INTERCULTURAL INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIONCOMMUNICATIONAn OverViewAn OverView

Introduction to Introduction to intercultural theories (1)intercultural theories (1)

Gudykunst’s Gudykunst’s anxiety/uncertainty anxiety/uncertainty management theorymanagement theory (AUM): cross- (AUM): cross-cultural encounters between cultural in-cultural encounters between cultural in-groups and strangersgroups and strangers

Ting-Toomey’s Ting-Toomey’s face-negotiation theoryface-negotiation theory cultural differences in responding to cultural differences in responding to conflict, on the assumption that all people conflict, on the assumption that all people negotiate “face”negotiate “face”

Introduction to Introduction to intercultural theories (2)intercultural theories (2)

Philipsen’s Philipsen’s speech codes theory: speech codes theory: Every Every distinctive culture has a distinctive distinctive culture has a distinctive “speech code” (set of communication “speech code” (set of communication practices), taken for granted by those practices), taken for granted by those within the culturewithin the culture

Tannen’s theory of Tannen’s theory of genderlect styles: genderlect styles: conflicting speech codes of men and conflicting speech codes of men and womenwomen

Introduction to Introduction to intercultural theories (3)intercultural theories (3)

Hardin and Wood’s Hardin and Wood’s standpoint theorystandpoint theory: : societal inequalities generate distinctive societal inequalities generate distinctive accounts of nature and social accounts of nature and social relationshipsrelationships

Cheris Kramarea’s Cheris Kramarea’s muted group theorymuted group theory women are a muted group, their words women are a muted group, their words and thoughts discounted. and thoughts discounted.

Anxiety/Uncertainty Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUM)Management Theory (AUM)(1)(1)

Focuses on encounters between in-Focuses on encounters between in-groups and strangersgroups and strangers

Applicable to inter-group differences that Applicable to inter-group differences that spawn doubts and fearsspawn doubts and fears

One party is the “stranger”One party is the “stranger” In-group members also experience In-group members also experience

anxiety in interacting with the “stranger”anxiety in interacting with the “stranger”

AUM (2)AUM (2)

““EffectiveEffective” communication minimizes ” communication minimizes misunderstandings, enabling each party to misunderstandings, enabling each party to accurately predict and explain each other’s accurately predict and explain each other’s behaviorbehavior

““MindfulnessMindfulness” involves thinking about our ” involves thinking about our communication, continually working at communication, continually working at changing what we do in order to become more changing what we do in order to become more effectiveeffective

AnxietyAnxiety (affective) and (affective) and uncertaintyuncertainty (cognitive) (cognitive) are biggest obstacles to effective are biggest obstacles to effective communicationcommunication

AUM (3)AUM (3)

Axioms/elements for understanding/resolving Axioms/elements for understanding/resolving uncertainty and anxiety include:uncertainty and anxiety include:enhancing self-esteem, reducing need for enhancing self-esteem, reducing need for affiliation, enhanced processing of complex affiliation, enhanced processing of complex information, enhanced tolerance for ambiguity, information, enhanced tolerance for ambiguity, enhanced empathy, perceived similarity, enhanced empathy, perceived similarity, enhanced liking, increase in shared networksenhanced liking, increase in shared networks

Face Theory (1) BasicsFace Theory (1) Basics

People are always negotiating “face”People are always negotiating “face” ““FaceFace” - our public self-image, the way we want others ” - our public self-image, the way we want others

to see us and treat usto see us and treat us ““FaceworkFacework” - messages that help restore, maintain, ” - messages that help restore, maintain,

uphold “face”uphold “face” ““Facework” strategies vary Facework” strategies vary culturallyculturally, e.g.: , e.g.: individualisticindividualistic (US/Europe) and (US/Europe) and collectivistcollectivist (Asian) (Asian) entailing different definitions of entailing different definitions of self, goals andself, goals and duty. duty.

We can also talk of We can also talk of self-construalself-construal as either as either “independent self” (values I-identity) and “independent self” (values I-identity) and “interdependent self” (values We-identity). “interdependent self” (values We-identity).

