session attendance and attendant reactions atthe next congress in order to provide data for theevaluation of the various formats employed at thatcongress.

One of the most frequently cited problems regardingnational and international congresses is the lack ofopportunity for discussion following formal presen-tations. Session times are often short and speakersoften stray beyond their allotted time. While aneffective session chairman can sometimes limit aspeaker to a given time period, this can be awkwardand embarrassing.To insure ample time for discussion, we recommenda proposal suggested by Professor Fraisse, ProfessorNuttin, and several congress organizers. Formalsessions, either symposia or free and invited papers,are scheduled in the morning. The sessions mayvary in length from 1 to 2 hours depending on theformat used. The allotted time period is used for thepresentation of material by speakers. During thepresentations attendants are invited to submit writtenquestions for a later discussion period and are invitedto return after coffee or lunch for that purpose. Theparticipants and audience then break and meet to-gether informally for the lunch or coffee break. Theyreconvene as a discussion group. This controlled,pre-programmed separation of presentation from dis-cussion insures ample time for each. The chairmanof the presentation session is the chairman of thecorresponding discussion session. We believe thatthis technique would be most effective if the two partsare separated by lunch, during which time the parti-cipants can become more familiar with one anotherand can select from among the questions submitted inthe morning those to be discussed later. We furthersuggest that discussion following lunch is a more

likely deterrent to the soporific effects of food thanthe equally soporific effects of a dull speaker.

Selection and Scheduling of Presentations.No factor is as important in determining the qualityof a congress as the quality of the papers and themanner of their delivery. Being sensitive to this factor,there is a normal tendency for congress programcommittees to select papers on the basis of theauthor's name and reputation as a scientist andspeaker. While this is a relatively safe procedure inassuring quality, it tends to recycle the same facesand material from congress to congress and deniesopportunities for participation by younger psycholo-gists and those working in newly established areas.In order to overcome the bias of selecting paperssubmitted by well-known authors, one internationalmedical congress organized by the Holland Organi-zing Center used an anonymous selection procedure.Papers were invited from anyone in the discipline,thus insuring a large and representative input. When apaper arrived for evaluation, it was assigned a codenumber, and the author's name and all other identi-fying information was removed. Papers were thenclassified into subject categories and presented topanels of subject-matter experts for evaluation accor-ding to a series of weighted rating scales. In this man-ner a figure of merit was assigned to each paperwithin each category. Judgments were then pooledand final selections were made.While this method does add objectivity to the selec-tion process, it is complex and does not insure thatthere will be a balanced distribution of papers bycountry or that the papers selected will be well pre-sented. Despite these disadvantages, we suggest thatthe method be adopted on a limited scale for freepapers of from 15 to 20 minutes in length. We fur-ther recommend that the same panels, chosen toobtain a representative array of international inte-rests, be used to select the subject categories andsubdivisions within which papers will be invited.We wish to place particular emphasis on the recom-mendation, stemming from Garvey's research (1968)on the 1966 international congress, that distributionof a program of the meeting with abstracts of allpapers be made well in advance of the meeting, andthat from 2 to 3 weeks before a meeting participantswho have requested a paper in selected areas be sentthe full paper. While this program calls for theexertion of considerable planning and effort by con-gress organizers, we believe that it can lead to agreatly improed congress.It is standard practice to program the routine mee-tings and plenary sessions early in a congress, per-mitting the participants to adjust to their new envi-ronment and time schedule, and gradually build upthe intensity and pace of the program as the week


progresses. We recommend that this practice becontinued. We also recommend that early in thecongress week opportunities be provided for twotypes of informal contacts at receptions or similarsocial occasions. The first, comprising all attendants,would provide an opportunity for attendants to meetthe congress organizers. The second would permitindividuals within a given specialty area to meet withpersons from other countries working in the samearea.

Session Chairmen and Speakers.The importance of the chairman is often overlookedin organizing a congress : yet, an effective chairman

can be the key to a successful session. It is recom-mended that an attempt be made to assemble all

session chairmen early in the congress for the pur-pose of recommending and discussing procedures

for running sessions. It is further suggested that chair-men be encouraged to meet in advance with the

speakers on the session for which they are responsible.This meeting might be held at breakfast of the day

on which the session is scheduled. Here, the chairmenwould discuss the use of audio-visual aids, and how

to work with translators. He would request that eachspeaker spend 5 minutes before his presentation des-

cribing his special interests and research plans. Thisprocedure, widely used by some engineering societies,

is particularly effective in producing a more cohe-rent, better integrated symposium.

Nothing is as deadly as the speaker who reads hispaper. While there is universal agreement on this

fact, the practice continues, much to the detriment ofinformation exchange and audience morale. There are

of course several good reasons why papers are read.It does appear to ease the task of simultaneous trans-

lation if the speaker keeps to his text. It is a comfortto the novice speaker stage-struck with his firstinternational debut. Despite these reasons, we urge

that the call for papers encourage speakers to refrainfrom the monotonous reading of pre-prepared text,and we believe that the prior distribution of papers

will tend to discourage this trend, for sessions wi llemphasize discussion rather than presentation.

Unless a specially equipped congress facility isavailable, poor audiovisual equipment or aids can

mar an otherwise effective presentation. Tables thatare densely packed with data, slides with poor con-trast, characters that are too small to be legible, arefrequent problems. Considering the high probabilitythat either equipment or aids will be ineffective, we

recommend that congress speakers be encouraged toprepare their own visual aids in the form of reprodu-

cible hand-outs. Thus, the speaker would prepare hi stables, graphs, and other pictorial material as a p art

of his paper, bring the masters of these to the con-gress for reproduction and distribution, or have them

reproduced in quantity himself before attending thecongress.

Discussion and Informal Contacts.Of all the factors affecting congress quality, none ismore important to participants and attendants thanproviding increased opportunities for discussion andfor informal contact. And while there is recognitionof this need, and data to support it, much can still bedone to encourage and facilitate more and betterdiscussion and more frequent and less awkwardinformal contacts.We have already suggested methods for improvingdiscussion : the use of pre-prepared questions andthe separation of the discussion of a paper fromits presentation. In addition, we recommend thatpre-prepared critiques of selected papers be solicitedin advance of a congress and incorporated into adiscussion session. Thus, one or two persons wouldbe invited to prepare a critique of a paper, whichthey would receive in advance, and to present thecritique as an opening for the discussion period.The critique could be returned to the author beforethe meeting so that he could prepare a rebuttal.We believe this would be a stimulus to the carefulpreparation of papers as well as to wider, more accele-rated audience participation during the discussionsession.At previous congresses opportunities for informalcontact and exchange at social hours, coffee breaks,and special discussion lounges have been tried out.We recommend that these informal events be encou-raged and expanded at future congresses.We recommend that, whenever possible, congressattendants be housed by their area of interest andspecialization, and that special rooms or lounges bedesignated at the congress quarters where individualswith common interests can gather and meet with oneanother.For stimulating the accidental but highly productivecontacts that occur at a congress, we suggest theuse of a coded name badge. This technique, firsttried out by the Federation of American Societiesfor Experimental Biology, has been widely adoptedbecause of its effectiveness. Each attendee is providedwith a name badge containing color codes that desi-gnates one or more languages in which he has con-versational proficiency and a numeri or symboliccode indicating his area of interest. The codes areprinted in the congress program. Thus, an individualseeing the badges of others can identify individualswith a common interest and a common language.We might also mention that one congress used anembosser to create a badge with the above charac-teristics plus an embossed name and address. Thebadge not only identified its wearer but could be


