CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Educational achievement is determined by the teacher’s knowledge of the subject and

pedagogical skills, the availability of textbooks and other learning materials, as well

as the time spent by the pupils in learning (Allwright, 1990). Teaching which is an

activity of education is the means through which the objectives of any educational

system is usually achieved and for teaching to be effective, motivating and interesting,

there is the need to employ teaching materials as aid to achieve the set objective of

education. The level and range of instructional materials available to teachers and

students determine what goes on in the classroom.

However instructional materials are tools that help the teacher to accomplish his/her

teaching effectiveness and they also enable the students to learn quickly and

effectively too (Akande 2002). These materials are not strictly identified with any

particular method but are aids to be used as needed in each method wherever they can

contribute to the knowledge of the students. As a result of dearth of schools were

history is taught, this has contributed immensely to the poor cultural ethics and

nationalistic attachments our youths have towards the country.

For effective teaching and learning to take place, the teacher must have a good

knowledge and usage of instructional materials supported with full explanation before

the treatment of the topic in class. It is not advisable for the teacher to teach most

topics without good use of instructional materials. This is due to the fact that the

success or failure of any teaching and learning activities depend to a great extent to

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which the teachers know the variables, which influence learning (such as age, ability,

and size of class). Bearing all these in mind, the teacher must find a method of

selecting good instructional materials that can help him to achieve the objectives set

for the lesson.

In the teaching of History, it is important that the teacher should not only possess

adequate knowledge of the subject matter but also adopt the appropriate teaching

techniques of materials for teaching particular topics so that the desired

teaching/learning experience can be created and achieved. Akande (2002) explained

that instructional materials are materials brought into the classroom for the purpose of

lesson presentation, which help to facilitate the teaching efforts of the teacher and

help occurrence of learning in the students. Therefore, the value of teaching and

learning materials cannot be overemphasized. Akande (2002) asserted that in the

course of educating a child through teaching a professional teacher appeals to the

senses through which the child acquires experiences that lay the foundation of

knowledge, the number of senses involved in the acquisition of experience and the

resultant knowledge. Also, there could be teaching without learning. That is, when the

teacher appeals to no sense at all in the classroom and it could be referred to as

defective learning. Akande (2002) explained that instructional materials help to create

a better learning by appealing to the senses through which the child acquires

experience.

Statement of the Problem

Teaching materials are not self-supporting. They are supplementary training devices.

Instructional materials are aimed at helping teachers. Thus, the key factors are that

teaching materials aids support, supplement or reinforce the teaching and learning

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process and experience in both teachers and students. Like other important subjects,

History is part of the curriculum of all Secondary Schools in all education districts in

Lagos State. So attention would be directed to the following problems. The choices of

instructional materials have been one of the problem s facing the teaching and

learning of History in our secondary schools. In Lagos State, it was observed that

History teachers do not use instructional materials for teaching the subject in their

various schools and where they do, they are not appropriately and effectively used.

This research work is therefore characterized towards exposing all instructional

materials available to a History teacher, stating their functions as well as benefit to be

derived from each material both on the teachers side and the students.

Purpose of Study

i. The work would be examining the number of students offering history and

the teachers available to teach the subject.

ii. Also this research work is going to show the kind of instructional materials

available to teachers and students in Lagos State secondary schools.

iii. The work is also going to try to examine the effectiveness of instructional

materials in Lagos State secondary schools and draw from the numerous

instructional materials which one have a greater impact in promoting

learning among students.

iv. Finally, the role of instructional materials in promoting learning in Lagos

State secondary schools would be examined so as to justify its

effectiveness in the learning process.

Research Questions

The following research questions are relevant to the study:

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1. What is the role of instructional materials in promoting learning in the

classroom?

2. Which instructional materials best promote learning in Lagos State secondary

schools?

3. Who are those responsible for the provision and maintenance of instructional

materials in Lagos State secondary schools?

4. Why is there high rate of failure among students offering History in schools

where instructional materials are used in teaching students?

5. How has instructional materials facilitated learning in Lagos State secondary

schools?

Research Hypothesis

i. There is no relationship between availability of instructional materials and

students’ performance in History.

ii. There is no relationship between effectiveness of instructional materials

and students’ performance in History.

iii. There is no relationship between using instructional materials and

students’ performance in History.

Significance of Study

Instructional materials refer to devices, which bring about effective teaching and

learning in History. Effective ways by which the ability of the teacher to employ these

materials efficiently and make the teaching of History easier and interesting shall be

discussed. However, this study therefore will unveil the various instructional materials

available and the need to use selected materials in the teaching and learning of History

as a subject.