Face Theory (2) Face Theory (2) TechniquesTechniques

Standard western negotiation techniquesStandard western negotiation techniques::

Assure impartiality; Guarantee confidentiality; Assure impartiality; Guarantee confidentiality; Disputant equality; Avoid “why” questions; Disputant equality; Avoid “why” questions; Acknowledge emotions, but defuse their force; Acknowledge emotions, but defuse their force; Frequent summarization; Individual private Frequent summarization; Individual private conferences; Reframe issues of “right” and conferences; Reframe issues of “right” and “wrong” into interests; Brainstorm; Mutual “wrong” into interests; Brainstorm; Mutual stroking; Reality testing; Consider the stroking; Reality testing; Consider the alternative; Move toward agreementalternative; Move toward agreement

Face Theory (3) CultureFace Theory (3) Culture

““Saving Face” may have to do with MY face, Saving Face” may have to do with MY face, and/or YOUR face; and/or the organization, and/or YOUR face; and/or the organization, group, culture that I, and/or YOU represent. group, culture that I, and/or YOU represent.

Some privilege Self-face (“Western”); others Some privilege Self-face (“Western”); others privilege Other-face or Mutual-face (“Eastern”). privilege Other-face or Mutual-face (“Eastern”).

Some pre-empt threats to face; others react Some pre-empt threats to face; others react after-the-eventafter-the-event

Culture determines type of face of maintenance Culture determines type of face of maintenance which in turn determines type of conflict which in turn determines type of conflict managementmanagement

Face Theory (4)Face Theory (4)

Standard conflict resolution strategies Standard conflict resolution strategies include:include:

(1) avoiding (withdrawing)(1) avoiding (withdrawing)

(2) obliging (giving in) (2) obliging (giving in)

(3) compromising (negotiating)(3) compromising (negotiating)

(4) dominating (competing)(4) dominating (competing)

(5) integrating (problem solving) (5) integrating (problem solving)

Face Theory (5)Face Theory (5)

Obliging, avoiding, compromisingObliging, avoiding, compromising: low self-face concern: low self-face concernIntegrating, dominatingIntegrating, dominating: high self-face concern: high self-face concernAdditional strategies (high self-face concern): emotional Additional strategies (high self-face concern): emotional

expression (express heart), passive aggression expression (express heart), passive aggression (provoke guilt), third-party help (enlist outside aid). (provoke guilt), third-party help (enlist outside aid).

Strategies differently interpreted by different cultures: e.g. Strategies differently interpreted by different cultures: e.g. for third-party help, collectivists prefer the aid of a for third-party help, collectivists prefer the aid of a familiar third party; individualists want advice from an familiar third party; individualists want advice from an impartial person they may not know. impartial person they may not know.

Strategic choices affected by Strategic choices affected by powerpower: whether culture has : whether culture has small power distances or high power distances. small power distances or high power distances.

Face Theory (6) Face Theory (6) CompetenceCompetence

Intercultural competence involves:Intercultural competence involves:

- - KnowledgeKnowledge

- - MindfulnessMindfulness, thoughtful openness to , thoughtful openness to multiple perspectivesmultiple perspectives

- - Interaction skillInteraction skill, ability to communicate, , ability to communicate, appropriately, effectively and adaptively appropriately, effectively and adaptively in a given situationin a given situation

Speech Code Theory (1)Speech Code Theory (1)

““Nacirema” speech code characteristic of Nacirema” speech code characteristic of Americans, a culture identified by speech Americans, a culture identified by speech practicespractices

Includes a lot of “meta-communication” Includes a lot of “meta-communication” (talk about talk)(talk about talk)

Speech Codes (2)Speech Codes (2)

Five propositions applied to Nacirema:Five propositions applied to Nacirema:(1)(1) Distinctive culture – distinctive speech codeDistinctive culture – distinctive speech code..

Value of uniqueness; everyone’s voice to be heardValue of uniqueness; everyone’s voice to be heard(2)(2) Speech code has psychological, sociological and rhetorical dimensionsSpeech code has psychological, sociological and rhetorical dimensions

Individual uniqueness; speech valued for encounters at all social levels; Individual uniqueness; speech valued for encounters at all social levels; personal experience valuedpersonal experience valued

(3)(3) Significance of speaking depends on speech codesSignificance of speaking depends on speech codes..Close, open and supportive communication highly valuedClose, open and supportive communication highly valued

(4)(4) Terms, rules, premises of speech code are woven into speakingTerms, rules, premises of speech code are woven into speakingSpeech codes revealed in who speaks to whom, in what settings, toward Speech codes revealed in who speaks to whom, in what settings, toward what ends, and about topics, and how people talk about their speech what ends, and about topics, and how people talk about their speech practicespractices

(5)(5) Use of shared speech code enables prediction, explanation, and control Use of shared speech code enables prediction, explanation, and control of discourseof discourse

Departure from norms likely to be remarked upon and challengedDeparture from norms likely to be remarked upon and challenged