inserted into a standard paper stamping machine (ofthe type used with credit cards) to create an up-to-date address list of congress registrants, an addresslabel for exchange with other attendants, and toregister for literature at the congress exhibit area.Opportunities for informal contact also facilitated bya centrally located, highly visible message center, acomplete and up to date list of congress attendants,and a team of roving interpreters. The interpreterswith color coded hat bands at the London Congressprovided an effective mechanism for meeting withother psychologists, and we recommend the continua-tion of this practice.

Language.Allowing for the great difficulties and considerablecost of simultaneous translation as well as for theeverlasting difficulty of finding interpreters andtranslators with adequate scientific knowledge, wepropose that simultaneous translation be eitherabandoned or supplemented with the projection,during formal sessions, of manuscript texts in diffe-rent languages (Morf, 1961). Second, we proposethat where translation does appear necessary or desi-rable conference participants be invited to participate.This works reasonably well in small meetings of aninformal nature where the burden on the volunteeris not great.

Conclusions.Our recommendations for improving the quality andprogram of an international congress can be summa-rized as follows :1. Recognition of the important role of discussion

and informal contact and in planning for theseactivities.

2. The adoption of a variety of program formats,providing a choice to participants of content andstructure from which data can be obtained forfuture planning.

3. The distribution of programs with abstracts andthe distribution upon request of complete papersprior to the congress.

4. The careful selection of papers to insure qualityand representativeness.

5. The choice of chairmen and speakers based ontheir qualifications to stimulate and guide dis-cussion.

We recommend that the Executive Committee, inconsideration of the size of the International Con-gress, discuss ways in which the impact of size mightbe reduced, for as size increases, the opportunitiesfor stimulating informal contact diminish.Finally, we recommend that an attempt be made tocontinue and expand the solicitation of commentsand suggestions on the congress after each congressis held.

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Publication n° 218.Edition française également disponible.


OPERATION : MAN TO MANKIND_ 4th Annual Conference on General Systems Education,

The Center for Interdisciplinary Creativity (directed byProfessor Jere W. Clark who is Systems Education Edi-tor for International Associations) is organizing the4th Conference on General Systems Education (Hart-ford-Windsor, Connecticut, USA, April 29-30th 1971).The conference is co-sponsored by the Union of Inter-national Associations and the Task Force on SystemsEducation of the Society for General Systems Research.Key speakers include : Glenn Seaborg of the US AtomicEnergy Commission), Elwood Murray (Chairman Eme-ritus of the Institute for General Semantics), SidneyParnes (President of the Creative Education Founda-tion), Julius Stulman (President of the World InstituteCouncil), and Bertrand Chatel (Chief of the ScienceApplications Section of the UNOffice of Science andTechnology). The conference is funded by the CalvinK Kazanjian Economics Foundation.

Conference Keynotes.The next thirty-odd years will see us engaged in whatmay be the most crucial struggle of mankind's existence— the struggle to prove that one « mankind », as aphysical entity and not just as a glorious idea, can becreated and survive. In this sense 1 am talking aboutmankind as a global civilization — men and nationsnot only coexisting with each other and nature butessentially living and acting as an organic whole. Thisis more than a Utopian dream. It is the new imperative— the goal toward which we must all move. Tough theymay each phrase it somewhat differently, this seems tobe the consensus of most of the thoughtful philosophers,scientists and educators speaking, writing and thinkingtoday. And there seem to be few if any viable alterna-tives to moving in this direction.

(Glenn T. Seaborg, « Mankind as a Global Civilization »,The United Church of Christ JOURNAL, May, 1968).Mankind itself must become part of the system. Whatis needed is a methodology of integrated thought andaction in which there is a continuing feedback and flowforward to deal with changes at all levels.(Julius Stulman, Fields Within Fields... Within Fields,Vol. 3, N° 2, 1970).// there is any way of adjusting to change, it must in-clude... the development of a metalanguage and « me-taskills » for dealing with continuity in change.(Toward a Theory of Instruction, Harvard UniversityPress, 1966).If self-centered, provincial man is to become the organic,global mankind required for survival in a technetronicworld, he is obviously going to have to hurdle manyformidable barriers in short order. While the politicaland technological barriers to global democracy aregetting most of the attention of researchers and plan-ners, the main barriers are those residing in the mind

of man. These mental barriers are : (1) fragmented pat-terns of knowledge about the world in which he lives;(2) limited perspectives concerning his place and poten-tial in that world; and (3) rigid attitudes toward changeand toward his fellowman. Without solving to a certaindegree these conceptual and attitudinal barriers, thepolitical and technological solutions tend to be bothimpossible and meaningless.

In an effort to crystallize interest in these conceptualand attitudinal barriers, and in order to identify andnurture the embryo of a blueprint for hurdling them,this international conference is being held.

Considerable progress has been made in recent experi-mental efforts to apply various of systems planning tocomplex social problems. Yet one key lesson has comefrom that experimentation. That is that unless the ave-rage citizen is personally involved in the process ofdesigning the solutions — regardless of how « brilliant »these solutions may appear to be — these proposalswill not be likely to work.

Furthermore, because most of the experience with mo-dern forms of systems planning has been limited largelyto the work of a relatively few technically oriented per-sons, this general approach is thought to be too com-plex, abstract, and technical for the average person.Hence, most of the research and planning for the his-torical march of self-centered, provincial man towardorganic, global democracy has been limited largely tothe intellectual elite.

It will be suggested that the metalanguage is a key toquantum leaps in simplifying, vitalizing, and dramati-zing curriculum patterns. These innovations in educa-tion in turn will be portrayed as possible means ofchanging the attitudes and perspectives of not onlytechnical and professional persons,, but also laymenthroughout the world.

As a result of the type of educational and scientific inno-vations sketched above, we may be approaching thethreshold of the greatest advance toward the « demo-cratization » of science since the concept of the freepublic school. The new developments in the fields ofpractical creativity and common-sense systems educa-tion are ready to be combined on a large scale, withinthe next few years, to help millions of culturally-deprived children and adults by-pass the traditionaleducational programs and move right into the educa-tional opportunities afforded by the educational sys-tems of the space age. These developments should helppeople generally to become masters — rather thanvictims — of the emerging technological systems whichare shaping our society. (The Journal of Creative Beha-vior, Fall, 1969).


INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS, 1971, No 3 17 9

News from International Associations

A l'écoute des associations internationales

Au cours de ces dernières années, le monde internationaldes affaires a été. le témoin de l'apparition d'une nouvellesorte d'entreprise que l'on pourrait appeler société multi-nationale d'investissement. Ces sociétés groupent un grandnombre d'entreprises qui s'associent entre elles pour opérerdes investissements dans les pays en voie de développe-ment. Elles comprennent notamment la PICA pour l'Asie(cf. Informations nos. 3-4. 1969), l'ADELA pour l'Améri-que latine (Atlantic Community Development Group forLatin America) et, enfin, un groupe semblable pourl'Afrique, Chacune de ces sociétés est financée par unlarge éventail d'institutions manufacturières ou bancairesparmi les plus importantes du monde, qui constituent lesactionnaires. De grandes compagnies de l'industrie alimen-taire (Unilever, Nestlé, Nabisco, etc.) soutiennent, parmid'autres, la PICA et l'ADELA, qui elles-mêmes ont desinvestissements dans des entreprises de l'alimentation etdes branches connexes.

La société multinationale LAAD (Latin American Agri-business Development Corporation) s'occupe plus particu-lièrement de l'industrie alimentaire en Amérique latine.Elle a été constituée, selon les termes employés par leconseil d'administration, pour accroître la production ali-mentaire, ainsi que le revenu agricole, grâce à l'investisse-ment profitable de capitaux dans les entreprises existantes,ainsi que dans les nouvelles entreprises. La LAAD investiradans des entreprises qui produisent, transforment, trans-portent, distribuent et commercialisent les produits agrico-les. L'ADELA même est un des actionnaires. Tous lesautres actionnaires sont des compagnies des Etats-Unisqui ont des intérêts à l'étranger, notamment la Castle &Cooke (Asie orientale), Ralston Purina (mondiale), Gerber(Canada, Amérique latine), Borden (produits laitiers, mon-diale), Cargill (mondiale, céréales) et la CPC International(auparavant produits du blé, mondiale). Parmi les action-naires se trouvent également les entreprises de machinesagricoles, telles que la Caterpillar et la Deere, les maisonsde produits chimiques, Monsanto et Dow, enfin la Banqued'Amérique.L'on tend vers des sociétés d'investissement encore pluspuissantes. En effet, il a été suggéré aux Etats-Unis decréer une compagnie d'investissements privés pour lespays d'outre-mer (OPIC) qui serait établie par le gouver-nement et s'occuperait de canaliser le capital privé desEtats-Unis vers les pays en voie de développement.L'OPIC remplacerait l'actuelle section de l'entreprise pri-vée de l'Agencer pour le développement international(AID), qui a pour but de coordonner les investissementsdes Etats-Unis dans les pays en voie de développement.Le développement des société multinationales d'investisse-ment représente un grand pas en avant pour les compa-gnies géantes qui cherchent à s'étendre dans de nouvellesrégions. Des associations telles que la PICA, I'ADELAou la LAAD, sont si puissantes que leur capitaux sontaisément supérieurs à ceux des pays dans lesquels ellesdécident d'investir. La collaboration de la classe possé-dante des pays en voie de développement leur est assuréegrace à leur politique qui consiste à attirer les capitauxlocaux.

Le caractère à la fois multinational et régional de cessociétés tend, d'une part, à les rendre moins vulnérablesau nationalisme, qui risquerait de pousser les gouverne-ments locaux à opérer des nationalisations et, d'autre part,à accroître l'esprit de concurrence entre les différents paysqui cherchent à attirer les investissements. Par ailleurs, lefait qu'elles soient la propriété d'un grand nombre d'en-treprises, rend la tâche encore plus difficile pour les tra-vailleurs dans leurs revendications auprès de la direction.Quant à l'OPIC, si toutefois elle est créée, elle montreratrès clairement le lien qui existe déjà entre l'investissementprivé et l'aide étrangère. Cependant, vu qu'en apparenceelle créerait une société multinationale, elle aurait un netavantage sur des associations semblables qui seraient réa-lisées par une compagnie ou un pays particulier. En effet,elle persuaderait plus aisément les pays en voie de déve-loppement que des investissements privés étrangers accrussont dans leur intérêt.

(UITA Informations)

*

The International Business world has, in recent years,witnessed the emergence of a new enterprise which can becalled the multinational investment Company. Consisting ofventures in which a large number of firms join to makeinvestments into developing countries, these companiesinclude PICA (News Bulletin 3-4, 1969) in Asia, ADELA(Atlantic Community Development Group for Latin Ame-rica) and a similar one directed toward Africa. Each isfinanced by a wide sample of the world's prominentmanufacturing and banking institutions, who are its stock-holders. Major food companies (Unilever, Nestle, Nabisco,etc.) are among the backers of PICA and ADELA, whoseown investments include enterprises in the food and relatedindustries.More specifically directed toward the food industry is themulti-company LAAD (Latin American Agribusiness Deve-lopment Corporation), formed, according to its board ofdirectors, to increase food production and rural income bythe profitable application of investment capital in new,and existing enterprises. LAAD will invest in firms thatproduce, process, transport, distribute and market agricul-tural products. One of its shareholders is ADELA itself.All others are US firms with interests abroad. They includeCastle and Cooke (Eastern Asia), Ralston Purina (World-wide), Gerber (Canada, Latin America), Borden (world-wide dairy), Cargill (world-wide grain) and CPC Interna-tional (formerly Corn Products, world-wide). Otherstockholders are the agricultural engineering firms Cater-pillar and Deere, the chemical firms Montsanto and Dowand the Bank of America.That the trend is toward even more powerful investmentfirms is shown by the proposal in the United States tocreate a publicity funder Overseas Private InvestmentCorporation (OPIC) which would be charged with thechanneling of private US capital toward developing coun-tries. OPIC would replace what in now known as the

< (Photo World Health Organization).

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. 1971, No 3 181

Private Enterprise Section of the Agency for InternationalDevelopment (AID), which seeks to coordinate US invest-ment in developing countries.

The development of multinational investment companiesis a significant step for the giant corporations that aretrying to expand into new regions. Alliances that make

up the likes of PICA, ADELA or LAAD arc so powerfulthat they easily overwhelm with their wealth any single

country in which they decide to invest. The compagnies'policy of involving local capital in their ventures insuresthem of the collaboration of the moneyed elite in

developing countries. Their multinational and regionalaspect tends to minimize nationalism, an insurance against

takeovers by local governments, while at the same timeincreasing the competition among countries to attract the

investments. Finally, by being owned by a large numberof firms, they make it even more difficult than usual for

the workers to confront management with their demands.As for OPIC, should it ever come into being, it would

make crystal clear the connection which already existswould create a seemingly multinational firm, however, it

between private business and foreign aid. Because itwould have a considerable advantage over similar ventures

being undertaken by single companies or countries inpersuading developing countries that increased privateforeign investment is in their interest.

