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I. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION. FRAMEWORK

"...the single greatest barrier to business success is the one erected by

culture." Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall

Why study Intercultural Communication?

Cultural diversity and multiculturalism are the realities of everyday life for almost everyone.

The growth of interdependence of people and cultures in the global society of the twenty-first

century has forced us to pay more attention to intercultural issues. In order to live and

function in this multicultural environment as effectively and meaningfully as possible, people

must be competent in intercultural communication. Therefore, demands for intercultural

communication skills are increasing as more and more businesses go global or international.

We realie that there are barriers and limitations when entering a foreign territory. Without

the help of intercultural communication we can unknowingly cause confusion and

misunderstandings. !or these intercultural businesses to breach the cultural barriers

encountered when stepping into foreign grounds it is vital for business people to fully

understand the cultural differences that e"ist so as to prevent damaging business relations due

to intercultural communication gaps.

We should also be aware of the reasons for the development of the world into a global

system#

a. The development of technology has enabled a constant flow of information and ideas

across boundaries. Communication is faster and more available than ever. The

development of transportation as well, has increased face-to-face contact with people

from different cultural backgrounds immensely b. These developments have affected the world economy. The business world is

becoming more international and interrelated.

c. Widespread population migrations have changed the demographics of several nations

and new intercultural identities and communities have been born.

d. The development of multiculturalism

Working, meeting, dealing, entertaining, negotiating and corresponding with colleagues or

clients from different cultures can not be perceived outside the frame of intercultural

communication. This field is of importance to international businesses as it e"amineshow people from different cultures, beliefs and religions come together to work and

communicate with each other. $owever, the basic skills of intercultural communication are

fundamentally general communication skills that can be used universally by all cultures and

races. These skills are simply tweaked in a direction that takes the cultural limitation into

consideration. %n e"ample of such communication skills in the intercultural environment is

to listen without &udging, repeat what you understand, confirm meanings, give suggestions

and acknowledge a mutual understanding.

'tarting from these general observations, the main characteristics of intercultural

communication can be established#

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• Intercultural communication is a form of global communication. It is used to

describe the wide range of communication problems that naturally appear within an

organiation made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and

educational backgrounds.

• Intercultural communication is sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural

communication. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from differentcountries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them.

• IC also studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact .

• %side from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes,

thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people.

• It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people

from other countries.

• Intercultural communication plays a role in anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics,

psychology and communication studies.

• Intercultural communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses

and re)uires the development of intercultural communication skills for the benefit of

the business environment.

*eing aware of intercultural issues, understanding and appreciating intercultural

differences ultimately promotes clearer communication, breaks down barriers, builds trust,

strengthens relationships, opens horions and yields tangible results in terms of business

success. +http#en.wikipedia.orgwikiInterculturalcommunication

http#www.kwintessential.co.ukcultural-servicesarticlesintroduction-intercultural.html

II. A Short Histor o! Intercultural Communication

". A re#ie$ o! the %e#elo&ment o! intercultural communication stu%

%lthough the phenomenon of intercultural communication is as old as human society, the

study of intercultural communication is of recent origin.

It was first started in the /nited 'tates. Communication scholars commonly recognie 0. T.

$all as the father of the field of intercultural communication study +Condon, (12(3 4odd,

(1253 6udykunst, (1273 'inger, (128. $e conceptualied this new field of ICC in the early

(179s when he worked for the /.'. !oreign 'ervice Institute +!'I. $e popularied this new

area of communication in his book, The Silent Language, published in (171, which is

considered the founder of intercultural communication study and a classic in this field. $all:s

role in the study of IC is clearly pointed out by 6udykunst and ;ody#

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercultural_communication

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercultural_communication



<%fter World War II, the /nited 'tates established a foreign aid program, the ;arshall

=lan, to help rebuild 0urope. *ased on the success of this program, /.'. =resident $arry '.

Truman proposed in (1>1 the /nited 'tates should offer its technical and scientific

e"pertise to the then developing nations in atin %merica, %frica, and %sia to assist their

development process. The !'I was established by the /.'. Congress in the /.'.4epartment of 'tate to train %merican development technicians and diplomats. $all was

the key intellectual in the !'I training program from (179 to (177.@ +6udykunst and

;ody, $andbook of International and Intercultural Communication 5995, 5nd edition, p.5

$all introduced terms such as <intercultural tensions@ and <intercultural problems@ in (179

and <intercultural communication@ in (171.

The field of ICC has continued to prosper in the /nited 'tates considering the following

reasons#

The /nited 'tates provide many opportunities for people from different cultural

backgrounds to communicate with each3

There are thousands of new immigrants entering the country every year3

The /.'. has large numbers of foreign students and tourists3 and

The %merican involvement in the global economy# the ma&ority of %merica:s !ortune

799 Corporations are multinational and transnational companies with numerous

employees and offices in many different countries in the world.

There had also been an anthropological tradition in the study of race and culture in /.'. that

contributed to the further development of ICC. %nthropologists such as !ran *oas, a

professor of anthropology at Columbia /niversity and some of his students which included

0dward 'apir, Auth *enedict, and ;argaret ;ead, contributed to the later development ofICC through their studies and research of race and culture. !or e"ample, Auth *enedict is the

anthropologist who coined the term <culture shock,@ which is defined as the traumatic

e"perience that someone may encounter when entering a different cultural environment.

*en&amin ee Whorf, a student and colleague of 'apir:s at Bale /niversity, advanced the

theory that language influences perceptions and thus human behavior.

The ma&or points in the development of ICC are#

• Culture and communication were studied separately until recent years, and it was not

until the early seventies that scholars started to relate culture to communication.• In (189, intercultural communication was recognied by the Intercultural

communication %ssociation +IC%, and since that time, many changes in the

discipline have taken place, such as ICC being offered as a course of study at many

%merican universities.

• In the early (189s, serious training in the field of intercultural communication was

begun. The first training actually started with =eace Corps members, who were being

prepared in ICC before being sent abroad in the (19s and (189s, to countries in the

%sian and %frican continents.

• 'ietar +'ociety for intercultural education, training and research was set up in (1873

and it is probably the largest international organiation engaged in interculturalcommunication.

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• In (188, an academic &ournal entitled International Eournal of Intercultural Aelations

was first published.

• The International %ssociation of Communication has a membership of over five

thousand members.

%s $art +(11 summaried, this new field of study originated in the /nited 'tates in the

late (179s when anthropologists made studies of the native Indians and the problems /.'.

diplomats at the !oreign Institute 'ervice had with people from other cultures. The study of

intercultural communication gained acceptance through training and testing practice in the

(19s and (189s, formed its basic framework in the late (189s and has made great

achievements in theory and practice ever since the (129s both inside and outside the /.'.

Today intercultural communication not only has become one of the ma&or academic

disciplines in the /nited 'tates but also is widely acknowledged and e"tensively researched

in all parts of the world.

'. The Chronolo(ical )e#elo&ment o! Intercultural Communication Stu%

*"+ The ,ur(eonin( -erio% In (172, ederer and *urdickFs The Ugly American first raised

mass awareness of intercultural issues, but the term Gintercultural communicationG itself did

not appear until $allFs The Silent Language was published in (171. The same book paved the

way for the study of intercultural communication. %ccording to eeds-$urwit +(119, $all

made at least eight contributions to the study of intercultural communication#

a $all e"tends the single-culture focus of traditional anthropology study to comparative

culture study, with a new focus on the interaction of people from different cultures. This

focus continues to be central to the present time.

b $all shifts the study of culture from a macro perspective to a micro analysis. This shift

encourages the study of intercultural communication in terms of the practical needs of the

participants in communication.

c $all e"tends the study of culture to the field of communication. $is e"tension gradually

develops a link between anthropology and communication studies.

d $all treats communication as a rule-governed, analyable, and learned variable, a practice

that permits communication researchers to theorie about cultural patterns of interaction.

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e $all proposes that a holistic understanding of a counterpartFs culture is not necessary to

intercultural communication. $e enumerates several items that can be used to understand

another culture, including the use of voice, gestures, time, and space.

f The training methods developed by $all at the !oreign 'ervice Institute are still applied to

the intercultural communication training.

g $allFs use of descriptive linguistics as the model of intercultural communication research at

the !oreign 'ervice Institute continues to be the cornerstone of contemporary intercultural

communication study.

h $all not only applied intercultural communication training to foreign service officers but

also introduced it to international business. Today, training people in intercultural business

has become one of the ma&or activities of intercultural communication specialists.

$all continued his theoriing about intercultural communication in other books,

including The Hidden Dimension +(1, Beyond Culture +(18, The Dance of Life +(12>,

and Understanding Cultural Differences +$all H $all, (121. $is works continue to influence

the development of the field of intercultural communication.

*'+ From "/0 to "10 $allFs writings have attracted numerous scholars to the study of

intercultural communication. In addition to luckhohn and 'trodtbeckFs +(1( discourse on

cultural value orientations +Variations in value orientations), which provides an important

conceptual contribution to the field, two representative books reflect the continuous efforts

made by scholars in the field in the (19s# Aobert T. JliverFs Culture and Communication

+(15 and %lfred 6. 'mithFs Communication and Culture +(1. JliverFs study focuses on

%sian philosophy and communication behaviors, especially from a rhetorical perspective. $is

book establishes a model for the comparative study of communication behaviors between

cultures. 'mithFs book is a collection of essays on human communication covering thirteen

types of communication studies. %lthough only four articles on intercultural communication

are included in the book, their presence confirms the status of intercultural communication as

a field of study. The first college class in this field was taught in (1 at the /niversity of

=ittsburgh.

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*2+ From "1" to "30 The (189s witnessed rapid development in the field of intercultural

communication. In (185, after three years of refining his model of intercultural commu-

nication, 0dward C. 'tewart published his American Cultural Patterns. In "18D, 'amovar and

=orter published Intercultural Communication: A eader! and Indiana /niversity awarded

the first doctoral degree in intercultural communication. ;any books on intercultural

communication became available in the years that followed, the most influential including

;ichael $. =rosserFs Intercommunication among "ations and Peo#le +(18D and Cultural

Dialogue +(182, %. 6. 'mithFs Transracial Communication +(18D, Condon and Bousef:s

Introduction to Intercultural Communication +(187, *arnlundFs Pu$lic and Pri%ate Self in

&a#an and United States +(187, 'itaram and CogdellFs 'oundations of Intercultural Com(

munication +(18, !ischer and ;errillFs International and Intercultural Communication

+(18, 4oddFs Pers#ecti%es on Cross(Cultural Communication +(188, WeaverFs Crossing

Cultural Barriers +(182, and ohlsF Sur%i%al )it for *%erseas Li%ing +(181. The

publication of %sante, *lake, and KewmarkFs The Hand$oo+ of Intercultural Communication

in (181 highlighted the achievements of intercultural communication scholars in the (189s.

In addition to these books, The International &ournal of Intercultural elations $egan

publication in (188. The &ournal influenced research in the field of intercultural

communication in the years that followed.

4isorder characteries the initial development of the field. Intercultural communication

scholars pursued their own directions and definitions and it was not until the (129s that the

field began to move from disarray to a more coherent focus.

*4+ From "3" to the -resent Time Condon and Bousef:s Introduction to Intercultural

Communication +(187 and 'amovar and =orterFs Intercultural Communication: A eader

+(18D are two ma&or forces from the early (189s in the integration of the study of

intercultural communication in the (129s. Condon and Bousef:s stress on cultural value

orientations and communication behaviors parallels $ofstedeFs +(12> later work on cultural

values and $allFs writing on high-conte"t and low-conte"t cultures in Beyond Culture +(188.

Their writing on the relationship of culture and verbal and nonverbal communication is still

important to contemporary intercultural communication study. In addition, their discussion of

the interaction between language, thinking patterns, and culture drew from JliverFs method of

comparative cultural study. In the (129s, 'tarosta +(12> continued to draw upon this line of

research.



'cholars who received formal academic training in intercultural communication in the

late (19s and the early (189s began to make their contributions in research and teaching by

the (129s. ;any of their mentors had been trained in rhetoric, including Eohn Condon,

;ichael =rosser, William $owell, and %rthur 'mith, whose students defined the course of

intercultural communication in the (129s and (119s. !ive volumes published in the (129s

advanced an agenda for the study of intercultural communication# 6udykunstFs Intercultural

Communication Theory: Current Pers#ecti%es +(12D, 6udykunst and imFs ,ethods of

Intercultural esearch +(12>, incaidFs Communication Theory: -astern and estern

Pers#ecti%es! im and 6udykunstFs Theories in Intercultural Communication +(122, and

%sante and 6udykunstFs Hand$oo+ of International and Intercultural Communication +(121.

Theory building and methodological refinement characterie intercultural communication

study during this decade.

It should also be pointed out that from the (189s to the present time the direction for the

study of intercultural communication has been determined mainly by three influences# +( the

International and Intercultural Communication %nnual +IIC%, +5 the 'peech

Communication %ssociation +'C%, and +D the International Communication %ssociation

+IC%.