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Scope of Study

This research work focused on a glossary of instructional materials and its usage in

teaching and learning of History in Lagos State Secondary Schools.

Limitation of Study

The time available for the research was short, thereby making the possibility of in-

depth research strenuous. Also, the study was limited to certain secondary schools

were History is taught as a subject. Financial constraint was however recurrent during

the whole period this research was carried out.

Definition of Terms

i. Instructional Materials: These are materials or equipment employed to

improve teaching-learning process in a classroom situation.

ii. Materials: tools necessary to facilitate effective teaching and learning. It

can be inform of textbooks, cassette, CD Rom, video, projector, hand out

or anything which presents or informs about the subject being taught

iii. Resources: This refers to human and materials used for teaching and

learning process.

iv. Grammar Translation: a method used upon memorizing the rules and logic

of a language and the practice of translation. It is mostly used in shorthand

translation.

v. Micro Teaching: a technique used in teaching a part of a lesson to a small

number of students.

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vi. Simplified Texts: These are texts, which have been made simpler so as to

make it easier for learners to read.

vii. Supplementary Materials: These are materials designed to be used in

addition to the core materials of a course.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

About thirty years ago, educators paid little or no attention to the work of cognitive

scientists and researchers in the nascent field of cognitive science classrooms. Today,

cognitive researchers are spending more time working with teachers, testing and

redefining their theories in real classroom situation or setting where they can see how

different settings and classroom interactions influence applications of their theories.

In view this review would examine relevant materials that discuss the concept of

teaching in general and History as an academic field of study in particular. The work

would go further by examining the various teaching methods available in History and

the different forms of instructional materials used in the classroom. The importance of

instructional materials would be examined to establish its relevance to learning and

the pros and cons of instructional materials would be discussed. Finally, the utility

value of instructional materials would be analyzed so as to encourage its continual use

in Lagos State secondary schools.

Concept of Teaching

Teaching as an educational concept is not an easy concept to define. Thus, formal

education began with the arrival of European occupation in Nigeria. During this

period emphasis was predominantly on indoctrination as a process of teaching or of

religious education. (Madumere, 1999). The idea of teaching then was that it was the

will of God supported by the law of the nation that anybody could become a Christian

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or a Muslim gave everybody opportunity to go first into religious teaching and later

into formal teaching for formal Western education.

Regardless of how teaching started and the origin of teaching which poses series of

problems to its meaning, one can simply say as a layman that a teacher is someone

who stands in front of a group of pupils and talk to them. This is regarded as a simple

job anyone can do.

Akande (2002) said teaching as an activity is polymorphous in nature (takes many

forms), it can take the form of training, socializing, indoctrination, instructing, or

introducing someone to something new. Its pattern varied with time, place and the

performances they should be help to acquire for that content. In choosing objectives,

the teacher uses information about the important characteristics of the student’s stage

of development and their abilities, strength and weaknesses. The student must also

understand learning and motivation so as to understand and choose teaching methods

and practice that fits what is known about students’ learning and motivation.

After all the pre-instructional decisions, the teacher selects and uses teaching methods

and practices such as lecturing, explaining, discussing, showing movies or videotapes,

tutorials, providing computer assisted instructions, leaving students alone, or some

combination of these activities (Odunusi, 1998).

History as a Discipline

R.G. Collingwood, (1960) who as been described as "the most original and

sophisticated exponent of the Idealist position" in the English-speaking world,

"maintained that all history is the history of thought, and that the historian's task is to

re-enact in his own mind the thoughts and intentions of individuals in the past."

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History is a very broad discipline. The discipline covers virtually all aspects of human

life hence the need to create subsection or areas of concentration. History as a

discipline has been divided into Economic History, Social History and International

Relations. Within this sections are subsection because of the broad nature of the

subject matter.

Teaching Methods in History

This section describes teaching methods used in History classes so as to explore the

reason for their usage and perception of their effectiveness. It also considers learning

and teaching approaches as well as strategies to promote the study of History. It

examines the understanding and skills required to develop the craft of teaching

History i.e. professional skills is blended with suitable academic insight as it examines

a range of approaches and strategies to use in the classroom.

In order to demonstrate effective skills in teaching History there is the need for

adequate knowledge in the use of different methods and techniques of teaching

History. Essentially varieties of methods can be applied in teaching History. This

depends on the topic to be taught. Generally speaking, prominent methods and

techniques that can be used in teaching History according to Ndubisi (2001) include.

- Discussion Method

- Simulation Method

- Demonstration Method

- Role Playing Method

- Computer Assisted Instruction Technique (CAI).

