Instructor: Dr. Ashton SouthardEmail: southard@oakland.eduOffice: 212 Pryale Hall

Intro to research designs & methods used in psych science.

Topics: observations of behavior validity, control experimental design correlational research, etc.

Class exercises used to illustrate designs & provide some research experience.

Objective: Ability to design experiments Collect/interpret data Write scientific research papers Critically evaluate research Basically… understand research methods

Gravetter, F.J. & Forzano, L.B. (2012). Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences (4th ed.). Wadsworth Publishing: Belmont, CA.

Additional readings downloaded from ashtonsouthard.weebly.com

Need to buy three 8.5x11” red scantron cards (1 per exam)

On exam days, bring pencil, red scantron card, & know your grizzly ID #

All students are required to make a 10-minute research presentation in front of the class.

If you go too far over time, you will be asked to stop your presentation.

Oral presentations, use Power Point. Present on an ORIGINAL idea for a research project

(i.e., a research proposal).

General Organization: Introduce yourself, then your topic Briefly outline relevant past literature Introduce & outline hypothesis Outline Research Strategy▪ How would you test your hypothesis? e.g., true, quasi or

nonexperiment? correlational, descriptive? Outline Experimental Design▪ Between/within-subs? IVs, DVs, controls, etc.

Outline Methods▪ Participants, materials, testing environment, procedures,

debriefing methods, etc.

State aims of your project at the start of your presentation. What is your research Question? ▪ Why is this Q important? ▪ How has this topic been explored in previously?

Discuss relevant recent past research & state any criticisms or shortcomings.

ALWAYS PROVIDE REFERENCES! Minimum 6 different references; Peer-reviewed academic

sources only.

References on slide in APA in-text format (example: Smith & Jones, 2001; Welling et al., 2007)

MUST HAND IN AN ABSTRACT OF APPROXIMATELY 200 WORDS ON 1ST DAY OF PRESENTATIONS! Include name, student ID, presentation title, presentation

date, & attach a page listing your references in APA format.

Methods - Explain & describe: research question & hypothesis variables (e.g., IV & DV) participants, (who, why, & how) methodology controls for extraneous variables analysis –outline of experimental design, statistical measures

& tests you would apply & what outcomes would mean ethical concerns & how you’d address them How would your results contribute to knowledge in

Psychology?

Majority of time on Design & Methods. Be concise, organized, & articulate! Slides MUST be emailed to me the day before

presentations start BY 5PM! Failure to complete all components = 0

50 points total for Presentation Abstract (10 possible points) Presentation content(20 possible points; knowledge, originality,

experimental rigor and care, clarity of explanation, abstract, etc.) Presentation style (20 points; pace, volume, flow, enthusiasm,

creativity, etc.) 10 points for attendance & discussion at other

presentations. Bonus points may be given to those who make significant

contributions to discussions.

Late abstracts/slides NOT ACCEPTED. = 0 on Presentation, no exceptions.

Handouts completely optional. Not actually conducting experiment, but should be

small in scale, feasible, & easy to analyze. Make sure your proposal is original (any students not

presenting an original proposal will be penalized). Additional info in your syllabus.

Point Distribution & Grading:Exams (3@25 points each) 300 points total Presentation 50 pointsPresentation attendance 10 points

& participation

TOTAL of 360 possible points Overall Grade = (Total points earned/360)*100

Attendance strongly encouraged, but only mandatory during presentations.

YOU are responsible for all material & notifications covered in class. If you miss a class, get notes from another student. Arrive on time, if you are late please enter the room

quietly and sit in the back.

Cell phones turned OFF Do not talk amongst

yourselves Go to the bathroom

before class Students that do not

abide by these rules will be asked to leave

NOTE: Students found with electronic devices in their possession during exams will receive a zero.

If you miss an exam for any reason, you will be able to make it up during the final exam period, directly after completing Exam 3

Make-up exams given at the time of Exam 3 only – no exceptions… don’t ask.

No make-up exams given for Exam 3. No make-up given to anyone who completes exam

& then says s/he was not feeling well. You must arrive on time for all exams.

10% will be deducted for every 10 minutes someone is late.

Students arriving after 1st student has handed in will receive 0.

Cell phones off, books/bags set aside.

Attendance will be taken during class presentations (10 possible points).

Missed presentation = 0 unless without valid medical excuse & notifying instructor within 24 hours.