0arly volumes of IIC% were edited by Casmir and Eain. 'tarting with (12D, each volume of

IIC% focused on one specific topic. Intercultural Communication Theory: Current

Pers#ecti%es +6udykunst, (12D and Theories in Intercultural Communication +im and

6udykunst, (122 are two of the IIC% volumes. The editorial direction of IIC% was strongly

oriented toward )uantitative research in the (129s and early (119s.

'C% and IC% are the two ma&or professional associations for communication study. *oth

associations have a division promoting research and study of intercultural communication,

the International and Intercultural Communication 4ivision of the 'C%, and

Intercultural4evelopment Communication 4ivision of the IC%. In addition to 'C% and IC%,

other associations, including 'I0T%A, 0astern Communication %ssociation +0C%, Western

Communication %ssociation +WC%, 'outhern 'tates Communication %ssociation +''C%,

Central 'tates Communication %ssociation +C'C%, and &ournals sponsored by these associa-

tions also make significant contributions to the development of the field of intercultural

communication.

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Aecently, three additional &ournals, The Ho/ard &ournal of Communications!

Intercultural Communication Studies! and orld Communication! a publication of the World

Communication %ssociation, have begun to specialie e"clusively in the cultural issues of

communication research.

2. The Content o! Intercultural Communication Stu%

!our decades after $allFs emphasis on the study of nonverbal messages in different

cultural settings, the study of intercultural communication has e"panded to cover a diverse set

of variables deriving from the concepts of Gcommunication,G Gculture,G and the combination

of communication and culture. %s is the case for the communication discipline itself, the

study of intercultural communication is influenced by traditional disciplines such asanthropology, linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and sociology.

%ccording to Aich +(18>, intercultural communication is an ambiguous concept. !or the

purpose of her study, Aich argues that the content of intercultural communication can be

classified into five forms. !irst, intercultural communication focuses on the study of

interaction between people from different cultural backgrounds, such as interactions between

people from %merica and China. 'econd, international communication focuses on the study

of interaction between representatives of different nations, such as the interaction between

representatives in the /nited Kations. Third, interracial communication focuses on the study

of interaction between members of the numerically or politically dominant culture and co-

culture in the same nation, such as the interaction between whites and %frican %mericans.

!ourth, interethnic or minority communication focuses on the study of interaction among co-

cultures in the same nation, such as the interaction between $ispanic and Eapanese

%mericans. astly, contracultural communication focuses on the study of the developmental

process linking intercultural communication to interracial communication, such as the

developmental process that led from the interaction between Columbus and Kative

%mericans to the interaction between !irst Kation tribes and Canadians. Aich considered that

the study of intercultural communication should include all these five areas. AichFs

classification clearly shows that intercultural communication study should be approached

from an interpersonal or rhetorical level. 0"cept for contracultural communication, AichFs

categories remain visible today.

2



In his *utline of Intercultural Communication +(182, 'tewart pointed out that the study

of intercultural communication should lead to application in real-life situations. 'tewart

emphasied intercultural training programs similar to those from his e"perience as a =eace

Corps trainer, and based on a comparative culture model of cognition. $e emphasied that

intercultural communication training should lead trainees through nine stages of gradual

change, enabling them to#

a select information among alternative facts they already possess.

b understand the goal of training and apply it in their decision making.

c identify or recognie generaliations and concepts to modify their perception of events

and guide their performance at a general level.

d master the content of the training.

e sensitie them to cultural concepts that will assist them in their interaction with people

from other cultures.

f change aspects of their conscious attitudes, such as cultural self-perception and certain

emotional and cognitive perceptions, to reach a higher level of empathy.

g govern their behavior and emotions in working and in living with people from other

cultures by increasing their adaptability.

h adopt a changed way of perceiving and behaving so that they can improve their social

performance in other cultures.

i integrate the emotional and perceptual change which govern their actions prior to the

training.

William *. 6udykunst +(128 classified the contents of intercultural communication study by

using interactive-comparative dimensions to divide the field of research into four

categories# +( intercultural communication, +5 cross-cultural communication, +D

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international communication, and +> comparative mass communication. %ccording to

6udykunst, intercultural communication includes a focus on both the GinteractiveG and the

Ginterpersonal.G It deals with interpersonal communication between people from different

cultures or co-cultures, such as that among Chinese and %mericans, or between whites and

%frican %mericans, and encompasses the areas of intercultural, interracial, and interethnic

communication identified by Aich. Cross-cultural communication focuses on the concepts

of GinterpersonalG and GcomparativeG and deals with the differences in communication

behaviors between people of different cultures, such as the differences in negotiation

strategies between 'wais and 'outh %fricans. International communication stresses the

concepts of GinteractiveG and Gmediated.G It mainly deals with media communication in

another countries, e"ploring, for e"ample, the role media play in orean society. !inally,

comparative mass communication focuses on the concepts of GmediatedG and

Gcomparative.G It deals with the differences and similarities of media systems in different

countries, as in China and Aussia. 6udykunst further delineated five subareas of

intercultural communication study based on the concepts of Ginteractive,G Gcomparative,G

Ginterpersonal,G and Gmediated.G

In sum, in four decades of theoriing and research in intercultural communication

advances occurred on several fronts. ;ore and more intercultural communication training

programs developed, including long-term and short-term workshops and seminars. While the

content of intercultural communication has been classified by scholars into different cate-

gories, it maintains its historical focus on intercultural, cross-cultural, interracial, and

interethnic communication that was developed by E. Condon, W. *. 6udykunst, 0. T. $all,

A. T. Jliver, Aich, and %. 'mith. +http://210.46.97.180/jpk/backg/3.html)

4. Communication Theories

The following types of theories can be distinguished in different strands# focus on effective

outcomes, on accommodation or adaption, on identity negotiation and management, on

communication networks, on acculturation and ad&ustment.

Theories !ocusin( on e!!ecti#e outcomes

• Cultural Convergence

o In a relatively closed social system in which communication among members

is unrestricted, the system as a whole will tend to con%erge over time toward a

state of greater cultural uniformity. The system will tend to diverge toward

diversity when communication is restricted.

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Theories !ocusin( on accommo%ation or a%a&tion

• Communication %ccommodation Theory

o This theory focuses on linguistic strategies to decrease or increase

communicative distances.

• Intercultural %daption

o This theory is designed to e"plain how communicators adapt to each other in

Gpurpose-related encountersG, at which cultural factors need to be

incorporated.

• Co-cultural Theory

o In its most general form, co-cultural communication refers to interactions

among underrepresented and dominant group members.L Co-cultures include

but are not limited to people of color, women, people with disabilities, gay

men and lesbians, and those in the lower social classes. Co-cultural theory, asdeveloped by ;ark =. Jrbe, looks at the strategic ways in which co-cultural

group members communicate with others. In addition, a co-cultural

framework provides an e"planation for how different persons communicate

based on si" factors.

Theories !ocusin( on i%entit ne(otiation or mana(ement

• Identity ;anagement Theory

I%entit Mana(ement Theor +also fre)uently referred to as I;T is an intercultural

communication theory from the (119s. It was developed by William A. Cupach and Tadasu

Todd Imahori on the basis of 0rving 6offmanFs Interaction ritual: -ssays on face(to(face

$eha%ior +(18. Cupach and Imahori distinguish between intercultural communication

+speakers from different cultures and intracultural communication +speakers sharing the

same culture.

To understand I;T, it is important to be familiar with Cupach and ImahoriFs view of

identities. %mong the multiple identities which an individual possesses, cultural and

relational identities are regarded as essential to I;T. Cupach and Imahori claim that

presenting oneFs face shows facets of an individualFs identity. Whether an interlocutor is able

to maintain face or not, reveals his or her interpersonal communication competence. The use

of stereotypes in intercultural conversations often results from the ignorance of each otherFsculture3 the application of stereotypes, however, is face threatening. *eing able to manage the

resulting tensions, is part of intercultural communication competence. !or becoming

competent in developing intercultural relationships, the following three phases have to be

passed#

(. Gtrial and errorG# act of looking for similar aspects in certain identities.

5. Gmi"ing upG the communicatorsF identities to achieve a relational identity acceptable

for both participants

D. renegotiating the distinctive cultural identities with the help of the relational identity

that was created in phase 5

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracultural

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracultural



Cupach and Imahori call these phases GcyclicalG as they are gone through by intercultural

communicators for each aspect of their identities.

• Identity Kegotiation Cultural Identity Theory 4ouble-swing model

Theories !ocusin( on communication net$or5s• Ketworks and Jutgroup Communication Competence

• Intracultural Mersus Intercultural Ketworks

• Ketworks and %cculturation

Theories !ocusin( on acculturation an% a%6ustment

• Communication %cculturation

o This theory attempts to portray Gcross-cultural adaption as a collaborative

effort in which a stranger and the receiving environment are engaged in a &oint

effort.

• %n"iety/ncertainty ;anagement

o When strangers communicate with hosts, they e"perience uncertainty and

an"iety. 'trangers need to manage their uncertainty as well as their an"iety in

order to be able to communicate effectively with hosts and then to try to

develop accurate predictions and e"planations for hostsF behaviors.

• %ssimilation, 4eviance, and %lienation 'tates

o %ssimilation and adaption are not permanent outcomes of the adaption

process3 rather, they are temporary outcomes of the communication process between hosts and immigrants. G%lienation or assimilation, therefore, of a

group or an individual, is an outcome of the relationship between deviant

behavior and neglectful communication.G

Other Theories

• ;eaning of ;eaning Theory - G% misunderstanding takes place when people assume

a word has a direct connection with its referent. % common past reduces

misunderstanding. 4efinition, metaphor, feedforward, and *asic 0nglish are partial

linguistic remedies for a lack of shared e"perience.G

•

!ace Kegotiation Theory - G;embers of collectivistic, high-conte"t cultures haveconcerns for mutual face and inclusion that lead them to manage conflict with another

person by avoiding, obliging, or compromising. *ecause of concerns for self-face and

autonomy, people from individualistic, low-conte"t cultures manage conflict by

dominating or through problem solvingG

• 'tandpoint Theory N refers to the situation in which an individual e"perience,

knowledge, and communication behaviors are shaped in large part by the social

groups to which they belong.

• 'tranger Theory - %t least one of the persons in an intercultural encounter is a

stranger. 'trangers are a FhyperawareF of cultural differences and tend to overestimate

the effect of cultural identity on the behavior of people in an alien society, while

blurring individual distinctions.

(5



• !eminist 6enre Theory - 0valuates communication by identifying feminist speakers

and reframing their speaking )ualities as models for women:s liberation.

• 6enderlect Theory - G;ale-female conversation is cross-cultural communication.

;asculine and feminine styles of discourse are best viewed as two distinct cultural

dialects rather than as inferior or superior ways of speaking. ;enFs report talk focuseson status and independence. WomenFs support talk seeks human connection.G

• Cultural Critical 'tudies Theory - The theory states that the mass media impose the

dominant ideology on the rest of society, and the connotations of words and images

are fragments of ideology that perform an unwitting service for the ruling elite.

http#en.wikipedia.orgwikiInterculturalcommunication

*ibliography

• 0llingsworth, $.W. +(12D. G%daptive intercultural communicationG, in# 6udykunst,

William * +ed., Intercultural communication theory, (17-59>, *everly $ills# 'age.• 6riffin, 0. +5999. % first look at communication theory +>th ed.. *oston, ;%#

;c6raw-$ill. na

• 6udykunst, William *., H ;.A. $ammer.+(122. G'trangers and hosts# %n

uncertainty reduction based theory of intercultural adaptionG in# im, B. H W.*.

6udykunst +eds., Cross(cultural ada#tion, (9-(D1, Kewbury =ark# 'age.

• 6udykunst, William *. +599D, GIntercultural Communication TheoriesG, in#

6udykunst, William * +ed., Cross(Cultural and Intercultural Communication, (8-

(21, Thousand Jaks# 'age.

• im B.B.+(117, GCross-Cultural adaption# %n integrative theory.G, in# A.. Wiseman+0d. Intercultural Communication Theory, (89 - (1>, Thousand Jaks, C%# 'age.

• ;c6uire, ;. H ;c4ermott, '. +(122, GCommunication in assimilation, deviance,

and alienation statesG, in# B.B. im H W.*. 6udykunst +0ds., Cross(Cultural

Ada#tion, 19 - (97, Kewbury =ark, C%# 'age.

• Jetel, Eohn 6. +(117, GIntercultural small groups# %n effective decision-making

theoryG, in Wiseman, Aichard +ed., Intercultural communication theory, 5>8-589,

Thousands Jaks# 'age.

•

Wiseman, Aichard . +599D, GIntercultural Communication CompetenceG, in#6udykunst, William * +ed., Cross(Cultural and Intercultural Communication, (1(-

592, Thousand Jaks# 'age.

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II. CULTURE. COMMUNICATION. INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION

Culture and Communication

The term <culture@ refers to the comple" collection of knowledge, folklore, language, rules,

rituals, habits, lifestyles, attitudes, beliefs, and customs that link and give a common identity

to a particular group of people at a specific point in time.