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Discussion Method: this method of teaching is a social arrangement in which a small

group assemble to communicate with each other for the purpose of achieving the

objective of instruction. An underlying assumption about this method is that

understanding comes from within the individual teacher.

Ndubisi (2001) on the other hand, suggested that discussion method could also be

called teacher-pupil interaction. In other to understand what takes place in the

classroom, it is necessary to remember that at least three ‘bodies’ are involved;

teacher, student and content. Each has its own peculiar characteristics.

The teacher’s goal is to promote behavioural changes in the cognitive, affective and

psychomotor domains of learning. This means that the teacher should be primarily

concerned with how to bring these objectives about. During the interactions of

teacher-student-group, each influences the other. The teacher brings a personality,

attitude, social outlook, biases, emotions, personal health, and many other factors to

the schoolroom. Students bring an even larger number of factors, when students as

individuals become a class they have additional characteristics.

In discussion method, the teacher coordinates and serves as the moderator. He gives a

guideline on the topics to be taught. He ensures that every student contributes

meaningfully to the discussion and that the class is lively. The discussion method

helps students to think and become conversant.

Simulation Method: According to Ndubisi (2001), this is a sophisticated form of role-

playing designed to give a better understanding of the real situation or feeling. It

serves dual purpose of increasing the learner’s ability to perform in real situation and

to increase his knowledge and comprehension of a life situation.

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This method can be useful in the study of History by providing the necessary

materials for each topic in the teaching-learning process of History.

Demonstration Method: this is a method of social arrangement of instruction in which

the educator displays to the learners how to operate of construct something (Ndubisi,

2001). It is simply putting theoretical lessons into practice. In other words the method

is seen as an active method of teaching whereby the teacher combines the use of

visual and audio powers as a major means of communication. The teacher first

explains the points after which he asks the student to demonstrate. The principles of a

good demonstration are essentially the same as the principles of any good lesson

presentation.

Role Playing Method: it is a tool for analyzing problems, increasing sensitivity,

clarifying people’s conception of their role and that of others in life, practical

necessary skills and providing general training on human relation and leadership. This

implies that learners assume the role of individuals with various points of view

controlling a problem of dilemma.

With reference to this, the students have already been introduced to the lesson that is

to be taught and what they have been taught is presented in form of advanced sketch.

This involves some students performing some key roles and therefore allowing them

to become familiar with what they are expected to know. This analysis is thought

simple but must follow certain rules to be effective.

Computer Assisted Instruction Technique (CAI): in recent times, the development of

technology has made research work of educationists easier through the invention of

computer and Internet facilities.

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Ajelabi (2005) describes CAI as an automated instructional technique in which a

computer is used to represent an instructional programme to the learner through an

interactive process on the computer. In addition CAI may be viewed as the use of the

computer on a time-shared basis to perform any instructional function. What then are

those instructional functions? The functions include presenting materials of problem

situation, guiding learner’s thinking, assessing learner’s performance, selection of

materials to be presented, assigning tasks to be performed, or a combination of all

these functions.

Use of Instructional Materials in Teaching and Learning History

As noble laureate Simon (2001) wisely stated, the meaning of “knowing” has shifted

from being able to remember and repeat information to being able to find and use it.

More than ever, the sheer magnitude of human knowledge renders its coverage by

education and impossibility, rather, the goal of education is better conceived as

helping pupils develop the intellectual tools and learning strategies needed to acquire

the knowledge that allows people to think productively about History.

In the light of this significant findings on teaching and learning, various groups, both

governmental and non-governmental, aimed to promote changes in the national

curriculum and to motivate, encourage and effectively utilize teachers to develop,

design and exchange teaching-learning materials.

It is a fact that learning cannot adequately take place through sensory devices, that is

affective domain, cognitive domain, psychomotor domain and also textbooks. Though

the importance of textbooks cannot be overstated, teachers and students should not

just rely on it.

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Ndubisi (2001) argued that textbooks for teachers and students are very necessary for

learning. Textbooks are one of the materials for learning; however, varieties of

instructional materials abound in History. This depends on the topic to be taught, in

essence, the topic determines the type of instructional material to be used. Generally,

according to Ajelabi (2005) instructional materials can be classified into 3: audio,

audio visual and visual material. Audio materials are teaching and learning devices

that mostly appeals to the ear like telephone, tape recorder, public address system and

human voice. Visual materials on the other hand are teaching and learning devices

that appeals to the sense of seeing like projectors, pictures, maps, posters, and

diagrams. Audiovisual materials refer to those instructional materials, which provide

the students with the opportunity of seeing and hearing at the same time.