(IUF News Bulletin)

La 8e Conférence internationale des services de signalisa-tion maritime tenue à Stockholm — et à laquelle était

jointe l'exposition « Pharos 70 » — a confié à M. LHallengren, de Suéde, la présidence de l'Association int er -nat ionale de signalisation maritime. Celui-ci a fait ladéclaration suivante :« Depuis sa constitution, en 1957, le nombre de paysreprésentés au Comité Exécutif de l'AISM est passé dequatre à huit. Ainsi ce Comité est maintenant deux foisplus international qu'à ses débuts. Au bout de) cette mêmepériode de treize années le nombre des membres atteintmaintenant 40 membres « A », 27 membres « B », 17membres associés et 56 membres industriels. C'est unnombre très satisfaisant pour une association prospère. 'Je suis parfaitement conscient de l'honneur qui m'est fa itd'être Président de cette organisation vraiment interna-tionale. J'ai l'intention, au cours des cinq années à venir,d'essayer de consolider ,1e travail fait par mes distinguésprédécesseurs et par mes collègues du Comité Exécutifen faisant tout ce que je pourrai pour encourager lesperspectives internationales de notre Association et pourchercher à faire reconnaître notre travail par les autresorganisations internationales. Il est indubitable que lesServices membres de notre Association, dont certains ontdéjà de longues années d'existence, ont accumulé des con-naissances techniques et une expérience absolument sanségales.Notre Association doit être prête à faire bénéficier de cesconnaissances toutes les autres organisations s'occupant dela sécurité en mer, qu'elles soient nationales, internationalesou intergouvernementales, et jouer pleinement son rôledans le domaine de la Signalisation Maritime. »

(Bulletin de l'AISM)

182 ASSOCIATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 1971, No 3,

MelbourneThe Dallas Brooks Hall, newestcongress centre of Melbourne,was completed in 1969. Thebuilding offers the finest possi-ble facilities for conventions, aswell as for smaller meetings.Description :Auditorium seating 2,179.Flexible staging for concerts,conventions, speech nights.Fully air-conditioned.Meeting RoomsA total of 22 meeting rooms areavailable from capacity : 20 to250 people.Banquet RoomsThe Banquet and Supper roomcomplex consists of seven rooms.Seating for more than 700 peopleat a banquet down to privatedining facilities for 30.Buffet for more than 2,000.

ParkingSpace for 1,400 cars on site and

within 400 yards.

Air-conditioningThe entire building is complete-ly air-conditioned.Kitchen and Food ServiceCovers an area of 2,000 squarefeet. Banquet manager in atten-dance. Variety of menus.Reduced FaresAs of January 1st 1971 the re-duced fares for wives of conven-tion delegates (50 %), grantedby the Atlantic PassengerSteamship Conference are ap-plicable. Details are availablefrom the office of the SecretaryGeneral, Folkstone, Kent, U.K.

BruxellesLe Belgian Organizing Centre,s'étant assuré le concours denouveaux actionnaires, a décidéde modifier sa dénomination,laquelle est devenue :International Convention Bureau,Belgium, s.a.

Organisateur de congrès et detoutes manifestations excep-tionnelles, I'I.C.B. Belgiumconserve la même direction etla même équipe. Boulevard del'Empereur 15 - 1000 Bruxelles.

ParisL'Hôtel Inter-Continental Paris,s'est vu attribuer le premier prixpour la brochure descriptive deses Salles de Congrès et Ban-quets, lors du 14ème ConcoursInternational de PublicitéHôtelière de l'Association desDirecteurs Commerciaux d'En-treprises hôtelières, qui s'esttenu à New York fin 1970.

156 hôtels, de tout premierordre, des cinq continents, parti-cipaient à cette épreuve.

Cette distinction contribuera àmettre en valeur l'hôtellerie degrand prestige, ainsi que leséditeurs publicitaires français.

The Dallas Brooks Hall, newest congress centre of Melbourne (Australia).


Santa Cruz de Teneriffe, IlesCanaries (Espagne).2 pays étaient représentés auXlè Congrès de la FédérationEuropéenne des Fabricants deCarton Ondulé (FEFCO).

Environ 900 parti ci pants s'étaientréunis. C'est le plus grand nom-bre de participants atteint jus-qu'à présent aux CongrèsFEFCO et ceci indique l'impor-tance que cette manifestation a

prise pour l'industrie du CartonOndulé et ses fournisseurs.Les détails concernant la parti-cipation figurent dans le tableauci-dessous (état peu de tempsavant l'ouverture du Congrès) :

Messieurs 573

TOTAL PAR PAYS

Di Dames 338

Allemagne Mess.95

Dames49

Total1 4 4

Irlande

Argentine 6 2 8 IsraëlAustralie 3 1 4 ItalieAutriche 19 12 31 JaponBelgique 10 6 16 LibanCanada 5 5 10 MarocDanemark 9 7 16 NorvègeEspagne 63 30 93 Pays-BasFinlande 17 14 31 PortugalFrance 83 41 124 Suède Grande-Bretagne 70 43 113 SuisseGrèce 2 1 3 TunisieIran 1 — 1 U.S.A.

Total 9 1 1

Mess. Dames Total

1 1 21 1 219 13 322 ' — 2

1 — 12 1 310 8 1820 15 357 4 1140 20 6035 23 581 — 1 .51 41 92

The Grosvenor House in London-offering good congress facilities with the charm of London and the elegance of an

international hotel.

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS, 197 1, No 3 185

Montreal

No matter how measured, theInternational Road Federa-tion's Sixth World Meeting inearly October was an outstan-ding success.For those who look to statistics,the figures told this impressivestory :—A total of 4,212 delegatesfrom 90 nations. This made it thelargest highway gathering everheld.—A total of 334 program parti-cipants from 46 countries.—Opening session attended by3,178 persons.—IRF open house hospitalitycenter served more than 2,700cups of coffee during one. mor-ning from 10 :15 to noon.

As to intangible benefits, U. S.Federal Highway AdministratorFrancis C. Turner voiced thefeeling of many when he said hewouldn't trade anything for the. opportunity he enjoyed of talkingwith other highway officials fromaround the world and discus-sing common problems.

BerlinLes 29 et 30 mars 1971 se tien-dra à Berlin la 3e réunion dugroupe de travail mis sur piedpour donner suite aux travauxde la commission technique du5e congrès international surl'organisation des congrès (Bar-celone mai 1970). Ce groupeest composé de fabricants dematériaux audio-visuel, de

techniciens, d'interprètes, d'ar-chitectes et d'organisateurs deréunions.Les buts poursuivis par ce grou-pe sont les suivants :— établissement d'un cahierdes charges type pour les in-stallations d'interprétation si-multanée;— entretien et modernisationdes installations existantes;— établissement des normespour cabines d'interprétation;— importance d'une coopéra-tion suivie entre les différentesprofessions représentées ausein du groupe de travail.Pour tous renseignementscomplémentaires prière des'adresser au Départementcongrès de l'UAI, 1, rue auxLaines, 1000 Bruxelles.