%ll social units develop a culture. 0ven in two-person relationships, a culture develops over

time. In friendship and romantic relationships, for e"ample, partners develop their own

history, shared e"periences, language patterns, rituals, habits, and customs that give that

relationship a special characterOa character that differentiates it in various ways from otherrelationships. 0"amples might include special dates, places, songs, or events that come to

have a uni)ue and important symbolic meaning for two individuals.

6roups also develop cultures, composed of the collection of rules, rituals, customs, and other

characteristics that give an identity to the social unit. !or e"ample, issues such as where a

group traditionally meets, whether meetings begin on time or not, what topics are discussed,

how decisions are made, and how the group socialies become defining and differentiating

elements of the group:s culture.

Jrganiations also have cultures, often apparent in particular patterns of dress, layout of

workspaces, meeting styles and functions, ways of thinking about and talking about thenature and directions of the organiation, leadership styles, and so on.

The most rich and comple" cultures are those that are associated with a society or a nation,

and the term <culture@ is most commonly used to refer to these characteristics, including

language and language-usage patterns, rituals, rules, and customs. % societal or national

culture also includes such elements as significant historical events and characters,

philosophies of government, social customs, family practices, religion, economic

philosophies and practices, belief and value systems, and concepts and systems of law.

Thus, any social unitOwhether a relationship, group, organiation, or societyOdevelops a

culture over time. While the defining characteristicsOor combination of characteristicsOof

each culture are uni)ue, all cultures share certain common functions. Three such functions

that are particularly important from a communication perspective are +( linking individuals

to one another, +5 providing the basis for a common identity, and +D creating a conte"t for

interaction and negotiation among members.

The Relationshi& 7et$een Communication an% Culture

Cultures are created through communication3 that is, communication is the means of human

interaction through which cultural characteristics +customs, roles, rules, rituals, laws, or other

patterns are created and shared. Cultures are a natural by-product of social interaction. In asense, cultures are the <residue@ of social communication. Without communication and

(>



communication media, it would be impossible to preserve and pass along cultural

characteristics from one place and time to another. Jne can say, therefore, that culture is

created, shaped, transmitted, and learned through communication. The reverse is also the

case3 that is, communication practices are largely created, shaped, and transmitted by culture.

The communication-culture relationship has to be approached in terms of ongoingcommunication processes rather than a single communication event. While communicating,

the members of a group bring with them individual thought and behavioral patterns from

previous communication e"periences and from other cultures of which they are, or have been,

a part. %s individuals start to engage in communication with the other members of the group,

they begin to create a set of shared e"periences and ways of talking about them. If the group

continues to interact, a set of distinguishing history, patterns, customs, and rituals will evolve.

Kew members would in turn influence the group culture as they become a part of it. In a

reciprocal fashion, this reshaped culture shapes the communication practices of current and

future group members. This is true with any culture3 communication shapes culture, and

culture shapes communication.

Characteristics o! Culture

0dward $all +(171, (181 is one of the most significant contributors to the general

understanding of the comple"ity of culture and the importance of communication to

understanding and dealing with cultural differences at the societal level.

There are several key characteristics of cultures that must be taken into account#

(. Cultures are sub&ective. There is a tendency to assume that the elements of one:s own

cultures are logical and make good sense. It follows that if other culturesOwhether ofrelationships, groups, organiations, or societiesOlook different, those differences are often

considered to be negative, illogical, and sometimes nonsensical. =eople who are used to

informal meetings of a group might think that adherence to formal meeting rules is strange

and stilted. 0mployees in an organiation where suits are worn every day may react with

cynicism and )uestioning when they enter an organiation where casual attire is standard

practice. With regard to culture, the tendency for many people is to e)uate <different@ with

<wrong,@ even though all cultural elements come about through essentially identical

communication processes.

5. Cultures change over time. In fact, cultures are ever changingOthough the change is

sometimes very slow and imperceptible. ;any forces influence cultural change. 'imcecultures are created through communication, it is also through communication between

individuals that cultures change over time. 0ach person involved in a communication

encounter brings the sum of his or her own e"periences from other +past or present culture

memberships. In one sense, any encounter between individuals in new relationships, groups,

organiations, or societies is an intercultural communication event, and these varying cultural

encounters influence the individual and the cultures over time. Travel and communication

technologies greatly accelerate the movement of messages from one cultural conte"t to

another, and in small and large ways, cultures come to influence one another through

communication. =hrases such as <melting pot,@ <world community,@ and <global village@

speak to the inevitability of intercultural influence and change.

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D. Cultures are largely invisible. ;uch of what characteries cultures of relationships, groups,

organiations, or societies is invisible to its members. anguage, of course, is visible, as are

greeting conventions, special symbols, places, and spaces. $owever, the special and defining

meanings that these symbols, greetings, places, and spaces have for individuals in a culture

are far less visible. Conse)uently, opportunities to <see@ culture and the dynamic relationship

that e"ists between culture and communication are few. Two such opportunities do occurwhen there are violations of cultural conventions or when there is cross-cultural contact.

When someone violates an accepted cultural convention, ritual, or custom - for e"ample, by

speaking in a foreign language, standing closer than usual while conversing, or discussing

topics that are typically not discussed openly the other members of the culture become aware

that something inappropriate is occurring. When <normal@ cultural practices are occurring,

members of the culture think little of it, but when violations occur, the members are reminded

of the pervasive role that culture has on daily life.

When visiting other groups, organiations, and, especially, other societies, people are often

confronted byOand therefore become aware ofO different customs, rituals, and conventions.These situations often are associated with some awkwardness, as the people strive to

understand and sometimes to adapt to the characteristics of the new culture. In these

circumstances, again, one gains a glimpse of <culture@ and the processes by which people

create and adapt to culture.

>. Cultures are influenced by media. %ll institutions within society facilitate communication,

and in that way, they all contribute to the creation, spread, and evolution of culture. $owever,

communication media such as television, film, radio, newspapers, compact discs, magaines,

computers, and the Internet play a particularly important role. *ecause media e"tend human

capacities for creating, duplicating, transmitting, and storing messages, they also e"tend and

amplify culture-building activities. *y means of such communication technology, messages

are transmitted across time and space, stored, and later retrieved and used. Television

programs, films, websites, video games, and compact discs are created through human

activityOand therefore reflect and further e"tend the cultural perspectives of their creators.

They come to take on a life of their own, )uite distinct and separate from their creators, as

they are transmitted and shared around the increasingly global community.

7. Cultures depend on communication. /nderstanding the nature of culture in relationship to

communication is helpful in a number of ways. !irst, it helps to e"plain the origin of

differences between the practices, beliefs, values, and customs of various groups and

societies, and it provides a reminder of the communication process by which thesedifferences came into being. This knowledge can and should heighten people:s tolerance for

cultural differences. 'econd, it helps to e"plain the process that individuals go through in

adapting to new relationships, groups, organiations, and societies and the cultures of each.

Third, it underscores the importance of communication as a bridge between cultures and as a

force behind cultural change.

. Cultures are shaped by communication. % number of )uestions also concern researchers

and policymakers in this area. %s communication increases between individuals, groups, and

countries, does this mean that cultural differences and traditions will inevitably erode

altogether? Will the cultures of individuals from groups, organiations, and societies that

have great access to and control of communication media overpower those in cultures that

(



have fewer resources and less access and control? Can knowledge be used to help individuals

more comfortably and effectively adapt to new relationships, groups, organiations, and

societies? The importance of these issues makes this area an important one for continued

e"amination by scholars and practitioners.

Cross-cultural Communication Challenges

We all communicate with others all the time -- in our homes, in our workplaces, in the groups

we belong to, and in the community. Ko matter how well we think we understand each other,

communication is hard. GCultureG is often at the root of communication challenges. Jur

culture influences how we approach problems, and how we participate in groups and in

communities. When we participate in groups we are often surprised at how differently people

approach their work together.

%s people from different cultural groups take on the e"citing challenge of working together,cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that

can hinder what are otherwise promising partnerships. Jftentimes, we arenFt aware that

culture is acting upon us. 'ometimes, we are not even aware that we have cultural values or

assumptions that are different from othersF. Therefore we should be aware that cultural

differences do e"ist and influence the way we communicate.

%nthropologists evin %vruch and =eter *lack e"plain the importance of culture this way#

<...JneFs own culture provides the GlensG through which we view the world3 the GlogicG... by

which we order it3 the GgrammarG ... by which it makes sense. +P In other words, culture is

central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how we e"press ourselves.@

There are 'i" !undamental =atterns of Cultural 4ifference #

(. 4ifferent Communications 'tyles

5. 4ifferent %ttitudes Toward Conflict

D. 4ifferent %pproaches to Completing Tasks

>. 4ifferent 4ecision-;aking 'tyles

7. 4ifferent %ttitudes Toward 4isclosure

. 4ifferent %pproaches to nowing

*y describing them, we can more easily be aware of the causes of cross-cultural

communication difficulties.

1. Different o!!unication tyles

The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. Jne aspect

of communication style is language usage. %cross cultures, some words and phrases are used

in different ways. !or e"ample, even in countries that share the 0nglish language, the

(8



In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a

conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. When you are dealing with a

conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions

that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the

conflict? What was the se)uence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others.

+. Different $&&roaches to ,nowing

Kotable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies -- that is,

the ways people come to know things. 0uropean cultures tend to consider information

ac)uired through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other

ways of coming to know things. Compare that to %frican culturesF preference for affective

ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. %sian culturesF epistemologies

tend to emphasie the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence.

These different approaches to knowing could affect ways of analying a community problem

or finding ways to resolve it. 'ome members of your group may want to do library researchto understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Jthers may prefer to

visit places and people who have e"perienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and get

a feeling for what has worked elsewhere.

Res&ectin( Our )i!!erences an% Wor5in( To(ether

In addition to helping us to understand ourselves and our own cultural frames of reference,

knowledge of these si" patterns of cultural difference can help us to understand the people

who are different from us. %n appreciation of patterns of cultural difference can assist us in

processing what it means to be different in ways that are respectful of others, not faultfindingor damaging.

%nthropologists %vruch and *lack have noted that, when faced by an interaction that we do

not understand, people tend to interpret the others involved as Gabnormal,G Gweird,G or

Gwrong.G This tendency gives rise on the individual level to pre&udice. Conse)uently, it is

vital that we learn to control the human tendency to translate Gdifferent from meG into Gless

than me.G We can learn to do this.

We can also learn to collaborate across cultural lines as individuals and as a society.

%wareness of cultural differences doesnFt have to divide us from each other. It doesnFt have to

paralye us either, for fear of not saying the Gright thing.G In fact, becoming more aware ofour cultural differences, as well as e"ploring our similarities, can help us communicate with

each other more effectively. Aecogniing where cultural differences are at work is the first

step toward understanding and respecting each other.

earning about different ways that people communicate can enrich our lives. =eopleFs

different communication styles reflect deeper philosophies and world views which are the

foundation of their culture. /nderstanding these deeper philosophies gives us a broader

picture of what the world has to offer us.

earning about peopleFs cultures has the potential to give us a mirror image of our own. We

have the opportunity to challenge our assumptions about the GrightG way of doing things, and

(1



consider a variety of approaches. We have a chance to learn new ways to solve problems that

we had previously given up on, accepting the difficulties as G&ust the way things are.G

astly, if we are open to learning about people from other cultures, we become less lonely.

=re&udice and stereotypes separate us from whole groups of people who could be friends and

partners in working for change. ;any of us long for real contact. Talking with peopledifferent from ourselves gives us hope and energies us to take on the challenge of improving

our communities and worlds.

8ui%elines !or Multicultural Colla7oration

When working on multicultural collaboration, keep in mind these additional guidelines#

• earn from generaliations about other cultures, but donFt use those generaliations to

stereotype, Gwrite off,G or oversimplify your ideas about another person. The best use

of a generaliation is to add it to your storehouse of knowledge so that you better

understand and appreciate other interesting, multi-faceted human beings.

• =ractice, practice, practice. ThatFs the first rule, because itFs in the doing that we

actually get better at cross-cultural communication.

• 4onFt assume that there is one right way +yoursR to communicate. eep )uestioning

your assumptions about the Gright wayG to communicate. !or e"ample, think about

your body language3 postures that indicate receptivity in one culture might indicate

aggressiveness in another.

• 4onFt assume that breakdowns in communication occur because other people are on

the wrong track. 'earch for ways to make the communication work, rather than

searching for who should receive the blame for the breakdown.

• isten actively and empathetically. Try to put yourself in the other personFs shoes.

0specially when another personFs perceptions or ideas are very different from your

own, you might need to operate at the edge of your own comfort one.

• Aespect othersF choices about whether to engage in communication with you. $onor

their opinions about what is going on.

• 'top, suspend &udgment, and try to look at the situation as an outsider.

• *e prepared for a discussion of the past. /se this as an opportunity to develop an

understanding from Gthe otherFsG point of view, rather than getting defensive or

impatient. %cknowledge historical events that have taken place. *e open to learning

more about them. $onest acknowledgment of the mistreatment and oppression that

have taken place on the basis of cultural difference is vital for effective

communication.