In relation to this, audio-visual education emerged as a discipline in the 1920s. This

happened when a visual instruction movement arose, which encouraged the use of

visual materials to make abstract ideas more concrete to students. As sound

technology improved, the movement became known as audio-visual instruction.

The above-mentioned instructional materials are very useful in certain stages in

teaching History but not necessarily for the entire teaching-learning process.

Therefore, it is very important for the teacher to focus on the teaching task or process

and not the instructional materials in the learning process. If this focused is

maintained, it would not be likely to over emphasize that the sensory devices and

instructional materials are not to take over the teaching process but it must be

designed to

i. Remain as a technique of utilization or concept building

ii. Make teaching and learning very interesting

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iii. Make teaching and learning more authentic and valid

iv. Motivate learners to learn

v. Minimize talking.

Audio-visual aids are the provision of experience not easily obtained through other

materials and contribution to the efficiency, depth and variety of learning. Dale (1995)

retorted that visual materials are rich and vibrant as the meaning they stand for;

therefore, teachers should take care not to use any visual material unless it is clearly

understood. In the 1950s and 1960s, developments in communications theory and

system concepts led to studies of the educational process, its elements and

interrelationships. Among these elements are the teacher, the teaching method, the

information conveyed, the materials used, the student and the student’s response. As a

result of these studies, the field of audio-visual shifted its emphasis from devices and

materials to the examination of the teaching-learning process. The field is now known

as audio-visual communications and educational technology, and audio-visual

materials were viewed as an integral part of the educational system. Hence, if the

instructional materials are well organised, well constructed and properly presented a

successful teaching-learning process will be achieved.

Electronic Media as Instructional Materials in History

Many authors have written on the use of instructional materials in teaching. These

authors include: Nwanna Nzewunwa (2003), Heeks (1999), Aguokoghuo (2000),

Okafor (1980), Mkpa (1981), Koert (2000) UNDP (1998), World Bank (1999) and

Greenwood (2000). More specifically, it was underlined in the works of these authors

that the use of instructional materials ia a sine qua non in affecting and changing

behaviour of pupils and students of every field especially History.

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It was equally shown by some of the authors that these materials are important

catalyst of successful teaching–learning process.

Among the categories of instructional materials, the electronic media has been

described as the most powerful weapon of History’s instructional material in

secondary schools. The reasons are not far-fetched, as advances in technology have

brought electronic media to the forefront as the most radical tools of globalization and

social development. Such technological breakthroughs as networked and non-

networked; projected and non-projected; visual auditory; audiovisual electronic

media; this are all-important landmarks in knowledge transfer. With them, both

teaching and learning have become very pleasant experience. Their power to teach

and socialize has been varied as documented in literature (Hepburn, 1998).

Electronic media possess some inherent advantages that make them unique in the

study of History. For one thing, they provide the teacher with interesting and

competing platforms for conveying information since they motivate learners to want

to learn more and more. Also it provides opportunities for private study and reference

as the learner’s interest and curiosity are increasingly stimulated. Further, the teacher

is assisted in overcoming physical difficulties that could have hindered his/her

effective presentation of a given topic. Teachers with low voices, for instance are

enabled by the microphone system inherent in most electronic media. They generally

make teaching and learning easier and less stressful. They are equally indispensable

catalyst of successful teaching-learning process.

Despite the inherent advantages of these media to teach, the extent to which

developing countries have benefitted in attaining teaching effectiveness in History

stands to be questioned. However, not many of such studies have documented the

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experiences of less-developed countries of Africa and especially Nigeria. The paucity

of empirical based observation creates the need for many more studies in this area.

For instance, there is no certainty that whether or not teachers in various levels of

secondary schools effectively use these media as instructional materials, and with

what effects. This study is an attempt along these lines.

In the course of this research, we shall discuss the use of electronic media as

instructional materials in History. However, conceptual clarifications of important

terms applied in this topic shall be clarified as well as general consideration of

instructional media.

Electronic Media Used in History

Electronic media used in History would include al instructional materials that are

electronically generated. They can be networked when a number of equipments or

materials are interconnected or inter-related in lubricating information flow (Koert,

2000), or non-networked, if otherwise. The list of electronic media would include:

Radio, Television, Projectors, Tape Recorders, Video Sets, Computers, Internet

Facilities and Telecommunication facilities. Some of these media facilities are

described below and their implication to teaching and learning History are considered.