MATERIEL D'INTERPRETATION SIMULTANEE

ENREGISTREMENT ET AMPLIFICATION DU SON

LOCATION-VENTE FRANCE - ETRANGERToutes durées Type Radio ou fil

TRANSMILEGLes Transmissions Electriques

26, rue du Chalet 92 - ASNIERES (France) - Tél. : 793.10.43 - 793.76.15

Fournisseur des Organisations Internationales, Ministères et Facultés.

REFERENCES EN EUROPE, AFRIQUE ET OCEANIE


The International Association of Professional Con-gress Organisers held its Council Meeting and se-cond general assembly in Copenhagen on the 15thJanuary 1971. The following organisations wererepresented :RESO Kongrestjanst, Stockholm, Christer Carlsson;Holland Organizing Centre: The Hague, Albert.Croh-heim; International Convention Bureau, Belgium,Jean Destree; DIS Congress Service, Copenhagen,Erik Friss, Alette Thykier; Scandinavian Conven-tions AB, Stockholm, Donald Hellstedt, Anette Held-lund; Conference Services Limited, London, FayPannell; Geigy Pharmaceuticals, Macclesfield, A. J.Ruff.In accordance with the statutes the President, Mrs.Fay Pannell, Managing Director of Conference Ser-vices Limited retired and Mr. Erik Friis, DIS CongressService of Copenhagen was elected the new Presi-dent. Mr. A.J. Ruff of Geigy Limited was elected asecond Vice President, repressenting the associalemembers.The full members are companies or free-lance in-dividuals engaged exclusively or principally in theorganisation of all services required for the pre-paration and running of international meetings,whereas associate members are individuals attachedto the congress or convention departments of largeorganisations and companies. A Company in Argen-tina was admitted as a full member.The membership now coveres the following coun-tries : Denmark, Sweden, Holland, Belgium, TheUnited Kingdom, France, Spain and Argentina.On the 16th of January the members of the Inter-national Association of Professional ConferenceOrganisers held a seminar to study the followingsubjects :co-operation with Hotels,co-operation with Travel Agents and Airlines, re-lationship with Conference Interpreters and thepossibility of an exchange of personnel betweenmembers.This was a most interesting excercise and themembers found it of great value. A further Seminarwill be held in Brussels in October 1971 to discussgeneral administrative procedures and budgeting.The International Association of Professional Con-ference Organisers hopes that in the future Se-minars will be held with the servicing organisationswith whom they work, thus establishing a good solidbasis for co-operation, which will enable them togive a better service to their clients and to spreadthe standards of good organisation.

VIENT DE PARAITRE :

— Volume 8 de la collection « La Science desCongrès Internationaux »

« LES ORGANISATIONS INTERNA-TIONALES FACE A L'ASPECT BUD-

GETAIRE ET ECONOMIQUEDE LEURS CONGRES »

— situation présente, perspectives d'ave-nir, conseils pratiques et budgets types.

. Ce volume représente le compte rendu5e Congrès International sur l'Organisationdes Congrès (Barcelone, 6-10 mai 1970).

Contenu :Rapports généraux —Les organisations internationales non gou-vernementales face aux aspects budgétaireet économique de leurs congrès.Les implications financières de l'équipementtechnique utilisé dans les congrès, ainsi quesur le budget modèle d'un congrès, vu parles responsables de palais de congrès.Les besoins réels d'un congrès, la meilleurefaçon de répartir les dépenses en vue d'as-surer le succès d'un congrès, et les métho-des de gestion du budget.

Commissions :Interaction congrès-tourismeEquipements et services auxiliairesDocuments de travailConférences internationales des entreprisesindustrielles et commercialesEnregistrement, accueil, manifestations so-cialesLogement et excursionsSéances plénières.

Prix : 350 FB, 40 FF, 30 FS, S 7.00, £ 3.00UNION DES ASSOCIATIONS

INTERNATIONALES

1, rue aux Laines, 1000 BruxellesTéléphone: 02-11.83.96)

Publication No 222English edition also available.


New International Meetings Announced

Information listed in this section supplements details in the AnnualInternational Congress Calendar (published as the December 1970issue of the magazine) as well as details in earlier 1971 issues

19 7 1 Apr 1-4 Paris (France)Int Social Science Council. Workshop on computer program-ming systems for social science.

C / S S, Unesco, 1 rue Miollis, 75 Paris 15e, France.

1971 Apr 7 London (UK)European Federation of Office Machines Importers. Generalassembly.

Bockenheimer Landstrasse 79, 6 Frankfurt /Main, GFR.

1971 Apr 13-15 Salonika (Greece)Balkan Medical Union. 6e cours int de perfectionnement :« Actualités en médecine ».

10 rue Progresul, Bucarest, Rumania.

1971 Apr 19-23 The Hague (Netherlands)European Federation of Chemical Engineering. Int solventextraction conference 1971.

SCI, 14 Belgrave Square, London SWI, UK.

1 97 1 Apr 19-24 Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania)African Adult Education Association. Conference : « Adulteducation and national development ».

AAEA Conference, Institute of Adult Education, Uni-versity of Dar es Salaam, P O Box 20679, Dar esSalaam, Tanzania.

1971 Apr 21-25 Harrogate (UK)Scottish Rock Garden and the Alpine Garden Society. 4thint rock garden plant conference.

E M Upward, 58 Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge Road,London SWI, UK.

1971 Apr 26-29 Wageningen (Netherlands)Int symposium : Circadian rhythmicity.

Int Agricultural Centre, P O B 88, Wageningen, Nether-lands.

1971 Apr 28-30 The Hague (Netherlands)institute of Mechanical Engineers. Meeting : Steamplantgroup ».

1 Birdcage Walk, Westminster, London SWI, UK.

1971 May 1-2 Spa (Belgium)Int congress of the road carriers federation.

Office du Tourisme, rue Royale 2, 4880 Spa, Belgium.

1971 May 4-7 Amsterdam (Netherlands)Int symposium freight traffic models.

Planning and Transport Research and ComputationCo Ltd, 40 Grosvenor Gardens, Victoria, London SWI,UK,

1 9 7 1 May 8-12 Zurich (Switzerland)European Society for Pédiatrie Endocrinology. 10th scientificmeeting.

Pr A Prader, Kinderspital, Steinwiesstrasse 75, 8032Zurich, Switzerland.

1 971 May 8-12 Zurich (Switzerland)Int Shopfitting Organisation. 13th congress.

E Cutler, Lennig House, Mason's Avenue, Croydon,CR9 3LL, UK.

1971 May 9-15 Marioka (Japan)Int Astronomical Union. Symposium : « The earth's rotation.Prof P Melchior, Observatoire Royal de Belgique, 3avenue Circulaire, 1 1 8 0 Brussels, Belgium,

1971 May 1 0-13 Brussels (Belgium)12th « European guide » conference.

M Verdin, Soc de Mécanographie, avenue Gribaumont115 , 1050 Brussels, Belgium.