• %wareness of current power imbalances -- and an openness to hearing each otherFs

perceptions of those imbalances -- is also necessary for understanding each other and

working together.

• Aemember that cultural norms may not apply to the behavior of any particular

individual. We are all shaped by many, many factors -- our ethnic background, our

59



family, our education, our personalities -- and are more complicated than any cultural

norm could suggest. Check your interpretations if you are uncertain what is meant.

%vruch, evin and =eter *lack, GConflict Aesolution in Intercultural 'ettings# =roblems and

=rospects,G in Con!lict Resolution Theor an% -ractice9 Inte(ration an% A&&lication,

edited by 4ennis 'andole and $ugo van der ;erwe. Kew Bork# 't. ;artinFs =ress, (11D.

;arcelle 0. 4u=raw and ;arya %"ner, “Cross-cultural Communication Challenges”

http#encyclopedia.&rank.orgarticlespages>1(Culture-and-Communication.htm

http#www.pbs.orgampucrosscult.html

III. CONTRASTIN8 CULTURAL :ALUES AN)

-ERCE-TIONS

8eert Ho!ste%e Cultural )imensions

0 Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a

nuisance at $est and often a disaster.0 =rof. 6eert $ofstede

!or those who work in international business, it is sometimes amaing how different people

in other cultures behave. We tend to have a human instinct that Fdeep insideF all people are the

same - but they are not. Therefore, if we go into another country and make decisions based on

how we operate in our own home country - the chances are weFll make some very baddecisions.

The study of cultural dimensions gives us insights into other cultures so that we can be more

effective when interacting with people in other countries. If understood and applied properly,

this information should reduce your level of frustration, an"iety, and concern.

The im&ortance o! culture

0ach of us has her or his uni)ue personality, history, and interest. Bet all people share a

common human nature. Jur shared human nature is intensely social# we are group animals.

We use language and empathy, and practice collaboration and intergroup competition. *ut

the unwritten rules of how we do these things differ from one human group to another.

GCultureG is how we call these unwritten rules about how to be a good member of the group.

Culture provides moral standards about how to be an upstanding group member3 it defines the

group as a Gmoral circleG. It inspires symbols, heroes, rituals, laws, religions, taboos, and all

kinds of practices - but its core is hidden in unconscious values. We tend to classify groups

other than our own as inferior or +rarely superior. This applies to groups based on national,

religious, or ethnic boundaries, but also on occupation or academic discipline, on club

membership, adored idol, or dress style. In our globalied world most of us can belong to

many groups at the same time. *ut to get things done, we still need to cooperate with

members of other groups carrying other cultures. 'kills in cooperation across cultures are

5(



vital for our common survival and the development of such intercultural cooperation skills is

a must for the modern society.

The word GcultureG stems from a atin root that means the tilling of the soil, like in

agriculture. In many modern languages the word is used in a figurative sense, with two

meanings#

(. The first, most common, meaning is GciviliationG, including education, manners, arts

and crafts and their products. It is the domain of a Gministry of cultureG.

5. The second meaning derives from social anthropology, but in the past decades it has

entered common parlance. It refers to the way people think, feel, and act. 6eert

$ofstede has defined it as Gthe collective programming of the mind distinguishing the

members of one group or category of people from anotherG. The GcategoryG can refer

to nations, regions within or across nations, ethnicities, religions, occupations,

organiations, or the genders. % simpler definition is Fthe unwritten rules of the social

gameF.

The two meanings should not be confused. We refer here to culture in the second sense.

$uman culture is the result of hundreds of thousands of years of evolution. 4uring most of

this time, competition between bands of gatherer-hunters was a powerful evolutionary

pressure. %s a result our social and intellectual skills have become ever bigger. *ut we did

not lose the elements of our behaviour that identify us as social mammals. !ights for

dominance, competition for partners, a wish to belong and to know who does not belong - all

of these basic drives are alive in us. Ko wonder that culture revolves around basic issues that

have to do with group membership, authority, gender roles, morality, an"iety, emotions and

drives. Culture affects our love lives, our professional lives, our wars and our dreams.

%n individual human being ac)uires most of her or his programming during childhood,

before puberty. In this phase of our lives we have an incredible capacity for absorbing

information and following e"amples from our social environment# our parents and other

elders, our siblings and playmates. *ut all of this is constrained by our physical environment#

its wealth or poverty, its threats or safety, its level of technology. %ll human groups, from the

nuclear family to society, develop cultures as they go. Culture is what enables a group to

function smoothly. $ere are some prominent levels on which culture functions#

National le#el

TodayFs world population is divided into some 599 nations. Comparing nations has become part of most social sciences. 'ome nations are more culturally homogeneous than others3

especially large nations like *rail, China, India and Indonesia comprise culturally different

regions. Jther culturally similar areas belong politically to different nations# this is in

particular the case in %frica. With these limitations, comparing national cultures is still a

meaningful and revealing venture. Aesearch by 6eert $ofstede and others has shown that

national cultures differ in particular at the level of, usually unconscious, values held by a

ma&ority of the population. Malues, in this case, are Gbroad preferences for one state of affairs

over othersG. The $ofstede dimensions of national cultures are rooted in our unconscious

values. *ecause values are ac)uired in childhood, national cultures are remarkably stable

over time3 national values change is a matter of generations. What we see changing around

us, in response to changing circumstances are practices# symbols, heroes and rituals, leaving

55



the underlying values untouched. This is why differences between countries often have such a

remarkable historical continuity.

Or(ani;ational le#el

;any of us spend a large part of their time in organiations. Jrganiational cultures, the way$ofstede uses the term, distinguish different organiations within the same country or

countries. $is research has shown that organiational cultures differ mainly at the level of

practices +symbols, heroes and rituals3 these are more superficial and more easily learned

and unlearned than the values that form the core of national cultures. %s a conse)uence, the

$ofstede dimensions of national cultures are not relevant for comparing organiations within

the same country. Kational cultures belong to anthropology3 organiational cultures to

sociology. *ecause organiational cultures are rooted in practices, they are to some e"tent

manageable3 national cultures, rooted in values, are given facts for organiation management.

Occu&ational le#el

0ntering an occupational field implies ac)uiring a degree of mental programming.

Jccupational cultures have symbols, heroes and rituals in common with organiational

cultures, but they also often imply holding certain values and convictions. Jccupational

cultures in this respect take a position in between national and organiational cultures. The

culture of management as an occupation contains both national and organiational elements.

8en%er le#el

6ender differences are not usually described in terms of cultures. It can be revealing to do so.

If we recognie that within each society there may be a menFs culture that differs from awomenFs culture, this helps to e"plain why it is so difficult to change traditional gender roles.

Women and men are often technically able to perform the same &obs, but they do not respond

to the symbols, do not look like the heroes, do not share the rituals. 0ven if some do, the

other se" may not accept them in their deviant gender role. !eelings and fears about

behaviours by the opposite se" can be of the same order of intensity as reactions of people

e"posed to foreign cultures. The degree of gender differentiation in a country is highly

dependent on its national culture.

The Stu% o! )imensions o! National Cultures

8eert Ho!ste%e is a 4utch social psychologist who did a pioneering study of cultures acrossmodern nations. $e has operated in an international environment since (17, and his

curiosity as a social psychologist led him to the comparison of nations, first as a travelling

international staff member of a multinational +I*; and later as a visiting professor at an

international business school in 'witerland. $is (129 book Culture1s Conse2uences

combined his personal e"periences with the statistical analysis of two uni)ue data bases. The

first and largest comprised answers of matched employee samples from >9 different countries

to the same attitude survey )uestions. The second consisted of answers to some of these same

)uestions by his e"ecutive students who came from (7 countries and from a variety of

companies and industries. 'ystematic differences between nations in these two data

bases occurred in particular for )uestions dealing with values. Malues, in this case, are Gbroad

preferences for one state of affairs over othersG, and they are mostly unconscious.

5D



The study of dimensions of national cultures is important since it provides a comprehensive

understanding of cultural differences which entails, in its turn, an effective dialogue between

different cultures. Jne e"ample of cultural differences in business is between the ;iddle

0astern countries and the Western countries, especially the /nited 'tates.

When negotiating in Western countries, the ob&ective is to work toward a target of mutualunderstanding and agreement and Fshake-handsF when that agreement is reached - a cultural

signal of the end of negotiations and the start of Fworking togetherF. In ;iddle 0astern

countries much negotiation takes place leading into the FagreementF, signified by shaking

hands. $owever, the deal is not complete in the ;iddle 0astern culture. In fact, it is a cultural

sign that FseriousF negotiations are &ust beginning.

Imagine the problems this creates when each party in a negotiation is operating under

diametrically opposed Frules and conventions.F This is &ust one e"ample why it is critical to

understand other cultures you may be doing business with - whether on a vacation in a

foreign country, or negotiating a multi-million dollar deal for your company.

8eert Ho!ste%e<s !i#e Cultural )imensions

The values that distinguished countries +rather than individuals from each other grouped

themselves statistically into four clusters. They dealt with four anthropological problem areas

that different national societies handle differently# ways of coping with ine)uality, ways of

coping with uncertainty, the relationship of the individual with her or his primary group, andthe emotional implications of having been born as a girl or as a boy. These became the

$ofstede dimensions of national culture# =ower 4istance, /ncertainty %voidance,

Individualism versus Collectivism, and ;asculinity versus !emininity. *etween (119 and

5995, these dimensions were largely replicated in si" other cross-national studies on very

different populations from consumers to airline pilots, covering between (> and 52 countries.

In the 59(9 third edition of the book Cultures and *rgani3ations: Soft/are of the ,ind ,

scores on the dimensions are listed for 8 countries.

-o$er )istance

=ower distance is the e"tent to which the less powerful members of organiations andinstitutions +like the family accept and e"pect that power is distributed une)ually. This

5>



represents ine)uality +more versus less, but defined from below, not from above. It suggests

that a societyFs level of ine)uality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders.

=ower and ine)uality, of course, are e"tremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody

with some international e"perience will be aware that Gall societies are une)ual, but some are

more une)ual than othersG.

Uncertaint A#oi%ance

/ncertainty avoidance deals with a societyFs tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It

indicates to what e"tent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or

comfortable in unstructured situations. /nstructured situations are novel, unknown,

surprising, different from usual. /ncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimie the possibility

of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the

philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth# Gthere can only be one Truth

and we have itG. =eople in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and

motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are

more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to3 they try to have as few rulesas possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many

currents to flow side by side. =eople within these cultures are more phlegmatic and

contemplative, and not e"pected by their environment to e"press emotions.

In%i#i%ualism

Individualism on the one side versus its opposite, collectivism, is the degree to which

individuals are integrated into groups. Jn the individualist side we find societies in which the

ties between individuals are loose# everyone is e"pected to look after herhimself and herhis

immediate family. Jn the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth

onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often e"tended families +with uncles,

aunts and grandparents which continue protecting them in e"change for un)uestioning

loyalty. The word collectivism in this sense has no political meaning# it refers to the group,

not to the state. %gain, the issue addressed by this dimension is an e"tremely fundamental

one, regarding all societies in the world.

Masculinit

;asculinity versus its opposite, femininity, refers to the distribution of emotional roles

between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of

solutions are found. The I*; studies revealed that +a womenFs values differ less among

societies than menFs values3 +b menFs values from one country to another contain a dimension

from very assertive and competitive and ma"imally different from womenFs values on the oneside, to modest and caring and similar to womenFs values on the other. The assertive pole has

been called masculine and the modest, caring pole feminine. The women in feminine

countries have the same modest, caring values as the men3 in the masculine countries they are

more assertive and more competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries

show a gap between menFs values and womenFs values.

% fifth dimension has been added, starting with 19-ies# Lon(=Term Orientation. Aesearch

by ;ichael *ond and colleagues among students in 5D countries led him in (11( to adding a

fifth dimension called ong- versus 'hort-Term Jrientation. This fifth dimension was found

in a study among students in 5D countries around the world, using a )uestionnaire designed

by Chinese scholars It can be said to deal with Mirtue regardless of Truth. Malues associatedwith ong Term Jrientation are thrift and perseverance3 values associated with 'hort Term

57



Jrientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting oneFs FfaceF.

*oth the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the

teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 799 *.C.3

however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage. In 59(9,

research by ;ichael ;inkov allowed to e"tend the number of country scores for this

dimension to 1D, using recent World Malues 'urvey data from representative samples ofnational populations. ong- term oriented societies foster pragmatic virtues oriented towards

future rewards, in particular saving, persistence, and adapting to changing circumstances.

'hort-term oriented societies foster virtues related to the past and present such as national

pride, respect for tradition, preservation of GfaceG, and fulfilling social obligations.