Radio

This is perhaps the most prominent audio teaching aid that is used in teaching

History. The widespread use of radio sets is unconnected with the fact that many

families own a radio set, since it is readily affordable. Its use is universal as it can be

used in offices, market place and schools. Through radio broadcast, educational,

cultural and social knowledge can be readily communicated. The effectiveness of

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radio towards attaining these ends have been confirmed in its ability to cover events

appropriately and enable information communicated to a wide audience at the same

time, and where necessary repeatedly. Seminars, lectures, workshops can be

disseminated through the radio channel effectively.

Nzewunwa (2003) enumerated a number of merits and demerits of radio as an

instructional material. They are as follows:

Merits of Radio as an Instructional Material

- It is less expensive than TV (many schools can afford to buy a radio set).

- A very wide coverage of audience is possible through radio lectures prepared

by experts and can be relayed to a vast number of students at the same time.

- It can broadcast events immediately as they happen (unlike television). Radio

broadcast is interesting because radio transmits music and drama.

Demerits of Radio as an Instructional Material

The demerits of radio as an instructional material can equally be itemized to include:

- It does allow students the opportunity to ask question during educational

broadcasts

- Radio speakers talk at their own speed without knowing if the listeners are

following

- Educational broadcasts, other than a particular school program usually come

on at the times when listeners may be too weak or tired to listen, such as late at

night. Some people learn better when they see and hear the teacher at the same

time.

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The Tape Recorder: the tape recorder is also an audio teaching aid. It uses cassette

tapes to record learning experiences in class or from radio or television

documentaries, which can be replayed in class or at home. The cassette tape recorder

is a very popular instructional material. Aguokogbu (2000) also gave the advantages

and disadvantages of tape recorders as follows

- The tape recorder is easy to operate

- It is cheaper than most projected and/or electronic equipment

- It is usually portable and can be transferred from one place to another.

The disadvantages of tape recorders include the following:

- It is an audio medium and appeals to the sense of hearing alone, therefore

limiting students’ comprehension of information compared with TV, which

appeals to the sense of sight and sound, this is a big advantage.

- Recorded tapes become bad when not used often and could damage the play

head of the player as a result.

Computers and Internet Facilities

Computers are very efficient equipment used as instructional materials in teaching

History. Several software’s and programs have been developed over time for this

purpose. Computer technology has made Internet facilities available for teachers and

students. There are various websites where instructors and learners can visit in order

to obtain needed information. Efficient teachers of History in secondary schools have

efficiently impacted their students by referring them to designated websites where

they can receive instructions. Many libraries are now going online with the effect that

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students can visit them electronically by means of computers instead of having to go

physically to such centres.

Telecommunication Equipment

This equipment utilizes the auditory mechanism to convey information to the hearers.

Some in this category now possess visual properties, such as the GSM cell phones.

The teacher can effectively utilize telephones to communicate short messages,

guidance counseling and other related issues. The use of telecommunication gadgets

as instructional materials is not widespread in less developed countries or rural areas;

they are relatively expensive to maintain.

Projectors

These are hardware equipments that enable learners to vividly grasp the content of

software materials such as slides, filmstrips, transparencies, papers and pictures or

motion pictures (Ajelabi, 2005). There are overhead projectors, slide projectors and

computer driven projectors. These are veritable learning and teaching aids in History.

The advantage of projectors lies in the powerful visual and audio content of the

device. They have both high and low technology content.

The use of appropriate tools of instruction, such as electronic media speeds up the

accomplishment of these objectives. Perhaps, this is the point underscoring the

argument of Koert (2000) that “Dialogue” or information exchange through

networked (electronic) media will have a role of increasing importance in learning.

The World Bank (1999) reported, “One of the greatest hardship endured by the poor,

and many others, who live in the poorest countries is their sense of isolation. The new

communication technologies promise to reduce that sense of isolation and to open

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access to knowledge in ways unimaginable. Electronic media being an essential

catalyst assist History education in achieving such global ends.

Invariably, electronic media are “a liberating force because they can break bonds of

distance and isolation and transport people from a traditional society to ‘the great

society’ where all eyes are on the future and the faraway.” Thus we can create a

climate for development and contribute substantially to the amount and kinds of

information available to the people of a developing country (Koert, 2000).

Neil (1979) and Hepburn (1998), described television and school as two competing

learning systems, estimating that educators were exhorted to make sure that students

study television effects, its biases and its relationship to learning.

Koert (2000) pointed out that specific characteristics of the mass media might limit

the contribution media can make to the teaching and learning of History. Against this

background, FAO (1998) suggested that intrinsic limitations of individual media

could be remedied by a combined use of electronic media for a concerted

communication effort with the media each addressing different aspects of that effort

in line with their individual strength.