1971 May 1 0 - 1 3 Liège (Belgium)Association des Ingénieurs de Montefiore. Symposium intsur les réseaux électriques.

M Craisse, rue St Gilles 3 1 , 4000 Liège, Belgium.

1971 May 10-19 Hamburg (Germany, Fed Rep)Int Atomic Energy Agency / Inter-Governmental MaritimeConsultative Organization/Government of the Federal Re-public of Germany.Symposium on nuclear ships.

Dr J Scholvin, Kernenergi-Studiengesellschaft, NeuerWall 34, 2000 Hamburg 36, Germany Fed Rep.

1971 May 10-20 Moscow (USSR)Int Social Science Council. Meeting of experts on automation.

European Coordination Centre for Research and Do-cumentation in Social Science, P O Box 974, 1 0 1 0

Vienna, Austria.

1971 May 18-21 Caracas (Venezuela)Inter-American Association of Industrial Property. 3rd con-gress.

Carrera 7a No 16 / 56, Bogota, Colombia.

1971 May 24-28 Sofia (Bulgaria)Int Federation for Documentation, C 3. Meeting on socialsciences.

7 Hofweg, The Hague, Netherlands.

1971 Jun 1-4 Helsinki (Finland)European Association against Poliomyelitis and other ViralDiseases. Symposium.

Dr P Recht, Boulevard General Jacques 30, 1050Brussels, Belgium.

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS, 19 71 . No 3 189

1 97 1 Jun 8- 11 The Hague (Netherlands)European Work Study Federation. Meeting.c /o NIVE, Parkstraat 18, The Hague, Netherlands.

1971 Jun 10-12 Scheveningen (Netherlands)Pharmaceutical symposium.

Th Reuter, Frans Halsstraat 4, Utrecht, Netherlands.

1 9 7 1 Jun 1 1 - 1 6 Scheveningen (Netherlands)Kongress arbeitsgemeinschaft Europaischer chorverbande(AGEC).

A J W Janmaat, Postbus 496, The Hagues, Nether-lands.

1971 Jun 14 - 18 Albany (USA)Int Astronomical Union. Symposium : « Evolutionary andphysical problems of meteoroids ».

Dr C L Hemenway, 140 S Lake Avenue, Albany, NewYork, USA.

1971 Jun 14- 1 8 Madrid (Spain)Int Cargo Handling Co-ordination Association. 10th biennialconference : « Transport co-ordination in the seventies ».

Spanish National Section ICHCA, Ruiz de Alarcon,Madrid 14, Spain.

1971 Jun 21-Jul 2 Seattle (USA)Committee on Space Research. 14th plenary meeting.55 Boulevard Malesherbes, 75 Paris 8e, France.

1971 Jun 24-26 Budapest, (Hungary)Federation of the Int Donau-Symposia. Symposium on dia-betes mellitus.

A B der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften,V Roosevelt ter 9, Budapest, Hungary.

1971 Jun 24-26 Seattle (USA)Committee on Space Research / Int Astronomical Union.Meeting : «High resolution astronomical observation fromspace ».

Z Niemirowicz, 55 Boulevard Malesherbes, 75 Paris 8e,France

1971 Jun 28-30 Liège (Belgium)Int astrophysical symposium : « Astronomical spectra inthe infrared and microwave regions ».

IAU, c /o Space Research Laboratory, Beneluxlaan 2 1 ,Utrecht, Netherlands.

1971 Jun 29-jul 6 Warwick (UK)1st int congress on farm business management.

Conference Services Ltd, The Conference Centre, 43Charles Street, Mayfair, London W I, UK.

1971 Jul 1-2 London (UK)British Nuclear Energy Society. Int conference on the effect

of environment on material properties in nuclear systems.1-7 Great George Street, Westminster, London SWI, UK.

1971 Jul 3-10 Herceg-Novi (Yugoslavia)4e conference int « Science et société » : « La science,l'homme et son environnement ».

Konferencija « Nauka i Drustvo », P O Box 163,11001 Beograd, Yugoslavia.

190 ASSOCIATIONS INTERNATIONALES, 197 1, No 3

1971 Jul 5-10 Nice (France)Colloque int : Les méthodes d'enquête et de descriptiondes langues sans tradition écrite.

Mlle J Thomas, Maître de Recherche, Central Nationalde la Recherche Scientifique, 15 Quai Anatole France,75 Paris 7e, France.

1971 Jul 5-24 Athens (Greece)World Society for Ekistics. Athens Ekistics Month. P : 400.Ex.

Athens Center of Ekistics, Bos 471 , Athens, Greece.

1971 Jul 13 -16 Cambridge (UK)2nd int symposium on synthesis in organic chemistry.

Dr J F Gibson, The Scientific Affairs Officer, TheChemical Soc, Burlington House, London WIV OBN,UK.

1 9 7 1 Jul 15 -17 Paris (France)Colloque int : La diffusion de la lumière par les fluides.

P Lallemand, Maître de Recherche, Centre National deRecherche Scientifique, 15 Quai Anatole France, 75Paris 7e, France.

1971 Jul 15-18 Strasbourg (France)Organisation de l'Aviation Civile Int. Conférence Ré-gionale Européenne-Méditerranéenne sur la navigationaérienne.

H S Marzusch, 3 bis, Villa Emile-Bergerat, 92 Neuilly-sur-Seine, France.

1971 Jul 18-23 Durham (UK)6th int symposium on fluorine chemistry.

Dr J F Gibson, The Chemical Society, BurlingtonHouse London WIV OBN, UK.

1971 Jul 19 Cali (Colombia)Int Weightlifting Federation. Pan American congress.

Oscar State, 4 Godfrey Avenue, Twickenham, Midd-lesex, UK.

1971 Jul 19-23 Paris (France)Int Union of Pure and Applied Physics. Int conference onlight scattering in solids.

Prof C C Butler, Physics Department, imperial College,London SW7, UK.

1971 Jul 19-24 Toronto (Canada)Int Union of Local Authorities. 20th int congress. P : 800.IULA, 45 Wassenaarseweg, 2018 The Hague, Nether-lands.

1971 Jul 23-28 San Francisco (USA)6th int pharmacological congress.

Prof ft M Featherstone, Univ of California, San Francis-co Medical Center, San Francisco, Cal, USA.

1971 Juli 26-31 Amsterdam (Netherlands)Int Union of Pure and Applied Physics. 7th int conferenceon the physics of electronic and stomic collisions.

Prof CC Butler, Physics Department, Imperial College,London SW7, UK.


1971 Jul 26-Aug 3 Montreal (Canada)Syndicat Int des Auteurs. 3rd congress.

1971 Jul 31-Aug 6 Brussels (Belgium)Int Federation of Shorthand and Typewriting. Central Com-mittee.

rue de l'Association 6, 1000 Brussels, Belgium.

1971 Jul Washington (USA)Committee on Space Research /Int Union of Radio Science/Int Astronomical Union/Int Association of Geomagnetismand Aeronomy. Meeting : « 1970 Solar eclipse ».