The si>th %imensions9 In%ul(ence #ersus Restraint

In the same book a si"th dimension, also based on ;inkovFs World Malues 'urvey data

analysis for 1D countries, has been added, called Indulgence versus Aestraint. Indulgence

stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives

related to en&oying life and having fun. Aestraint stands for a society that suppressesgratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

)imension scores

a. Historical roots o! cultural %i!!erences

%ssumptions about historical roots of cultural differences always remain speculative but in

the following e"amples they are plausible. In other cases they remain hidden in the course of

history. These should be sought in the common history of similarly scoring countries. %ll

atin countries, for e"ample, score relatively high on both power distance and uncertainty

avoidance. atin countries +those today speaking a Aomance language i.e. 'panish,

=ortuguese, !rench, Italian or Aomanian have inherited at least part of their civiliation from

the Aoman empire. The Aoman empire in its days was characteried by the e"istence of a

central authority in Aome, and a system of law applicable to citiens anywhere. This

established in its citiensF minds the value comple" which we still recognie today#

centraliation fostered large power distance and a stress on laws fostered strong uncertainty

avoidance. The Chinese empire also knew centraliation, but it lacked a fi"ed system of laws#

it was governed by men rather than by laws. In the present-day countries once under Chinese

rule, the mindset fostered by the empire is reflected in large power distance but medium to

weak uncertainty avoidance. The 6ermanic part of 0urope, including 6reat *ritain, never

succeeded in establishing an enduring common central authority and countries whichinherited its civiliations show smaller power distance.

b. Scores aroun% the $orl%

- =ower distance scores are high for atin, %sian and %frican countries and smaller for

%nglo and 6ermanic countries.

- /ncertainty avoidance scores are higher in atin countries, in Eapan, and in 6erman

speaking countries, lower in %nglo, Kordic, and Chinese culture countries.

5



these are more superficial and more easily learned and unlearned than the values that form

the core of national cultures. %s a conse)uence, the $ofstede dimensions of national cultures

are not relevant for comparing organiations within the same country. Kational cultures

belong to anthropology3 organiational cultures to sociology.

;anaging international business means handling both national and organiation culturedifferences at the same time. Jrganiation cultures are somewhat manageable while national

cultures are given facts for management3 common organiation cultures across borders are

what holds multinationals together.

% separate research pro&ect into organiational culture differences - The IRIC &ro6ect,

conducted by 6eert $ofstedeFs institute IAIC across 59 organiational units in 4enmark and

the Ketherlands in the (129s, identified si" independent dimensions of practices# process-

oriented versus results-oriented, &ob-oriented versus employee-oriented, professional versus

parochial, open systems versus closed systems, tightly versus loosely controlled, and

pragmatic versus normative. The position of an organiation on these dimensions is partly

determined by the business or industry the organiation is in. 'cores on the dimensions arealso related to a number of otherGhardG characteristics of the organiations. These lead to

conclusions about how organiation cultures can be and cannot be managed.

*ibliography

$ofstede, 6eert. CultureFs Conse)uences, Comparing Malues, *ehaviors, Institutions, and

Jrganiations %cross Kations Thousand Jaks C%# 'age =ublications, 599(

$ofstede, 6eert and $ofstede, 6ert-Ean. Cultures and Jrganiations# 'oftware of the ;ind.

Kew Bork# ;c6raw-$ill /.'.%., 599>.

http#www.geerthofstede.nlculture.asp"

www.mariekedemooi&.com.

52



I:. CO-IN8 WITH CULTURE SHOCK

Culture shoc5

6etting to grips with a new country can be a challenge. The additional need to understand

your new business culture and colleagues means international employees can crumble

beneath the strain. 4r 0lisabeth ;ar" e"plains the phenomenon in her book Brea+ing

Through Culture Shoc+ .

It is estimated that one in seven / managers fails on international assignments, and this

figure is even higher for /' managers, with an estimated failure rate of 57 to >9 per cent.

;anagers differ in the way they respond to culture shock. 'ome are able to adapt in an almostchameleon-like way to different countries whereas others cling desperately to their habits and

national approaches. What makes some international e"ecutives highly successful whereas

others struggle with basic everyday activities? If we are all so Sglobal: nowadays, what makes

some of us more international than others? It is not the number of air miles we clock up on

transatlantic flights, nor the technical e"cellence we bring to our &obs that makes some of us

more Sglobal: than others. 'ome international e"ecutives are highly successful while others

struggle with basic everyday activities. We now know that it is our ability to manage culture

shock in international business that makes a difference between failure and success.

Jne *ritish e"ecutive was interviewed about his international e"perience working in !ranceand reported the following#

S;y adaptation was appallingly difficult. I thought I knew the !rench, but I only knew them

socially and not in a working environment. I found that all the normal ways of managing

people in the / did not work in !rance. The things I said were not perceived the way I

intended, and, in turn, I did not understand e"actly what they were saying. What I found was

a lot of bad will.:

This is not an isolated scenario but shows the ma&or challenge in international business# the

need of breaking through culture shock that inevitably occurs in international businesssituations.

Culture shoc5 %e!ine%

*asically culture shock occurs when people discover that their way of doing things doesnFt

work. What once were habits become an overwhelming number of decisions, says 'tephen

Ahinesmith, a transatlantic e"ecutive coach who specialises in global emotional intelligence.

• The symptoms of culture shock according to Ahinesmith are#

• Bou get frustrated, irritable, fatigued, an"ious and depressed.

51



• Bou canFt cope.

• Bou withdraw, often oversleep to escape, and turn aggressive against the host culture.

• Bou feel isolated and helpless because everything seems out of control.

0lisabeth ;ar", who works for the e"ecutive recruiters Korman *roadbent in ondon and

has written a book on culture shock, describes the result this way# G=eople start saying FWhy

are the !rench and 6ermans like that?F Bou start having scapegoat scenarios. FI hate Kation

RF 0nd of conversation. 0nd of development. %nd people maintain their point of view,G

which is that their way of doing things is the better one.

The term Sculture shock: was originally created by the anthropologist Jberg to describe the

effects that living in a different country or culture can have. Jberg assumed that we go

through distinct phases in adapting to a foreign environment. We start in a honeymoon phase

where we see everything as positive and en&oy the foreign e"perience3 then we plunge into a

period of culture shock where we feel disoriented and helpless and may become irritated or

even depressed. 6radually, we work ourselves out of this potential crisis situation and come

to a recovery or gradual adaptation. This is the stage where we understand what is different

from our own country and have developed a compromise between our own values and the

values of the foreign counterparts.

The culture shoc5 trian(le

=sychologically, international managers have to deal with three levels of culture shock#

UThe emotional side - coping with mood swings

UThe thinking side - understanding foreign colleagues

UThe social side - developing a social and professional network as well as effective social

skills.

This leads to a new model of culture shock, the culture shock triangle.

a. Emotions

International e"ecutives often report positive effects of their work on personality

characteristics but also mention emotional reactions, such as worrying, feelings of isolation,

an"iety and helplessness.

%n e"treme reaction was reported by a *ritish manager in 'hanghai# SCulture shock -

continuous feeling of being unwell due to two bouts of bad food poisoning, loneliness and,

most prominent, the constant staring from the Chinese. This curiosity became very upsetting -

everything in my hotel room was looked through, all drawers in my desk searched through.

%lso, telephone conversations were tapped, I could hear the click and the echo which does

not happen now. This led to continuous paranoia. To resolve this, I eventually managed to

D9



rela" and to take no notice, I pretended it did not happen and most importantly, every three to

four weeks I left China to visit other countries such as Eapan, orea and $awaii.:

S%nother culture shock was the physical adaptation to the pollution and the stinging eyes, the

sheer noise of cars and people. SI also felt helpless - I was deported once for not having a

correct visa and had an overnight stay in a state-run guest house with a 6overnment

immigration official. 'o why am I here? *ecause it is a good career move +hopefully for the

future.:

;ost people think of culture-shock as a Sshort and sharp: disorienting e"perience in a foreign

place. !ew realise that the effect of culture shock can be much deeper and more prolonged, if

it is not dealt with effectively. =sychologically, moving to a foreign country means stress for

the individual. International assignments fall into the category of stress called Slife events:.

'uch ma&or life changes put the individual at risk of psychological difficulties, such as

depression, an"iety, alcoholism or what laymen typically call Snervous breakdown:.

International managers who move abroad e"perience several such life events# changing

country, changing &obs, and changing house - conse)uently, there is a high risk to

psychological well-being and hence a high risk of performance deficits at work and,

ultimately, a risk for the company. ;oreover, these changes affect the entire family.

7. Thin5in(

iving in a familiar, well-structured and predictable environment makes understanding easy.

The meaning of e"pressions, gestures and cultural norms is clear. *ut moving to another,

maybe remote, part of the same country changes the autopilot status. We cannot take thingsfor granted3 all of sudden, it takes an effort to understand what is going on. ;ost importantly,

we must learn new things and develop and e"pand our thinking.

Kew situations or situations that do not make automatic sense can be treated in three

different ways#

UBou can decide to ignore them or discard them

UBou can decide to treat them as familiar situations, thereby making the wrong conclusions

UBou can admit that one cannot make sense, work on it and try to e"pand and modify our

Stypical: thinking.

The international manager can decide how to treat the Sforeign: situation and, can become#

• % colonialist - you do not react to the foreign culture.

• %n imperialist - forcing your own value system and way of thinking onto the new

culture - not adapting in interactions and not seeing the necessity to change

perceptions and attitude.

D(



• %n internationalistinter-culturalist - you are fully aware of the comple"ity and

ambiguity of e"changes in foreign cultures and try to adapt by changing your thinking

and attitudes and by trying to find a compromise between cultures. Ideally, we all

want to achieve the third option.

'ome international managers mention Sthe thinking effect: e"plicitly when asked about the

effect of international e"perience on their personality#

SInternational work makes you more aware and more knowledgeable. The result is being able

to see things from many different angles3 it is a very broadening e"perience,: says one

manager. SThe differences in attitudes were larger than I e"pected, but I have reached a better

understanding of different attitudes towards work, S says another. Challenging your own

assumptions and values is not the only challenging that has to be done - challenging your own

identity and social behaviour is also part of building an effective international career.

c. Social I%entit an% Social S5ills

This secure sense of self is disturbed by working in an Salien: environment. The familiar

conte"t in which your own behaviour makes sense is not there. *ehaviour which is rewarded

and valued at home may be negatively evaluated in the new culture. 4irectness and

assertiveness may be positive attributes in the /nited 'tates but would be seen as rude and

inade)uate in China. The unfamiliar influences can bring a risk to our self-identity# we are

not as sure as before as to who we are and feel insecure. We learn that there are different

ways of living, working, and establishing relationships and this threatens our well-formed

notions on how to do things. We do not understand some of our own behaviour and the

emotional ups and downs we are going through as part of our adaptation. Jur self-identify is

shaken-up and, in a way, we have to re-negotiate or re-define our identity, by integrating our

new e"periences and reactions into our Sold self:. %s soon as we interact more closely with a

foreign culture, we e"perience a conflict between our own values and those of the host

culture.

We e"perience a collision of values. %s we get more and more involved, we normally

develop alternative ways of behaving and this also influences our view of ourselves. 'imilar

to what we have seen with understanding others, our sense of self has to be e"panded and

modified. This is part of the self-development most people go through during internationalassignments.

The positive effect of international work on self-development is illustrated in the following

comment#

S;y most positive surprise was to realise that I was a born survivor and that I could deal with

problems. It was very good for my self image and I learned that I had a lot of staying power.:

Culture shoc5 in Euro&e

D5



)es&ite the so=calle% union o! Euro&ean nations? hu(e cultural (a&s e>ist 7et$een

&eo&le $or5in( in this continent an% culture shock also occurs within 0urope, among

0uropeans-all the time. /nfortunately, e"perts say, 0uropean companies neglect to

train employees to deal with this shock because they figure, itFs not a problem. *ut it

really is one, one that can hamper a companyFs development, they say. The answers,they say, include e"perience, cultural training and self-awareness.

Jne thing to keep in mind is that 0uropean cultures can be divided into two main categories,

Ahinesmith says.

The %nglophone, 6ermanic, 4utch and 'candinavian countries tend to look at other cultures

in a more &udgmental fashion. They are known as GuniversalisticG. G=articularisticG cultures-

including !rance, Italy, 'pain, =ortugal and 6reece-defend their own way of life with a my-

group-versus-your-group mentality.

;ar" stresses that a big source of friction is a differing sense of time. GIt drives someone elsemad,G she says. 6erman and %nglophone business people are se)uential planners, she says.

%nd they see punctuality as a sign of respect. The atin cultures &uggle a variety of tasks

simultaneously and tackle them at their own pace without a discernible pattern.

$umour is another sticking point, she says. The 0nglish like to use it to break the ice. That

backfires in 6ermany where &okes in meetings are considered shallow, ;ar" says. ;ore

specifically, 6ermans sometimes are perceived to be infle"ible perfectionists who are

schedule-driven rather than solution-minded, she says. +*ut they are also perceived to be

people of their word, and thus trustworthy partners. The !rench sometimes are perceived to

over-elaborate, to engage in lengthy hypothetical discussions. They often appear to have no

action plan and arrive at no conclusion, she says. +*ut they are also perceived to be super-

fle"ible and great improvisers. Indeed, Cantelo, an engineer who worked for =eugeot in

!rance and now is at %ston ;artin in *ritain, says that he was taken aback by the

unstructured nature of !rench meetings, often held without an agenda. $e was also surprised

by the formal tone of communication, both oral and written. GI saw a number of people

getting dressed down for not addressing their superiors properly,G Cantelo said.