A very interesting characteristic of electronic media relates to its ability to reduce the

level of equivocality in a message. Communication theory assumes that a given

message possesses a certain level of equivocality and that some media are more

capable or reducing that equivocation than others. It is argued that the level or extent

to which a given electronic medium can reduce equivocally in a message determines

its richness.

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By implication, a rich medium is one in which can send messages which leaves less

room for ambiguity or interpretation. Koert (2000) identified four criteria for richness

of a specific medium. These are:

i. Opportunity for direct and speedy feedback

ii. Possibility to use more types of signals e.g. body language, volume and

information

iii. Use of natural language and

iv. The possibility of specifically adopting the necessary circumstances to

individual reception.

When a message is more complicated and voluminous, the chances are greater for

ambiguous interpretations.

Importance of Instructional Materials

Instructional materials are those resources that make learning more valued and less

exclusively dependent on verbal interaction. The benefits derived from the use of

instructional materials cannot be over-emphasized. It is of great importance both to

teachers and students as the value are enormous. Bransford, Brown and Cocking

(1999) identified the following as some of the importance of instructional materials.

i. Promotes meaningful communication, hence effective learning

ii. They ensure better retention, which makes learning more permanent

iii. They provide direct or first hand experience with the reach ties of the

social and physical environment

iv. They help overcome the limitation of the classroom by making it

accessible

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v. Instructional materials stimulate and motivates students to learn

vi. They help develop interest in other areas of learning

vii. These materials help save time the teacher spends in explaining, thereby

enabling him/her to spend the time gained on other productive work.

Advantages of Using Instructional Materials in Teaching and Learning Process

Awotua Efebo (1999) identifies seven general and specific advantages of instructional

materials. These are:

- Variety of existing world situations are brought into the class

- Abstract concepts are easily demonstrated thereby aiding understanding

through concrete impression

- It encourages group work, increase individual tolerance, comradeship

cooperation and motivates understanding

- All the senses are used during the teaching and learning process

- It serves as a good discovery process in learning and teaching situation

- Boredom, frustration are maximally eliminated.

The above advantages suggest that proficiency and subject mastery can be achieved

through practice by manipulating available instructional materials productively.

According to Dale (1999) audio-visual materials can:

a. Bring about significant change in student behaviour

b. Bring freshness and variety to learning experience

c. Promotes a mood of mutual understanding and sympathy in the classroom

d. Make learning meaningful over a wide range of students’ ability

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e. Provides needed feedbacks that will help the pupil to discover how well they

have learned.

For it to be effectively used, the teacher must take an active part in the process of

learning translated into concrete terms. This means that the teacher should improve

the effectiveness of materials by using them in a context of many instructional

techniques.

Problems Militating Against Effective Use of Instructional Materials

The place of instructional materials in curriculum development in education includes

the complexity of developing teaching materials, which requires patience, creativity

and reflex thinking; these taught processes are lacking in many teachers (Odunusi,

1998).

Another one is when teacher’s interest is not aroused their pattern may be distorted by

other problems militating against effective use of instructional materials in teaching

and learning of History in secondary schools in Lagos State.

Specifically, the constraint to effective use of instructional materials in secondary

schools in Lagos State include:

i. The issue of lack of experts to direct and employ the planned teaching

materials technique to yield fruitful results.

ii. Large class size poses problems for effective implementation of

instructional material approach

iii. If the goals and audience are not properly identified, problem may arise

during usage.

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Since these points would influence the choice of the most appropriate media,

teacher’s need to communicate their ideas to the students effectively.

Utilizing Instructional Materials in History

Instructional materials are materials that are used to aid in the transfer of information

from one person to another. For example, a teacher may use instructional materials to

aid in the learning of subject matter for a class. These instructional materials may

include:

- Power Point Presentations (visual aids)

- Books

- Articles

- Material for Project Development

Technology has existed since the first human began to seek control over his

environment. In order to achieve quality and success in the educational system, the

foundation level of the student must be top priority.

Technology is assumed to be in place right from primary school level but if properly

utilized, enhancement of learning will not be obtained. The study is significant

because it will bring awareness to the government, curriculum planners and other

stakeholders in the education sector on the importance of instructional materials. In

other to determine the extent of instructional materials utilization and barriers to

learning History an analytical survey will be carried out on teachers in some selected

Lagos State secondary schools.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter discusses the procedures adopted for carrying out this study. These

includes research design, population of study, sample and sampling technique,

instrument employed, reliability and validity of the instrument, method of data

collection as well as method used for analyzing collected data.