Dr E R Dyer, National Academy of Sciences, 2101Constitution Avenue, Washington, D C 2041S, USA.

1971 Aug 1-7 Bellagio (Italy)Int Social Science Council / Bureau d'Analyses SociologiquesInt. Symposium on int comparative analysis of industrializedsocieties : Concepts and methods.

CISS, Unesco, 1 rue Miollis, 75 Paris 15e, France.

1971 Aug 3-5 Prague (Czechoslovakia)Int Union of Physiological Sciences. 25th world congress onphysiology.

V Seliger, M D, Dr Sc, O Skranc, M D, CSc, Ujezd 450,Praha 1, Czechoslovakia.

1971 Aug 3-7 Leipzig (Germany, Dem Rep)Int Union of Physiological Sciences. 3rd int symposium onbiocybernetics theory, general principles, from automaticand sensomotor systems.

Prof R W Hunspeyer, Physiologistes Institut, Rami-srrasse 69, 8001 Zurich, Switzerland.

1971 Aug 8-13 Ann Arbor (USA)Int Union of Pure and Applied Physics. Int conference onamorphous and liquid semiconductors.

Prof C C Butler, Physics Department, Imperial CollegeLondon SW 7, UK.

1971 Aug 9-Nov 15 Wageningen (Netherlands)Int course on fruit and vegetable growing.


1971 Aug 10- 14 Budapest (Hungary)Int Geographical Union. European regional conference.

Prof C D Harris, Dept of Geography, University ofChicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA.

1971 Aug 12-21 La Plata (Argentina)Int Astronomical Union. Symposium : « Wolf-Rayet HighTemperature Stars ».

Dr J Sahade, 47-849 (9°A), La Plata, Argentina.

1971 Aug 13-22 Goteborg (Sweden)Int Coordinating Committee for the Presentation of Scienceand the Development of Out-of-School Scientific Activities.Exhibition of youth science projects and seminar on waterpollution.

Mr G Ekegard, Stiftelsen Unga Forskare, Box 752,1 01 30 Stockholm, Sweden.


1971 Aug 15-20 Kyoto (Japan)Int conference on mechanical behavior of materials. P : 800.

c /o Kyoto Int Conference Hall, Takara-ike, Sakyoku,Kyoto, Japan.

1971 Aug 16-20 Richland (Wash, USA)USAEC. 3rd int symposium on the packaging and trans-portation of radioactive materials.

Mr C L Brown, Battelle Northwest, Box 999 /PO,Richland, Wash 9933, USA.

1971 Aug 16-25 Hobart (Tasmania)Int Union of Pure and Applied Physics. 12th int conferenceon cosmic rays.

Prof C C Butler, Physics Department, Imperial College,London S W 7 , UK.

1971 Aug 18-26 Budapest (Hungary)Int Union of Pure and Applied Physics. 7th int conferenceon acoustics.

Prof CC Butler, Physics Department, Imperial College,London SW 7, UK.

1971 Aug 21-26 Moscow (USSR)Int Federation of Surgical Colleges. Annual meeting inassociation with the biennial meeting of the Int Society ofSurgery.

Ft S Johnson-Gilbert, Royal College of Surgeons, Lin-coln's Inn Fields, London WC 2, UK.

1971 Aug 22-27 Tel Aviv (Israel)Société Israélienne des bibliothèques et centres d'informa-tion spécialisés (ISLIG). Conférence int de science del'information.

ISLIG, PO B 16.271, Tel Aviv, Israel.

1971 Aug 23-11 Heidelberg (Germany, Fed Rep)Int Union of Geological Sciences. 8th int sedimentologicalcongress.

Dr van der Heyde, P O B 378, Haarlem, Netherlands.

1971 Aug 23-28 Ithaca (USA)Int Union of Pure and Applied Physics. Int conference onelectron and photon interactions at high energies.

Prof C C Butler, Physics Department, Imperial College,London SW 7, UK.

1971 Aug 23-28 Krefeld (Germany, Fed. Rep)Int Union of Geological Sciences. 7th int carboniferouscongress.

Dr van der Heyde, P O 8 378, Haarlem, Netherlands.

1971 Aug 23-30 Trondheim and Tromso (Norway)Int conference on part and ocean engineering underarctic conditions.

Dr Per Bruun, Dept of Port and Ocean Engineering,Technical University of Norway, 7034 Trondheim,Norway.

1971 Aug 24-26 Utrecht (Netherlands)Int Astronomical Union. Symposium : « Ultraviolet andX-ray spectroscopy in astrophysical and laboratory plas-mas »,

Pf D De Jager, Space Research Laboratory of theAstronomical Institute, 21 Beneluxlaan, Utrecht, Nether-lands,

DONNEZ DU LUSTREA VOS RÉUNIONS

D'AFFAIRESrestauré, c'est sans aucundoute son adaptation auxbesoins des organisateursde conférences, congres,séminaires et réceptions.En effet, dans un cadreapproprié, avec tous lesservices indispensables(secrétariat, cinéma,audio-visuel, etc.) l'HôtelINTER-CONTINEN-TAL est devenu un centrede rencontre et de travailapprécié des hommesd'affaires du mondeentier.

Hôtel INTER-CONTI-NENTAL 3, rue deCastiglione, Paris 1er.Tél. OPE 18-00. Contac-tez la Direction desVentes - poste 263.


Les lustres prestigieux del'Hôtel INTER-CONTI-NENTAL illuminentdepuis près d'un siècleles manifestations lesplus raffinées de l'éliteparisienne.Aujourd'hui, pour répon-dre aux exigences del'hôtellerie moderne, larestauration la plus spec-taculaire jamais entre-prise en ce domaine afait de cet hôtel, avec ses520 chambres, ses res-taurants fameux (Snack,Bistro, Rôtisserie Rivoli,et Terrasse Fleurie) un deshauts lieux de la capitale.Mais la révélation del'Hôtel INTER-CONTI-NENTAL, nouvellement

1 9 7 1 Aug 26-29 Liège (Belgium)European congress of the former pupils of Jesuits.

R P Lefebvre, Prof au collège St Servais, rue St Gilles92, 4000 Liège, Belgium.

1971 Aug 28-Sep 4 Caracas (Venezuela)Int Federation of Landscape Architects. General assembly.Miss J Rochus, Centro de Estudos de ArgquitecturaPaisagista, Tapada da Ajuda, Lisbon, Portugal.

1971 Aug 28-Sep 6 Bucharest (Rumania)Int Union of the History and Philosophy of Sciences. Con-gress and general assembly.

Prof R Taton, 12 rue Colbert, 75 Paris 2e, France.

1971 Aug 30-Sep 1 Prague (Czechoslovakia)Int Society for Biochemical Pharmacology. Symposium onpharmacology of bacterial toxins.

K. Masek, M D, CSc, Institute of Pharmacology,Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Albertov 4, Praha2, Czechoslovakia.

1971 Aug 30-Sep 2 Helsinki (Finland)Int symposium on safety and health in shipbuilding andship repairing.

Institut of Occupational Health, Haartmaninkatu 1,Helsinki 25, Finland.