YOU are responsible for knowing your presentation date. Order will be random & posted on my website

Must complete 10 credits of research participation. List of experiments:

www.oakland.edu/psychology/experiments Last day to earn credits listed on website.

If completing Alternative Assignments, keep a screen shot or print assignment summary as completion proof.

Credits are tracked in SONA. Failure to earn 10 credits results in substantial deduction in

grade points.

Possible extra credit opportunities may be announced in class.

Students found in violation of academic conduct regulations may receive 0. Plagiarism = violation of academic conduct, so cite your sources

properly. http://www2.oakland.edu/deanofstudents/handbook/conduct.cfm

Your responsibility to know add/drop deadline. Incompletes only given for medical emergencies with doctor’s

note, not if failing.

Questions?

Study of human behavior & the mind Do animals share human capacity for abstract concepts,

such as mental states? At what age do children develop the ability to recognize

themselves in mirrors? Deficits in what parts of the brain contribute to different

types of mental illness?

Because it’s required… right? Yes… but there are other reasons!

Research methods are not irrelevant Scientists use them to figure out all the stuff

you learn about in your other psychology courses

Without research methods people could just go around making things up and stating them as fact… politicians do that anyway though

Scientists rely on scientific methods to effectively gather, interpret, & compare data.

Example: A psychologist wants to determine whether children raised by homosexual couples develop different characteristics than children raised by heterosexual couples.

How should the psychologist proceed?

Things to consider: Would need to observe & compare children from both

environments. What characteristics are important? ▪ Self-esteem? Relationships with friends? Success in school? Anxiety?

Depression? Parent/child attachment?

How are variables measured? ▪ Must be objective, not subjective interpretations or biased reports.

▪ Ex. To determine the children’s welfare, you probably wouldn’t want to ask the opinion of the homophobic neighbor because this information would be undoubtedly biased

Obviously, this is an oversimplified view of scientific research

But it does get the point across Science and the scientific method provides a

carefully developed system for answering questions so that the answers we get a are accurate and complete as possible

Useful for… Conducting a study▪ e.g., graduate school, honors study, etc.

Reading & evaluating other studies▪ Keeping up on current findings

Understanding brief descriptions of studies▪ i.e., knowing lingo

Gathering & evaluating info in daily life▪ Thinking critically about reports in media

In this class, we will focus on the scientific method to answer questions

But, scientific methods are not the only way to answer questions

Methods of acquiring knowledge: Any way in which a person can “know” something or discover answers to questions.

Methods other than scientific method: Method of Tenacity Method of Intuition Method of Authority Rational Method Empirical Method

Info accepted as true b/c it has always been believed or superstition supports it.

Based on habit Leads us to continue believing something we have always believed

Beliefs reacted to as facts, often via repeated messages (e.g., superstitions). The more we hear something, the more we are likely go believe it

Examples: “You can’t teach an old dog new tricks” or “Opposites attract”.

Frequently used by advertisers.

Disadvantages: Information may be inaccurate

(old dogs CAN learn new tricks & people are attracted to SIMILAR people, not opposites)

No method for correcting erroneous ideas

Can be difficult to change, even with contradictory evidence

Info accepted on basis of hunch or “gut feeling”.Typically used when there is no supporting data

or rational justification for making a choice.

Example: Gambling because you’re “Feeling lucky” and putting all your money on 23 to win because you “feel” the number is going to hit a big payout

Advantage: Can be quickest way to get answers.

Disadvantage: No method for separating accurate & inaccurate data. Ex. Psychics

Relies on info or answers from an expert (or perceived expert) in subject area. Asking the expert, or going to a library (or google) and

looking up what the experts say

AKA Method of Faith: unquestioning trust in authority figure &, therefore, accept info from authority w/o doubt or challenge.

Examples: Trusting your doctor or minister or me.

Quick way of getting information

Efficient Assumption that the

“expert” knows what they are talking about.

Disadvantages Information isn’t always accurate, possibly biased or based on

opinion ▪ “Expert” testimony in trials. Experts for the defense and prosecution are often

at odds with each other Choose your expert, choose your diagnosis. Differing experts may

have differing explanations of the same thing▪ Cardiologist might diagnose as one thing while a neurologist diagnoses as

something else Status or authority can be used to generalize to unrelated domains ▪ Endorsements from athletes who know nothing about the product (ex. a

football player endorsing the nutrition of a food) Not all “experts” are experts case in point

• Expert statements can be accepted w/o question, even when wrong.