The *ritish sometimes are perceived to speak in their own code, ;ar" says. Their subtleties

can be lost even on fluent 0nglish speakers from other countries. ;isunderstandings occur

when instead of saying GnoG directly, they say something like GThat is an interesting idea.G

This bewilders literal-minded 6ermans, ;ar" says. +*ut the *ritish are perceived to bee"cellent at working out ambiguous and complicated situations.

There are also huge differences in different cultures: mentality about ,usiness an% -leasure.

4ifferent countries have different approaches towards combining business and pleasure. This

re)uires the individual manager to adapt to the setting of the specific country and, if

necessary, to develop the social skills to deal with the new business scenario. 6ermans, for

e"ample, take a structured approach to business# they negotiate in conference rooms and they

may have a meal with the negotiation partners once the deal is clinched. They take a highly

situation specific approach to business - a clear divide between business and pleasure.

Chinese businessmen in 'ingapore meet a business partner over lunch or dinner and, if it isreally important, at home. They try to get to know the person first before any business is

DD



discussed. Western managers need some time to adapt to the combined Sbusiness and

pleasure: approach in %sian or 'outh %merican countries. The introvert or socially reserved

manager, who finds it easy to work in structured business situations, is at a loss at cocktail

parties or dinners where the conversation is not focused on business issues but on how good

their golf is. 'imilarly, some Western business practices +Korth %merican or Korthern0uropean may be difficult for e"ecutives who come from a more diffuse culture, such as

%sia. The highly structured way of doing business in the /' may be seen as curt,

disrespectful, and down-right aggressive.

The best solution one can adopt id to go beyond mechanistic Sdo:s and don:ts:. It is more

important to develop an attitude and the behaviour that is comfortable and effective for the

individual manager in the new business culture. The culture shock triangle - described above

-provides concrete steps in dealing with international business, from balancing your emotions

to developing effective social behavior.

Dealing with culture shock

In a multicultural work environment, previous e"perience counts for a lot, Ahinesmith says. It

helps people to )uickly adapt, developing a method of functioning that is effective, he says.

'o does the right mindset, which includes an openness to new things and an appreciation of

cultural differences, the e"perts say. %lso important are not &ust language training but also

cross-cultural coaching during which employees hone their interpersonal skills by role-

playing with people from other cultures. %nd self-awareness is key, ;ar" says. 0very time

you wade into an international encounter you should remember that the norms are going to be

different. %nd you should take that into account, she says. %ttitude is a very important factor

to success or failure therefore one should consider the three types of reaction one may

e"perience during the Snegotiation phase: with the new culture#

Re6ecters9 one can find the adaptation to the new country particularly difficult. Jne tends to

isolate themselves from the host country that they perceive as hostile, and believe that

returning home is the only way for them to be in harmony with their environment again.

A%o&ters9 'ome e"patriates embrace their host culture and country, whilst losing their

original identity. They usually choose to stay in the host country forever.

Cosmo&olitans9 They see their host country and culture positively, and manage to adapt

whilst keeping their original identity. They create their own blend and usually have no

problem returning to their home country or relocating elsewhere.

Countering Culture Shock

Certain steps can be taken to help avoid the worst aspects of culture shock. %mong them you

should consider the following#

earn the language - *eing able to communicate with the locals will minimise the stress of

your move.

D>

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#learn-the-language

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#learn-the-language



=repare for cultural differences - The more you know about the culture of your host country,

the more prepared you will be for a different way of life, and the easier it will be for you to

cope with new ideas and e"periences. ;isunderstandings due to cultural differences are a

reality but can be reduced through sensiti#it an% care!ul communication.

*e open-minded - *e open to accepting cultural differences and alternative ways of doingthings. The unfamiliar may be frightening at first but in time you will find yourself taking

these once-unfamiliar situations for granted.

Be patient - *e patient with yourself and allow yourself to make mistakes and learn

from them as you go along.

Take time off - It:s natural to long for things to be the way they were in your own country.

Taking a break from all that is unfamiliar helps. When adapting seems difficult, take

part in a familiar activity +read a book, watch a movie or listen to music in your

home language. Bou will find that this will energise you and help you tackle anychallenges that you are facing.

!ollowing these suggestions should help you acclimatise to your new host country and

discover a whole new world of cultural meanings and knowledge.

10 Steps for Breaking Through Culture Shock

In her book Brea+ing Through Culture Shoc+! 0lisabeth ;ar" describes the common stresses

e"perienced by managers or other professionals when they transfer from their own familiar

working environments to that of another country, or culture. 'ometimes this can be a life-changing move across the sea. !or e"ample, if you have only ever worked for small family

companies and you get a &ob with an international corporation with a staff of thousands, you

will naturally e"perience a feeling akin to culture shock as you learn how your new

colleagues think and work- or even how they e"pect others to spend their leisure time.

;ar" describes the three levels of adaptation necessary for a manager to be effective when

moving between workplace cultures#

(. <Coping with the stress of the transition +achieving contentment.

5. Changing Ltheir ownV perception and interpretation of events and behaviour

+developing a way of thinking that is culturally effective.

D. 4eveloping better social skills and an international identity.@ +p(D

;ar" writes that interpreting foreign gestures, words, and behaviours can either be dealt with

in negative ways N by ignoring them completely and isolating oneself, for e"ample, or by

remaining ignorant about their meanings and thereby limiting one:s own understanding and

en&oyment of this new culture3 or by becoming an Sinternationalist: or Sinterculturalist:-

becoming <fully aware of the comple"ity and ambiguity of e"changes in foreign

cultures.@+p(7. $ere are her (9 tips for minimising culture shock#

D7

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#prepare-for-cultural-differences

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#be-open-minded

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#be-patient

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#take-time-off

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#prepare-for-cultural-differences

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#be-open-minded

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#be-patient

http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock#take-time-off



(. <4on:t let culture shock take you by surprise.@ Take time to learn about it before you

go and read up as much as you can on local culture as well as the symptoms of culture

shock itself.

5. 0"pect culture shock to happen in countries or even towns close to you as well as on

the other side of the world +remember our point earlier about workplace culture.

;oving from city to country or vice versa will cause a certain amount of cultureshock3 as will moving between two countries which share a language or border.

D. %s soon as you arrive, make sure you identify support networks of others in a similar

position to you- social groups in your company, language classes and so on- as well as

local people.

>. 4on:t give in to the stress, for e"ample by drinking or eating too much or becoming

socially isolated3 this will only increase symptoms of culture shock long term. %llow

yourself time to adapt, and recognise this kind of reaction for what it is- a symptom of

the culture shock.

7. %sk others in your position for tips. With the rise of social networks such as inkedIn

and !acebook it will be easy to make contact with those who have been there and

done that. /se online connections to help while you settle in, but don:t fall into the

trap of living a virtual life and never stepping outside- this will not help your cultural

ad&ustment in the long run.

. 6ive yourself time to adapt- don:t overload yourself with work in the beginning. Bou

will need time and space for the simplest thingsfor e"ample, working out how to get

your laundry done or settling your kids into school. ;ake sure you don:t pile the

stress on all at once by working long hours.

8. 4on:t hesitate to seek professional help if you continue to feel isolated and needsupport from a counsellor. Bour organisation may well offer this.

2. Bou might well e"perience culture shock when returning home, in reverse. *e aware

of this and recognise that it is normal.

1. Try and remain positive about your e"periences. Jnce you have overcome culture

shock, you will be much better adapted to your new environment and you will have

achieved something worthwhile and valuable.

(9. and lastlyP <Aetain a sense of humourR@-+pp(2-(1

Eternal !esources"references#

1. %rticle# ;artin +599 SThat:s the way we do things around here# an overview of

organisational culture:, -lectronic &ournal of Academic and S#ecial Li$rarianshi#,

v.8 no.( +'pring 599.

2. %rticle# 0ngert et al +59(9 Assessing cultural com#ati$ility: A ,c)insey #ers#ecti%e

on getting #ractical a$out culture in ,4A 5 ;cinsey and Company# Eune 59(9.

3. *ook# 0. ;ar", Brea+ing Through Culture Shoc+ +Kicholas *realey =ublishing#

ondon, (111.

>. G -6#ert e6#atriate : 7our guide to successful relocation a$road! mo%ing! li%ing!

thri%ing G by ;elissa *rayer and =atricia inderman

D



http#mowgli.org.uk>92((9-steps-for-breaking-through-culture-shock.html

http#www.e"patica.comdehealthfitnesswellbeingculture-shock-and-how-to-deal-with-

it-D551(5D.html http#www.agsmovers.comculture-shock

http#www.r-e-a.comdocsCultureshockunwrappedW0*.pdf

D8



:ER,AL@NON:ER,AL INTERCULTURAL ,USINESS

COMMUNICATION

Non :er7al Intercultural Communication

The adage <actions speak louder than words@ underscores, in essence, the importance of non-

verbal communication. In our global society, where intercultural situations occur often, non-

verbal interaction is especially significant. =eople all over the world use non-verbal

communication. Its meaning varies across cultures, however, and what is acceptable in one

culture may be taboo in another. %ll of these variations make misinterpretation a barrier in

non-verbal communication. % social and cultural environment, rather than our genetic

heritage, determines the non-verbal communication system that we use.

". )e!inition

o In simple terms, Gintercultural non-verbal communicationG refers to all

conscious or unconscious stimuli other than the spoken word betweencommunicating parties. These non-verbal processes sometimes account for as

much as 89 percent of communication. *ecause of cultural differences, the

potential for misunderstanding and disagreement regarding non-verbal

communication is great. Therefore, successful interaction in intercultural

settings re)uires &ust as much understanding of non-verbal messages as the

verbal ones.

T&es

o Kon-verbal communication is made up of four main categories# kinesics,

pro"emics, paralanguage and chronemics.

inesics, or body language, refers to the body movements in communication,

such as facial e"pressions, eye contact, hand gestures and touch.

=ro"emics refers to the study of the use of space in non-verbal

communication, meaning anything from architecture and furniture to the

distance between people who interact in a given situation.

=aralanguage makes up all the sounds people produce with their voices that

are not words, including laughter, tone and pace of voice, and <empty@ wordsand phrases such as <um@ and <you know.@

Chronemics is the study of the use of time in non-verbal communication,

including peopleFs understanding of present, past and future.

Kinesics

o Common rituals such as nodding in agreement and greeting friends vary

considerably from culture to culture. % handshake is the appropriate way to

greet someone in some countries such as the /nited 'tates3 a warm embrace is

used in atin %merica, GnamasteG is spoken in India and a bow of the head isdone in Eapan.

D2



While a Eapanese person points his forefinger to his face when referring to

himself, a Chinese person points to his nose and a Korth %merican usually

points to his chest.

In some cultures, people focus their gae on the eyes or face of the

conversational partner3 in others, they must use only peripheral gae or nogae at all.

It is very common to greet by hugging a friend or a family member, to touch

the person you are speaking to in some cultures. In others, though, people

seldom touch at all when speaking.

-ro>emics

o /sually, people keep a Gsocial distanceG between themselves and the person to

whom they speak. This distance amount differs from culture to culture. If

someone stands or sits very close when she speaks with another person, she

may see the otherFs attempt to widen the space between them as evidence of

coldness, condescension or a lack of interest. Those who prefer having more

social distance, or personal space, may view attempts to get closer as pushy,

disrespectful or aggressive.

-aralan(ua(e

o =aralanguage represents the vocal cues that accompany spoken language.

Through pitch, speed, volume, pause and silence, people confer emotional and

intellectual meanings to their messages.

Chinese people value silence more than the use of words3 they believe it

brings inner peace and wisdom. Jn the other hand, Korth %mericans tend to

think silence has no communication. While a Chinese person would consent to

a )uestion through silence, an %merican would interpret silence as uncertainty.

Chronemics

o Time is one of the most central differences that separate cultures in the way of

doing things. !or Western countries, time is )uantitative, measured in units

that reflect progress. It is logical, se)uential and focused in the now, movingtoward the future and away from the past. In 0astern countries, however, time

feels like it has unlimited continuity. India is the best place to depict the

0astern idea of time. Time moves endlessly through various cycles, becoming

and disappearing. Time is infinite, stretching far beyond the human lifetime.

%ccording to an essay by ;ichelle e*aron on *eyondIntractability.org,

GThere is a certain timeless )uality to time, an aesthetic almost too intricate

and vast for the human mind to comprehend.G

Role

o Kon-verbal communication is one of the key aspects of communication, and it

is especially important in a high-conte"t culture. Its multiple functions include

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repeating, accentuating, complementing and contradicting a verbal message.

This type of communication also regulates interactions, such as non-verbal

cues conveying when a person should speak or not speak. !inally, non-verbal

communication can even substitute a verbal message through gestures and

facial e"pressions, especially when people do not speak the same language.