Research Design

The survey research design was adopted in this study. The survey research may be

employed to enumerate or depict the characteristics, abilities, behaviour or opinion of

subjects to delineate through word or qualitative values, the status of group,

institution, structure or other facilities or to human beings or subjects. However, the

design was used to describe a glossary of instructional materials in History education

and usage in Lagos State secondary schools.

Population of Study

The population of this study consisted of all secondary schools teacher in Lagos State.

Sample and Sampling Procedure

Some History teachers were randomly selected from each of the selected twenty-five

secondary schools selected in Lagos State. This puts the number of respondents

contacted for this study at fifty. Hence, they serve as the subject of study.

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Instrumentation

The main instrument used for data collection was questionnaire. The questionnaire

was titled “Glossary of Instructional Materials in History and Usage. The

questionnaire consisted of two major sections namely: Section A was designed to

obtain information on the History teachers personal data such as sex, marital status,

educational qualification and years of teaching experience. Section B on the other

hand consisted of research questions developed to elicit information on a glossary of

instructional materials usage in teaching History.

Validity of Instrument

The researcher’s supervisor and two experienced lecturers who have experience in the

construction and use of similar instrument for collecting data and information

examined the questionnaire. This is done to ensure content validity of the instrument.

After the approval of the instrument, the researcher proceeded for its administration.

Reliability of Instrument

In other to ensure reliability of the instrument, the researcher carried out a pilot testing

of the questionnaires using the test, retest method. The questionnaires were first

administered to twenty History teachers in Lagos State secondary schools apart from

the ones selected for the study. The response from them indicated that the instrument

is capable of measuring what it was designed to measure. Then the researcher

proceeded to select secondary schools for its administration.

Administration of Instrument

The questionnaires were administered personally by the researcher to the respondents.

The researcher distributed fifty questionnaires to History teachers of the twenty-five

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chosen secondary schools in Lagos State. Some facts were also obtained orally during

the process of administering the questionnaires. Also, this enabled the researcher to

obtain 100% returned from the respondents.

Method of Analysis Data obtained were analyzed using simple percentage for Section

A of the instrument and chi-square statistical method at 5% level of significance for

Section B

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CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

Introduction

This chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of data collected from the field

of study. Fifty (50) questionnaires were distributed among History teachers of the

twenty-five selected secondary schools in Lagos State. All the fifty (50)

questionnaires distributed were duly completed and returned by the respondents.

However, summary of respondents biographic data were presented along with the

analysis of the three-postulated hypothesis using simple percentage and chi-square

statistical methods respectively.

Analysis of Respondents’ Personal Data

Table 1: Sex Distribution of History Teachers

Variables No. of Respondents PercentageMale 17 34%Female 33 66%Total 50 100%

From Table 1, 17, which represent 34%of the respondents, were male while 33, which

represent 66%, were female. This implies that there are more female History teachers

than male in Lagos State secondary schools.

Table 2: Marital Status of History Teachers

Variables No. of Respondents PercentageSingle 12 24%Married 38 76%Total 50 100%

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Table 2 above shows that 38, which represent 76% of the respondents, were married

while 12, which represent 24%, were not married. This implies that most of the

History teachers in Lagos State secondary schools are married.

Table 3: Educational Qualification of History Teacher

Variables No. of Residents PercentageNCE 10 20%HND/B.Sc/B.Ed 31 62%PGDE 3 6%M.Sc/M.Ed 6 12%Total 50 100%

The Table 3 reveals that 20% of History teachers were NCE holders; 62% were

graduates; 6% has PGDE and 12% are master’s degree holders. This implies that most

of the History teachers are graduates.

Table 4: Years of Teaching Experience of History Teachers

Variables No. of Respondents Percentage1-5 years 2 4%6-10 years 10 20%11-15 years 18 36%16-20 years 17 34%Above 20 Years 3 6%Total 50 100%

Table 4 above shows that 2 which represents 4% had 1-5 years of teaching

experience; 10 which represent 20% had 6-10 years of teaching experience; 18 which

represent 36% had 11-15 years of teaching experience; 17 which represent 34% had

16-20 years of teaching experience; and 3 which represent 6% had above 20 years of

teaching experience.

Testing of Hypothesis

Hypothesis One

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Ho1: There is no significant relationship between availability of instructional materials

and students’ performance in History.

Table 5: Relationship between Availability of Instruction and Students’ Performance in History.

Variables S A A U D S D Total X2 Cal X2

TabAvailability of Instructional Materials

95 112 3 2 1 214

32.722** 9.488Students’ Performance in History

130 56 9 10 2 207

Total 225 168 12 12 3 420S A: Strongly Agreed. A: Agreed. U: Undecided. D: Disagreed. S D: Strongly Disagreed.