• Linus Pauling• Chemist who won Nobel Prize for

work on chemical bond.• Claimed vitamin C could cure common

cold.• No evidence for this claim.

• Supported Copernicus’ heliocentric view of the universe (Earth revolves around the sun).

• Discovered Jupiter has its own moons, which means that everything cant revolve around Earth (against church views).

• Threatened with imprisonment in 1616.• Eventually vindicated by the Pope – in 1992!

• … 300-year late consolation prize

• Ways to increase confidence:• Evaluate source of the information

• Really an expert? Within expert’s field?

• Evaluate objectivity/subjectivity of the information• Fact or opinion?

• Evaluate the information itself• Seem reasonable? Reason to doubt?

• If reason to doubt, seek 2nd opinion.

• Why should you be cautious about using the internet to find answers to medical questions?

• In what situations would you use the preceding 3 methods – tenacity, intuition, & authority – to answer a question?

Seeks answers via logical reasoning. Logical Reasoning: Premise statements describe factors

or assumptions presumed to be true. Begin with Premise Statements: Facts or assumptions that

are known/assumed to be true. Use the premise statements to form an Argument: A set

of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion.

All 3-year-old children are afraid of the dark.

Amy is a 3-year-old child.

Therefore, Amy is afraid of the dark.

Premise Statements

Conclusion

Argument

If the premise statements are true & logic is sound, then the conclusion is guaranteed to be correct.

Limitations: The premise statements have to be absolutely TRUE!▪ Doesn’t work unless all premise statements are true

▪ e.x. what if all 3 year-olds are not afraid of the dark?

If any premise is incorrect or incomplete, the argument falls apart▪ e.x. Are we sure Amy isn’t 4 years old?

Even if the logic is sound, the conclusion may not be▪ e.x. Maybe Amy just isn’t afraid of the dark?

Problem/Disadvantage: People are not typically good at logical reasoning.

Premise statements do not support conclusions.

Summary of the Rational Method Practice of employing reason as a source of knowledge Uses logic, but does not actively gather information Critical component of the scientific method

Use Rationalism to answer the following question:

A 16th C. woman is convicted of being a witch. They tell her shecan make one statement. If it is a lie, they will burn her. If it is the truth, they will drown her.

What can she say in order to live?

Answer: “You will burn me.”

Logical reasoning:-If she lies, they will burn her.-If she tells the truth, they willdrown her.-Therefore, if she says they will burn her, then they cannot burn her because that would make her statement true (meaning they should have drowned her).

Using observations or direct sensory experience (sight, taste, smell, sound, touch) to obtain knowledge.

Easy, direct way to answer questions.

How tall is that shelf? Measure it! How heavy is my dog? Weigh her! Is there oil in my car? Check the dipstick!

Disadvantage: Common for people to misperceive the world.

The Horizontal-Vertical Illusion

Which line is longer?

Most say it’s the vertical line, but...

Both lines

are the same

length!

Direct sensory info can deceive

us.

Perceptions can be drastically altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or beliefs.e.g., finding out your delicious meal contained bugs after you ate it!

Sensory experience (empiricism) conflicts w/ long-held belief that people should not eat bugs (method of

tenacity).

Accurate observations can also lead to inaccurate conclusions.e.g., watching cycle of sun & assuming sun revolves around world.

Usually time-consuming; sometimes dangerous.e.g., better to ask an expert if mushrooms are poisonous than use empiricism.

A critical component of scientific method (discussed later).

Method Way of knowing

Tenacity From habit or superstition.

Intuition From a hunch or feeling.

Authority From an expert.

Rationalism From reasoning; a logical conclusion.

Empiricism From direct sensory observation.

Approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions & then systematically finding answers.

Combines severalmethods to acquire knowledge. Hopefully avoids the pitfalls of any one method alone

Produces most accurate answers.

Step 1: Observe Behavior or Other Phenomena Often begins w/ informal observations.▪ e.g., personal experiences (method of empiricism) or

observations▪ Example: You notice better students tend to sit in front row of

class. Could begin with someone else’s claim or observation

(method of authority).▪ Example: A celebrity claims a drug causes weight loss.