1971 Aug 30-Sep 2 Prague (Czechoslovakia)Int Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 8th microsym-posium on macromolecules : « Polymer morphology ».

Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 1888 Petriny,Prague 6, Czecoslovakia.

1971 Aug 30-Sep 2 Tokyo (Japan)Int Union of Pure and Applied Physics. 3rd int conferenceon vacuum UV radiation physics.

Prof C C Butler, Physics Department, imperial College,London SW7, UK.

1971 Aug 30-Sep 4 Ronneby (Sweden)Int Association for Research in Income and Wealth. 12thgeneral conference.

BOX 2020, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn, USA.

1971 Aug 31-Sep 3 Bamberg (Germany, Fed Rep)Int Astronomical Union. Symposium ; « New directions andfrontiers in variable star research ».

Pr W Strohmeier, Direcktor der Remeis Sternwarte,Sternwarstrasse 7, Bamberg, Germany (Fed Rep).

1971 Aug 31-Dec 10 Wageningen (Netherlands)10th int course on land drainage.


1972 Sep Brussels (Belgium)Int Federation of Landscape Architects. 13th world congress.Miss J Rochus, Centro de Estudos de ArquitecturaPaisagista, Tapada da Ajuda, Lisbon, Portugal.


1971 Oct-Nov New Delhi (India)Colombo Plan Council for Technical Co-operation in SouthEast Asia. 22nd meeting of the Colombo Plan ConsultativeCommittee. Meeting of senior officials and ministers ofmember governments, and observers from APO, IBRD,ECAFE, UNDP, Commonwealth Secretariat, ILO, ADB,CATT/UNCTAD and Fao.

Government of India, c /o Ministry of Foreign Affairs,New Delhi, India.

1971 Dec 28-30 New Orleans (USA)Econometric Society. Conference.

Box 1264, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn 06520, USA.

1971 End Cairo (UAR)Afro-Asian Organisation for Economic Co-Operation. 1stAfro-Asian conference on tourism.

AFRASEC Special P O Bag, Calm Chamber of Com-merce Building, Midan El Falaki, Cairo, UAR.

1972 Jan 17-21 (Netherlands)European Conference of Postal and TélécommunicationsAdministrations. Extraordinary meeting of the telecom-munications commission.

Kortenaerkade 12, The Hague, Netherlands.


Yearbook of International Congress Proceedings(every 2 years), 2nd edition (1962-9).

Contents : bibliography of papers, reports and proceedingsof meetings of organizations listed in the Yearbook ofInternational Organizations. 1st edition covers meetingsin the years 1960-1967, 2nd edition covers meetings in theyears 1962-1969. Bibliographies for the meetings in theyears 1957,1958 and 1959 are also available.

Directory of Periodicals Published by Internatio-nal Organizations (irregular)Contents : bibliography of periodicals of organizationslisted in the Yearbook of International Organizations.

Yearbook of International Organizations (every2 years), 13th edition (1970-71)Contents : aims, titles, structure, activities, finance, publi-cations, meetings of international organizations. Includesthe Who's Who in International Organizations and theInternational Initialese previously published separatelyInformation on approximately 4000 organizations.

International Congress Science Series9 volumes on the technicalities of international meetingorganization.

Documents for the Study of International Non-Governmental Relations15 volumes.

Liste de publications envoyée sur demande Publication list sent on request

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ALLEMAGNE (R.F.). Libr. Hans Meschen-dorfer. Hackenstrasse 3 / 1 . Munich 2;. Libr.Rudolf Pieper, Worthstrasse 1 / 1 1 , 8 Munich;Libr. Alexander Horn. Spiegelgasse 9,6200 Wiesbaden. — AUSTRALIA. B.C.N. Agen-cies Pty Ltd 178 Collins Street , Melbourne ,

Victoria 300o! — AUTRICHE. Librairie Gerold& C , Graben 31. Vienne 1. — BELGIQUEAgence et Messageries de la Presse, ruedu Persil. 14-22. Bruxelles 1; Office Inter-national de Librairie, avenue Marnix. 30.Bruxelles 5. — CANADA. Co-operative BookCentre of Canada Ltd. 12 5 Bermondsey Road.Toronto 16, Ont — CHILE, Libr. Oscar Marin yCia. Casilla 9812. Santiago. — DENMARKLibr. Jul. Gjellerup. Solvgade 87, CopenhagueK.: Libr. Munksgaard. Norregade 6 CopenhagueK. — ESPAGNE. Pleyade. Duque de Alba 9.ESPAGNE. Pleyade, Duque de Alba 9,Madrid 12. — FINLAND. Akateemine Kirja-

kauppa. 2 Keskuskatu. Helsinki; Rautatie-kirjakauppa Oy. Karnpinkatu 2. Helsinki 10.— FRANCE. Librairie des Méridiens, boule-vard Saint-Germain, 119. Paris 6e; libr. P.Raymann & C , rue de Tournon, 17. Paris 6e; Offi-Lib , rue Gay-Lussac , 48 , Paris 5e : Libr.

Technique & Documentation, rue Lavoisier, 11 .Paris 8e. — ISRAEL. Weiss Subscriptions1 Jabotinsky Street, Tel AVIV. — ITALIE.Libreria Commis. Sansoni, Via Larnarmora 45,Florence; Libr. Ambrogio Raguzzi, CorsoTrieste. Rome. — JAPAN. Kokusai Shobo Ltd.,5 Ogawamachi, 3-chome. Kanda, Chiyoda-ku.Tokyo; Kinokuniya Bookstore Ltd, 826 Tsuno-hazu 1-chome. Sninjuku-ku, Tokyo. — NE-THERLANDS. N.V. Meulenhoff-Bruna, Beu-lingsstraat 2. Amsterdam; Swetz & ZeitlingerKeizersgracht 487. Amsterdam C; N.V. Marti-nus Nijhoff. Lange Voorhout 9-11. s-Graven-hage — NORWAY. Libr. Tanum-Cammer-

meyer. Karl Johansgt. 43, Oslo 1. — PORTU-GAL. Librairie Ferin. 70 rua Nova do Almada74, Lisbonne. — SUISSE. Libr. Herbert Lang& C° Munzgraben 2, Berne ; Libr. Payot,6 rue Granus, Genève. — SWEDEN. Librairiede la Cour C.E. Fritze, Fredegatan 2, Stock-holm 6; Almqvist & Wiksell. Gamla Broga-tan 26, 10 1 20 Stockholm 1. — UNITED KING-DOM. Blackwell's Foreign Dept. Broad Street,Oxford; Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd., CannonHouse, Macklin. Street; London WC.2. —U.S.A. F. W. Faxon Company, Inc. 515 HydePark Avenue, Boston, Mass. 02131; Interna-tional Publications Service, 303 Park Ave.South. New York NY 10010; Stechert HafnerInc. 31 East 10th Street. New York NY 10003;Ebsco-National Publications California , P.O.

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