0ach of these characteristics influences intercultural communication and can

be responsible for conflict or the escalation of conflict when it leads to bad

communication or misinterpretation.

Re!erences

• *eyondIntractability.org# nowledge *ase 0ssay--Cross-Cultural Communication3

;ichelle e*aron

• G'ino-/' 0nglish Teaching3G Kon-Merbal anguage in Cross-Cultural

Communication3 Wang 4e-hua and i $ui3 Jctober 5998http#www.ehow.comabout229Dnon-verbal-intercultural-communication.html ;aria Ciubotaru

Non=:er7al ,arriers to Communication

Facial e>&ressions can be used as a nonverbal communication barrier.

ee $opkins, a leading %ustralian business motivator, defines nonverbal communication as

anything aside from oral words that send a message. The communication process re)uires a

sender and receiver and uses various mediums to deliver the messages. !or e"ample, the

same message can e"press itself in different ways via a billboard, a handshake or a facial

e"pression. Konverbal communication is &ust as important as verbal communication because

people respond to what they see more than what they hear. Identify the barriers to your

nonverbal communication to sharpen you communication skills.

-aralan(ua(e

=aralanguage is the way inflections are used when sending a message verbally. =aralanguage

creates a nonverbal communication barrier when it is misunderstood or not appliedappropriately. It could be a person:s tone of voice, pitch or volume that defines the words to

mean one thing or another. !or e"ample, someone can say, <get out of here,@ and depending

on how it was said could either mean the person is upset or could be using the phrase as an

e"pression of awe. If someone is talking, but they are mumbling their words or speaking very

softly, you may think they don:t care about what they:re saying or they may be shy and

intimidated.

Silence

The lack of e"pression sends a message itself, which can create a communication barrier

between the sender and receiver. 'ilence can be used as a threatening tool to ignore anddisregard another person:s need for communication, or it can be used to improve

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communication. 'ilence, used in the appropriate way, can help you and the other person think

through the messages being sent and how to appropriately respond. % person:s body language

coupled with silence will help to define the message being sent.

,o% Lan(ua(e

*ody language can create a communication barrier. % person with their head down, folded

arms or turning their back to you are all e"amples of body language that creates a wall from

communicating. *ody language is used to send messages that you don:t care, don:t want to

talk or that you:re angry. It is the use of your physical body to send a message. This can

include positions, symbols made with your hands or a stance.

Facial E>&ression

% person:s facial e"pression can act as a barrier, especially when there is insecurity or fear

involved in the conversation. !acial e"pressions can be misinterpreted and misunderstood.!or e"ample, if you:re telling someone something highly sensitive and they don:t make any

facial e"pression, you may perceive that they are not listening, resulting in a barrier where

you close off your heart and end the conversation, according to Jhio /niversity.

Re!erences

• ee $opkins# Konverbal Communication

• Jhio 'tate /niversity# Jvercoming *arriers to Communication

• ;ind Tools# Improve Bour Communication 'kill

Kicole =apa# Kon-Merbal *arriers to Communication e$ow.com http#www.ehow.comlist85(199nonverbal-barriers-

communication.htmlXi"(fi"B$T!g

Im&ortance o! Non :er7al Communication in ,usiness

*usiness is about information -- bosses tell employees what they should do, presenters tell

their audiences about products and sales representatives tell clients about products. !or

information to have its desired effect, it must be received in the right way. The speakerFs non-

verbal communication skills determine how the listener receives what he or she has to say.

Trust

Trust is essential to running a successful business. Clients and businesses must trust each

other to uphold contracts. 0mployees must trust each other to complete their designated tasks,

and teamwork fails without trust. Kon-verbal cues play a large part in establishing trust

between people. !or e"ample, good eye contact by a speaker encourages trust from his or her

listeners. ee $opkins, a business communications trainer, suggests that speakers break eye

contact into spans of about four or five seconds.

Con!i%ence

>(

http://www.leehopkins.com/nonverbal-communication.html

http://aede.osu.edu/people/erven.1/HRM/communication.pdf


http://www.ehow.com/list_6721900_non_verbal-barriers-communication.html#ixzz1fixYHTFg



http://www.leehopkins.com/nonverbal-communication.html








%ppearing confident is important to establishing an effective image in the workplace.

isteners look for signs of confidence in speakers to determine how strongly they believe in

what they are saying, and nervousness can seem like a lack of sincerity. ;aintaining a

straight posture, a pleasant e"pression and a calm manner communicates confidence to

listeners. %void fidgeting, looking at the ground or pacing while you deliver presentations to

an audience. Instead, maintain eye contact and take steps only when they enhance the presentation.

Authorit

;ost businesses operate using a system of hierarchy. % boss manages the employees under

him or her. !or management to be effective, the employees must respect the boss and feel a

responsibility to carry out his or her directives. 0mployee respect comes from the pro&ection

of a sense of authority. ;anagers can convey this by maintaining a confident posture. They

should be firm, but not aggressive, when telling employees what to do3 a show of uncertainty

gives employees a reason to doubt the direction.

Connections

*usiness opportunities are often found through friends or ac)uaintances. *uilding personal

relationships is vital to finding these opportunities, which is why businesspeople place

importance on the act of networking. Kon-verbal communication is important in forming

networks. % firm handshake creates a bond between people when they meet for the first time,

and that connection is strengthened by eye contact when they speak. Calm, affable speech

indicates an openness to forming a friendship. These cues, more than the content of what is

said, lay the foundation for the formation of a business connection.

Re!erences

• ee $opkins# Konverbal Communication in *usiness

• =eople Communicating# Konverbal Communication in *usiness

4anielle 4eee# Importance of Kon Merbal Communication in *usiness e$ow.com

http#www.ehow.cominfo829291importance-non-verbal-communication-

business.htmlXi"(fi"y2$B

Cultural )i!!erences in Non#er7al Communication

Konverbal communication e"presses meaning or feeling without words. /niversal emotions,

such as happiness, fear, sadness, are e"pressed in a similar nonverbal way throughout the

world. There are, however, nonverbal differences across cultures that may be a source of

confusion for foreigners. etFs look at the way people e"press sadness. In many cultures, such

as the %rab and Iranian cultures, people e"press grief openly. They mourn out loud, while

people from other cultures +e.g., China and Eapan are more subdued. In %sian cultures, the

general belief is that is is unacceptable to show emotion openly +whether sadness, happiness,

or pain.

etFs take another e"ample of how cultures differ in their nonverbal e"pression of emotion.

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http://www.people-communicating.com/nonverbal-communication-in-business.html

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http://www.leehopkins.com/nonverbal-communication-in-business.html

http://www.people-communicating.com/nonverbal-communication-in-business.html






!eelings of friendship e"ist everywhere in the world, but their e"pression varies. It is

acceptable in some countries for men to embrace and for women to hold hands3 in other

countries, these displays of affection are discouraged or prohibited.

%s with nonverbal communication, what is considered usual or polite behavior in one culture

may be seen as unusual or impolite in another. Jne culture may determine that snapping

fingers to call a waiter is appropriate, whereas another may consider this gesture rude. We are

often not aware of how gestures, facial e"pressions, eye contact, and the use of conversational

distance affect communication. To interpret another cultureFs style of communication, it is

necessary to study the Gsilent languageG of that culture.

8estures an% ,o% -ositionin(

6estures are specific body movements that carry meaning. $and motions alone can convey

many meanings# GCome here,G 6o away,G ItFs okay,G and GThatFs e"pensiveRG are &ust a few

e"amples. The gestures for these phrases often differ across cultures. !or e"ample, beckoning

people to come with the palm up is common in the /nited 'tates. This same gesture in the

=hilippines, orea, and parts of atin %merica as well as other countries is considered rude. In

some countries, only an animal would be beckoned with the palm up.

%s children, we imitate and learn to use these nonverbal movements to accompany or replace

words. When traveling to another country, foreign visitors soon learn that not all gestures are

universal. !or e"ample, the GJ..G gesture in the %merican culture is a symbol for money in

Eapan. This same gesture is obscene in some atin %merican countries. +This is why the

editors of a *railian newspaper en&oyed publishing a picture of a former %merican presidentgiving the GJ..G symbol with both handsR

;any %merican business e"ecutives en&oy rela"ing with their feet up on their desks. *ut to

show a person from 'audi %rabia or Thailand the sole of oneFs foot is e"tremely insulting,

because the foot is considered the dirtiest part of the body. Can you imagine the reaction in

Thailand when a foreign shoe company distributed an advertisement showing a pair of shoes

ne"t to a sacred sculpture of *udda?

Facial E>&ressi#eness

!acial e"pressions carry meaning that is determined by situations and relationships. !or

instance, in %merican culture the smile is typically an e"pression of pleasure. Bet it also has

other functions. % womanFs smile at a police officer does not carry the same meaning as the

smile she gives to a young child. % smile may show affection, convey politeness, or disguise

true feelings. !or e"ample many people in Aussia consider smiling at strangers in public to be

unusual and even suspicious behavior. Bet many %mericans smile freely at strangers in public

places +although this is less common in big cities. 'ome Aussians believe that %mericans

smile in the wrong places3 some %mericans believe that Aussians donFt smile enough. In

'outheast %sian cultures, a smile is fre)uently used to cover emotional pain or embarrassment.

Mietnamese people may tell the sad story of how they had to leave their country but end the

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story with a smile.

Jur faces reveal emotions and attitudes, but we should not attempt to GreadG people from

another culture as we would GreadG someone from our own culture. The degree of facial

e"pressiveness one e"hibits varies among individuals and cultures. The fact that members of

one culture do not e"press their emotions as openly as do members of another does not mean

that they do not e"perience emotions. Aather, there are cultural restraints on the amount of

nonverbal e"pressiveness permitted. !or e"ample, in public and formal situations many

Eapanese do not show their emotions as freely as %mericans do. ;ore privately and with

friends, Eapanese and %mericans seem to show their emotions similarly. ;any teachers in the

/nited 'tates have a difficult time knowing whether their Eapanese students understand and

en&oy their lessons. The %merican teacher is looking for more facial responsiveness than what

the Eapanese student is comfortable with in the classroom situation.

It is difficult to generalie about %mericans and facial e"pressiveness because of individualand ethnic differences in the /nited 'tates. =eople from certain ethnic backgrounds in the

/nited 'tates tend to more facially e"pressive than others. The key, is to try not to &udge

people whose ways of showing emotions are different. If we &udge according to our own

cultural norms, we may make the mistake of GreadingF the other person incorrectly.

Ee Contact

0ye contact is important because insufficient or e"cessive eye contact can create

communication barriers. In relationships, it serves to show intimacy, attention, and influence.

%s with facial e"pressions, there are no specific rules governing eye behavior in the /nited'tates, e"cept that is is considered rude to stare, especially at strangers. In parts of the /nited

'tates, however, such as on the West Coast and in the 'outh, it is )uite common to glance at

strangers when passing them. !or e"ample, it is usual for two strangers walking toward each

other to make eye contact, smile, and perhaps even say G$i,G before immediately looking

away. This type of contact doesnFt mean much3 it is simply a way of acknowledging another

personFs presence. In general, %mericans make less eye contact in bus stations, for e"ample,

than in more comfortable settings such as a university student center.

=atterns of eye contact are different across cultures. 'ome %mericans feel uncomfortable with

the GgaeG that is sometimes associated with %rab or Indian communication patterns. !or%mericans, this style of eye contact is too intense. Bet too little eye contact may also be

viewed negatively, because it may convey a lack of interest, inattention, or even mistrust. The

relationship between the lack of eye contact and mistrust in the %merican culture is stated

directly in the e"pression GKever trust a person who doesnFt look you in the eyes.G In contrast,

in many other parts of the world +especially in %sian countries, a personFs lack of eye contact

toward an authority figure signifies respect and deference.

Con#ersation )istance

/nconsciously, we all keep a comfortable distance around us when we interact with other people. This distance has had several names over the years, including Gpersonal space,G

>>



Ginterpersonal distance,G Gcomfort one,G and Gbody bubble.G This space between us and

another person forms invisible walls that define how comfortable we feel at various distances

from other people.

The amount of space changes depending on the nature of the relationship. !or e"ample, we are

usually more comfortable standing closer to family members than to strangers. =ersonality

also determines the sie of the area with which we are comfortable when talking to people.

Introverts often prefer to interact with others at a greater distance than do e"troverts. Culture

styles are important too. % Eapanese employer and employee usually stand farther apart while

talking than their %merican counterparts. atin %mericans and %rabs tend to stand closer than

%mericans do when talking.

!or %mericans, the usual distance in social conversation ranges from about an armFs length to

four feet. ess space in the %merican culture may be associated with either greater intimacy or

aggressive behavior. The common practice of saying G0"cuse me,G for the slightest accidentaltouching of another person reveals how uncomfortable %mericans are if people get too close.

Thus, a person whose GspaceG has been intruded upon by another may feel threatened and

react defensively. In cultures where close physical contact is acceptable and even desirable,

%mericans may be perceived as cold and distant.