Step 1: Observe Behavior or Other Phenomena At this stage, people tend to generalize their beyond their

actual observations▪ This is mostly automatic and known as induction or inductive

reasoning ▪ Inductive Reasoning (Induction): using a relatively small set of

specific observations as basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations.▪ Example: You taste 3 green apples & all are sour, so you assume

all green apples are sour.

Step 1 Example: It’s the third straight day of dark, cold, dreary weather in October and

you realize your feeling sadder or more depressed than usual. You realize that knowing summer is over and you have several months

of cold and overcast days ahead is a big contributor to your negative mood.

You start to observe others and notice that your friends and family are also acting a little more depressed than usual and you come to the conclusion that people seem to be more depressed during the winter than in the summer.

At this point you could go to a library to see if there is existing information (method of authority) regarding mood and seasons.

If you still have questions, you are ready for step 2 of the scientific method.

Step 2: Form a Tentative Answer or Explanation (Hypothesis) Usually begins by identifying factors, or variables, that

are associated with the observation. Variables: characteristics or conditions that change or

have different values for different individuals.▪ Examples: age, gender, IQ, height, etc.

Choose most likely explanation for your observation – you now have a hypothesis!

Step 2 Example: You find in your research that the relationship between

winter and depression may be due to 2 variables

1. Weather – dark, dreary, cold: people become depressed in winter because the weather is literally dark and depressing.

2. Health – people tend to catch colds and get the flu during the inter: people become depressed in the winter because being sick makes them sad.

Now you have some hypotheses, pick one and test it!

Step 2: Form a Tentative Answer or Explanation (a Hypothesis) Hypothesis: statement that describes or explains a

relationship between or among variables. A proposal to be tested & evaluated.

Keep in mind, the hypothesis is not the final answer, it is an explanation you are testing.

Just because you are testing one hypotheses doesn’t mean other explanations are worthless

Step 3: Use Hypothesis to Generate Testable Prediction Apply hypothesis to a specific, observable, real-world

situation. Often uses logic (rational method) to make predictions, a

process called deduction or deductive reasoning. Deductive Reasoning (Deduction): uses a general

statement as basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples.

Step 3: Use Hypothesis to Generate Testable Prediction Uses hypothesis as a universal premise statement & then

determines the predictions that must follow. How could you test hypothesis that darker environments

cause depression?▪ Change the lighting on different dorm floors? Compare cities

with different climates?

Step 3: Use Hypothesis to Generate Testable Prediction

HypothesisHypothesis: Dark : Dark Environment = Environment =

DepressionDepression

Prediction 1Prediction 1: Decreasing : Decreasing lighting in a college lighting in a college

dorm should increase dorm should increase residents’ depression.residents’ depression.

Prediction 2Prediction 2: There : There should be a higher should be a higher

rate of depression in rate of depression in Seattle (71 clear Seattle (71 clear

days/year) than in days/year) than in Phoenix (211 clear Phoenix (211 clear

days/year).days/year).

Hypothesis used to

generate testable

predictions.

All Possible Cases

A Few Specific Cases

INDUCTION

Generalize from a small set of

specific examples to the complete

set of all possible examples.

DEDUCTION

Predict a small set of specific

examples from a general statement

about the complete set of all possible examples.

Note: induction involves an increase from a few to many, and deduction involves a decrease from many to a specific few.

Step 4: Evaluate Prediction by Making Systematic, Planned Observations After testable prediction has been made (rational

method), evaluate using direct observation (empirical method).

Data collection stage. Goal: provide fair & unbiased test of hypothesis by

observing if the prediction is correct.

Step 4: Evaluate Prediction by Making Systematic, Planned Observations Must be careful to observe & record exactly what

happens without interpretation or personal expectation. e.g., Could place 100-watt light bulbs on 1 dorm floor,

60-watt light bulbs on another floor, wait 6 weeks & test all students for depression.

Step 5: Use Observations to Support, Refute, or Refine Original Hypothesis Final step. Comparing actual observations w/ predictions from

hypothesis. To what extent do results agree with prediction(s)?▪ Agreement = support for hypothesis.▪ No agreement = hypothesis wrong or tested incorrectly.

Step 5: Use Observations to Support, Refute, or Refine Original Hypothesis Can (1) test another way to lend additional support, or (2)

revise hypothesis/reconsider predictions. [i.e., return to Step 2]

Ex: What if lighting affected depression in the predicted way? What if it had no effect? What if it had a small effect on some, but some in the 100-watt group still had depression?