Genderlect Styles (1)Genderlect Styles (1)

Male-female conversation is cross-culturalMale-female conversation is cross-cultural Has to do with different conversational styles, Has to do with different conversational styles,

and the importance of being aware of / not and the importance of being aware of / not being aware of these stylesbeing aware of these styles

Women’s needs for Women’s needs for intimacyintimacy and and connectioconnection n battle with men’s needs for battle with men’s needs for independenceindependence and and statusstatus

Women value Women value rapportrapport talk, men value talk, men value report report talktalk

Genderlects (2)Genderlects (2)

Types of talkTypes of talk(1)(1) Public speaking vs private speakingPublic speaking vs private speaking

Women talk more than men in one-to-one Women talk more than men in one-to-one conversation. Their rapport talk is less suited conversation. Their rapport talk is less suited to talk in public, where men talk more. to talk in public, where men talk more.

(2) (2) Telling a storyTelling a storyMen tell more stories, esp. jokes or events in Men tell more stories, esp. jokes or events in which they are heroes; women talk about which they are heroes; women talk about others and are self-deprecatingothers and are self-deprecating

Genderlects (3)Genderlects (3)

(3) Listening(3) ListeningWomen are supportive listeners; men worry that such listening is Women are supportive listeners; men worry that such listening is submissive. Women engage in cooperative overlap speech, while submissive. Women engage in cooperative overlap speech, while men tend to competitively interrupt or switch topicmen tend to competitively interrupt or switch topic

(4) (4) Asking QuestionsAsking QuestionsAdmissions of ignorance are viewed by men as undermining self-Admissions of ignorance are viewed by men as undermining self-sufficiency. Women ask questions that make connections to sufficiency. Women ask questions that make connections to others; they tag opinions with questions (e.g. “don’t you think?”) others; they tag opinions with questions (e.g. “don’t you think?”) establishing dialogueestablishing dialogue

(5) Conflict(5) ConflictMen more likely to initiate conflict; women more inclined to avoid Men more likely to initiate conflict; women more inclined to avoid or soften itor soften it

Standpoint Theory (1)Standpoint Theory (1)

The social groups within which we are located The social groups within which we are located powerfully shape what we experience and know as well powerfully shape what we experience and know as well as how we understand and communicate with as how we understand and communicate with ourselves, others, and the world. ourselves, others, and the world.

Marginalized people, including women, see the world Marginalized people, including women, see the world differently. The difference between men and women is differently. The difference between men and women is largely the result of cultural expectations and the largely the result of cultural expectations and the treatment each group receives from the other. treatment each group receives from the other.

Other standpoints are influenced by economic Other standpoints are influenced by economic condition, race, sexual orientationcondition, race, sexual orientation

Standpoint Theory (2)Standpoint Theory (2)

People at the top of the hierarchy are the ones People at the top of the hierarchy are the ones privileged to define what it means to be female, male, privileged to define what it means to be female, male, or anything elseor anything else

There is no such thing as disinterested, impartial, There is no such thing as disinterested, impartial, value-free, ahistorical perspective. value-free, ahistorical perspective.

All knowledge is All knowledge is situatedsituated, all situated knowledge is , all situated knowledge is partial.partial.

““Strong objectivity” Strong objectivity” startsstarts from the perspectives of the from the perspectives of the marginalized, because they have more motivation to marginalized, because they have more motivation to understand, less interest in the status quo. But these understand, less interest in the status quo. But these perspectives may be communicated in restricted perspectives may be communicated in restricted language conventions shaped by the powerful. language conventions shaped by the powerful.

Muted Group Theory (1)Muted Group Theory (1)

Language is Language is manman-made. Women are a -made. Women are a muted group, since language does not muted group, since language does not reflect well their experience; its lexicon reflect well their experience; its lexicon deprecates women; women’s access to deprecates women; women’s access to public communication is largely public communication is largely controlled and censored by men. controlled and censored by men. Women have been marginalized in many Women have been marginalized in many (language-based) accounts of the world – (language-based) accounts of the world – in history, anthropology, literature. in history, anthropology, literature.

Muted Group theory (2)Muted Group theory (2)

To participate in society, women must To participate in society, women must translate into the received male system translate into the received male system of expressionof expression

Women use “back-channel” routes to Women use “back-channel” routes to discuss their experiences: diaries, discuss their experiences: diaries, journals, oral historiesjournals, oral histories

Feminists have developed alternative Feminists have developed alternative dictionariesdictionaries