Culture does not always determine the message of nonverbal communication. The individualFs

personality, the conte"t, and the relationship also influence its meaning. $owever, like verbal

language, nonverbal language is linked to personFs cultural background. =eople are generally

comfortable with others who have Gbody languageG similar to their own. Jne research study

demonstrated that when *ritish graduate students imitated some %rab patterns of nonverbal behavior +making increased eye contact, smiling, and directly facing their %rab partners, the

%rabs felt that these students were more likeable and trustworthy than most of the other

*ritish students.

When one personFs nonverbal language matches that of another, there is increased comfort. In

nonverbal communication across cultures there are similarities and differences. Whether we

choose to emphasie the former or the latter, the Gsilent languageG is much louder than it first

appears.

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:. INTERCULTURAL ,USINESS )ISCOURSI:E

-RACTICES

Talking is easy3 communication, which means an e"change or communion with another,

re)uires greater skill. %n e"change that is a communion demands that we listen and speak

skillfully, not &ust talk mindlessly. %nd interacting with fearful, angry, or frustrated people

can be even more difficult, because weFre less skillful when caught up in such emotions. Bet

donFt despair or resign yourself to a lifetime of miscommunication at work or homeR 6ood

communicators can be honed as well as born. $ere are a few tips to get you started.

• 4onFt take another personFs reaction or anger personally, even if they lash out at you

in what seems a personal manner. %nother personFs mood or response is more likely

about fear or frustration than it is about you as an individual. Take a deep breath and

count to (9, and see it as a way of letting the other person vent before he is able tocommunicate whatFs really on his mind.

• Bou donFt have to have all the answers. ItFs J to say, GI donFt know.G If you want to

find out, say so, then follow up to share your findings. Jr you may decide to work on

the problem together to find the answer.

• Aespond +facts and feelings3 donFt react +feelings -- e.g., GTell me more about your

concernG or GI understand your frustrationG instead of G$ey, Fm &ust doing my &obG or

GItFs not my &obG +which is sure to cause more irritation. 'hare responsibility for any

communication in which youFre a participant, and realie that sometimes, maybe

often, your own personal reactions may be causing your frustrations about

communicating with others.

• /nderstand that people want to feel heard more than they care about whether you

agree with them. ItFs strange how many people complain about others not hearing

them, yet they donFt listen to others eitherR Bou can show that youFre listening by

giving someone your complete attention and saying things like#

(. GTell me more about your concern.G

5. GWhat is it about that concerns you?G

D. GIFm interested in what youFve &ust said. Can you share a little bit about what

lead you to that belief?G

>. GWhat would have to happen for you to be more comfortable with ?G

• Aemember that what someone says and what we hear can be amaingly differentR Jur

personal filters, assumptions, &udgments, and beliefs can distort what we hear. Aepeat

back or summarie to ensure that you understand. Aestate what you think you heard

and ask, G$ave I understood you correctly?G If you find yourself responding

emotionally to what someone said, say so, and ask for more information# GI may not

be understanding you correctly, and I find myself taking what you said personally.

What I thought you &ust said is 3 is that what you meant?G

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• %cknowledge inconvenience or frustration and offer a timeline, particularly if you

need someone elseFs cooperation or your activities will affect them. !or e"ample, if

youFll be updating someoneFs desktop computer system and need access to her office,

you might say, GI know itFs frustrating to have someone in your space at a time that

might not be convenient for you, and I appreciate your cooperation. ItFll help us to

keep your system working well. We e"pect to be in your office at about D p.m., andout by 7 p.m.G

• 4onFt offer advice unless asked. This can be tough, particularly if we have e"perience

that we think might benefit another person. /se respectful e"pressions such as GJne

potential option is...G or GJne thing that helped me in a similar situation was . IFd be

happy to share more about my e"perience if you think itFd be helpful to youG instead

of GBou should do .G

• ook for common ground instead of focusing solely on differences. What might you

both be interested in +e.g., making the e"perience as nondisruptive as possible? Jne

way to begin discovering commonality is to share your underlying intention -- fore"ample, G;y intention in sharing this is to help you succeed on this pro&ect.G

• Aemember that change is stressful for most people, particularly if your activities

affect them in a way that they arenFt scheduling or controlling. Jur routines can be

comforting in the midst of what appears to be a chaotic world. 'o if youFre in

someoneFs space or need him to do something on your timeline, provide as much

information as you can about what youFll need from the person and when. If you can,

tell him how what youFre doing will benefit him.

• Work to keep a positive mental focus. Jne of the choices we always have is how we

see or e"perience any given circumstance. ;any people who are considered skillful

and successful, including professional athletes and cultural leaders, work to maintain

a positive mind-set. %sk yourself, GWhatFs great about this?G or GWhat can I learn

from this?G to help maintain a positive state. 4onFt forget to adopt a variety of stress

reduction practices that work best for you.

• /nderstand that most people, including you, have a uni)ue, often self-serving,

agenda. This isnFt necessarily bad, because it helps us achieve and protect ourselves.

Eust donFt assume that someone will know or share your agenda, so talking about

whatFs most important to you and asking whatFs most important to others, can help

build a solid foundation for conversation.

• Improve your listening skill. ;ost people think they listen well, but the truth is thatmost of people donFt listen at all -- they &ust speak and then think about what theyFre

going to say ne"t. 6ood listening often means asking good )uestions and clearing

your mind of distractions, including what youFre going to say ne"t, whom youFre

meeting with ne"t, or whatFs going on outside. When someone makes prickly

comments or complaints, thereFs often a concern or fear lurking. ike a detective, ask

)uestions that get to the bottom of someoneFs real concern or agenda. Jnly then can

you have a truly rich, beneficial conversation.

Communication E!!ecti#eness

>8



Communication and organiational development tools are the fodder of many intellectual

discussions. $owever, without action, they collect Gmental dustG and benefit no one.

$ere are some great tips on how to use three outstanding communication- and organiational-

development technologies --%ppreciative In)uiry, 4ialogue, and Jpen 'pace Technology

--with ways you can apply these Gsystems strategiesG in smaller ways throughout yourorganiation#

IN A MEETIN8

Circle u&9 0nsure that no one person is the Ghead of the tableG or in control of the discussion

+and therefore what gets discussed, and how. % circle of chairs welcomes others to

participate fully and contribute ideas that enrich the group.

Em&lo the la$ o! mo7ilit9 If you find that you are not learning or contributing in the

meeting, use your two feet and walk to a more productive place. This saves your time and

reduces the likelihood of worthless meetings. %lso, discussion-in-motion can have theadvantage of breaking through log-&ams that occur when people are --and sometimes silenced

by -- traditional meeting venues.

Sus&en% 6u%(ment9 4onFt arrive at conclusions until you have honestly absorbed multiple

perspectives and ideas. When you automatically conclude that youFre right and others are

wrong, you eliminate any possibilities for dialogue and participation +and your perception

may not even be correctR. Eust because you think something, doesnFt make it universally true.

Why shut the door on a potentially great idea for your group?

Le#era(e $hat $or5s9 Aather than sticking to a formulaic meeting style -- agenda, flipchart, one meeting leader and a task list -- conduct your meeting in a manner that works best

for the group. %pply this thinking to the ideas shared during the meeting, too.

)URIN8 A CHAN8E INITIATI:E

Ta& into &ersonal res&onsi7ilit an% &assion9 The success of Jpen 'pace Technology rests

on --and re)uires --commitment from all players. Through meaningful and respectful

communication, tap into each participantF s motivation and interests in order to allow those

participants to take the gifts discovered during the meeting out into the organiation in

positive and lasting ways.

Sta curious9 4onFt make accusations, advocate for or tear down elements of a change

initiative +or other topic of discussion. =ause long enough maintain your curiosity about

what is happening, why itFs happening and how you fit into it all. This allows you to gather

more information, which can e"pand understanding, reduce stress and eliminate the Ginstant

assumptionsG and resulting &udgments that we humans normally +and all too often make.

When you feel the urge to slam the door on the discussion with an GIFm rightG statement, ask a

)uestion.

Use stories9 %n organiationFs Ginner dialogueG or stories help shape the culture.

Communicate real-life stories that e"emplify your organiation s ideal culture, benefits, areas

of potential and strength, and where the company is headed.

>2



AS -ART OF AN INTER:IEW *or e#en a meetin( $ith someone ou %on<t 5no$ $ell+

Focus9 Whether the interviewer or interviewee, concentrate on real business issues that

youFre passionate about. BouFll be more able to identify G good fitG employees and employers,

or vendors, associates and clients.

Un%erstan% our intentions9 %sk about the intentions of others. Aespectful and honest

)uestions about a personF s intentions -- including oneF s own -- can help reveal how well oneF

s thinking compares with organiational culture. %lso, by allowing yourself to become

familiar with someone elseFs +or your own intentions, you deepen your understanding of why

someone else thinks the way they do.

See the !li& si%e o! un!a#ora7le traits9 'omeone who seems &ittery in an interview might

actually be nervous because she wants the &ob very much. 'omeone who seems overly

strident or &udgmental may simply have at his core the intention of making a positive

difference. %n interviewer who asks tough )uestions without cracking a smile might have

such admiration for the company, that he wants to ensure that only the best of the best become employees, and this is the only approach he knows to select the top candidates. %sk

probing )uestions to delve more deeply and collect more information, rather than making

assumptions based only on Gsurface traits.G *eyond that, allow someone else his or her

humanity --even if it doesnFt measure up to your personal standards of perfectionR

Intercultural Ne(otiation

%s the world becomes increasingly connected, people both at home and in travels abroad,

must consider the important issue of intercultural negotiation.

The Intercultural )imension

%ll cultures have their own preferred styles and strategies for dealing with and managing

conflict. Bet it is )uite difficult to be culture-specific when discussion how to deal

effectively with cross-cultural conflicts. Kevertheless, there are some general skills involved

in cross-cultural negotiation and conflict management that can be highlighted.

% basic re)uirement for effective conflict management and negotiation is to know as much as

possible about the other culture+s. %lthough e"periential knowledge is preferable, research

of the culture, norms, values, history, society etc. can be very helpful. The most significant

feature of good cross-cultural relations, as most cross-cultural sources will indicate, involves

avoiding stereotypes. %lthough certain generaliations may be fairly assessed in regard tohow certain cultures deal with conflict, individual differences should always be considered as

paramount. In fact, some cultural specialists suggest that all conflicts are intercultural to an

e"tent, since each individual person has their own personal history and e"perience, their own

set of beliefs, values and assumptions, and ultimately, their own set of <survival skills.@

The Success!ul Intercultural Ne(otiator

'uccessful intercultural negotiators are always cogniant of the fact that people do, indeed,

feel, think and behave differently, while at the same time, they are e)ually logical and

rational. 'tated differently, competent intercultural negotiators recognie the differences

between people while simultaneously appreciating the intrinsic rationality behind suchdivergent feelings thoughts and behaviors. That is to say, individuals, groups, communities,

>1



organiations and even nation states possess diverse values, beliefs and assumptions that

make sense from their own perspective. Thus, effective intercultural negotiators are sensitive

to the fact that each person perceives, discovers, and constructs reality O the internal and

e"ternal world N in varied yet meaningful ways. They understand that difference is not

threatening3 indeed, it is positive, so long as the differences are managed properly.

Fi#e Intercultural Ne(otiation S5ills9

(. 0;=%T$B N To be able to see the world as other people see it. To understand the

behavior of others from their perspectives.

5. %*IITB TJ 40;JK'TA%T0 %4M%KT%60' of what one proposes so that

counterparts in the negotiation will be willing to change their positions.

D. %*IITB TJ ;%K%60 'TA0'' %K4 CJ=0 WIT$ %;*I6/ITB as well as

unpredictable demands.

>. %*IITB TJ 0=A0'' JK0:' JWK I40%' in ways that the people with whom

one negotiates will be able to ob&ectively and fully understand the ob&ectives and

intentions at stake.

7. '0K'ITIMITB to the cultural background of others along with an ability to ad&ust

one:s ob&ectives and intentions in accordance with e"isting constraints and

limitations.

The four pillars of successful international negotiations

Intercultural Intelligence can dramatically improve your negotiation success. Kegotiationscan easily get comple" when you work in a multicultural environment. 6lobally, there are

now more than 79,999 K6Js, 9,999 ;ulti-Kational Corporations, most governments are

dealing in intercultural environments and there are now more than 599 million e"pats across

the globe. In order to become a successful negotiator, you have to consider#

(. Aegular good best practice negotiation - This refers to a person:s ability to study their

counterpart, to gather the right market intelligence, set up a meeting in a neutral place or one

that suits your counterpart. %nd of course to choose your own interpreter should you need

one.

5. The people skills# In order to negotiate successfully you need to be adept at understandingyourself and other people, identifying and playing to strengths and weaknesses of all those

involved.

D. 0motional Intelligence# 4aniel 6oleman is right in saying that our level of self-awareness

and others awareness is essential when trying to understand what is happening below the

surface.

>. Inter-Cultural Intelligence# This is where the ma&ority of unsuccessful international

negotiations fall short. Can you successfully differentiate the people sat around the table and

do you know what is important to them? What are their motivators and demotivators and

what are yours?

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intercultural communication 2012-1

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