Table 5 above shows that there is significant relationship between availability of

instructional materials and students’ performance in History. This is because the table

value of chi-square (X2 tab), which was 9.448, is less than the calculated value of chi-

square (X2 cal), which was 32.722. Therefore, the null hypothesis, which states that

there is no significant relationship between availability of instructional materials and

students’ performance in History, was rejected.

Hypothesis Two

Ho2: There is no significant relationship between effectiveness of instructional

materials and students’ performance in History.

Table 6: Relationship between Effectiveness of Instructional Materials and Students’ Performance in History

Variables S A A U D S D Total X2 Cal X2

TabEffectiveness of instructional Materials

135 48 3 16 3 205

25.927** 9.488Students’ Performance in History

90 72 9 4 9 184

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Total 225 120 12 20 12 389**Significant, p< 0.05, df = 4

S A: Strongly Agreed. A: Agreed. U: Undecided. D: Disagreed. S D: Strongly Disagreed.

Analysis from table 6 above revealed that the calculated value of X2 (25.927) was

greater than the table value of X2 (9.488) at 0.05 level of significance and degree of

freedom 4. In view of this, the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant

relationship between effectiveness of instructional materials and students’

performance in History, is rejected. Thus, there is significant relationship between

effectiveness of instructional materials and students’ performance in History.

Hypothesis Three

Ho3: There is no significant relationship between using instructional materials and

students’ performance in History.

Table 7: Relationship between Using Instructional Materials and Students’

Performance in History

Variables S A A U D S D Total X2 Cal X2

TabUsing Instructional Materials

100 76 6 10 4 296

19.217** 9.488Students’ Performance in History

65 100 18 4 4 191

Total 165 176 24 14 8 387**Significant, p< 0.05, df = 4

S A: Strongly Agreed. A: Agreed. U: Undecided. D: Disagreed. S D: Strongly Disagreed.

Table 7 above shows that there is significant relationship between using instructional

materials and students’ performance in History. This is because the value of the test

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statistics (X2 cal = 19.217) was greater than the table value of X2 (9.488) at 0.05 level

of significance and degree of freedom 4. Based on this result, the null hypothesis that

states that there is no significant relationship between using instructional materials

and students’ performance in History was rejected. This implies that using

instructional materials in schools goes a long way in enhancing students’ performance

in History.

Discussion of Results

The findings of this research work revealed that there is significant relationship

between availability of instructional materials and students’ performance in History.

This simply means that availability of instructional materials in school enhances

students’ performance in History. Availability of instructional materials saves the

time the teacher spends in explaining, thereby enabling him/her to spend the time

gained on other productive work (Bransford, Brown and Cocking, 1999). They also

believed that instructional materials stimulate and motivate students to learn and this

invariably enhances their performance. In line with this result, Awotua-Efebo (1999)

asserted that the use of appropriate tools of instruction, such as electronic media,

speeds up the accomplishment of the educational objectives of which enhancing

students’ performance in one of them. However, Awotua-Efebo (1999) opined that

large class size poses problem for effective implementation of most instructional

materials in Nigerian secondary schools.

The second hypothesis tested in this research work revealed that there is significant

relationship between effectiveness of instructional materials and students’

performance in History. This implies that effectiveness of instructional materials

enhances students’ performance in History. This result is in line with the view of

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Bransford, Brown and Cocking (1999) who opined that instructional materials

promote meaningful communication, hence effective learning. Also, they asserted that

instructional materials ensure better retention, which makes learning more permanent.

Similarly, Koert (2000) stated in his studies that application of appropriate and

effective instructional materials enhances students’ performance in any subject

including History. Moreover, Dale (1999) advised that the teacher should improve the

effectiveness of materials by using them in a context of many instructional

techniques.

Also the third hypothesis showed that there is significant relationship between using

instructional materials and students’ performance in History. Authors such as Heeks

(1999), Aguokoghuo (2000) and Greenwood (2001) believed that the use of

instructional materials is a sine quanon in affecting and/or changing behaviour of

pupils and students of every field, especially History. It was equally shown by some

of the authors that these materials are important catalyst of successful teaching-

learning process. However, among the categories of instructional materials, the

electronic media have been described by Hepburn (1998) as the most powerful

weapon in instructional materials teaching tools in secondary schools. The reason is

not far-fetched as advances in technology have brought electronic media to the

forefront as the most radical tool of globalization and social development. Such

technological breakthroughs as networked and non-networked; projected and non-

projected; visual auditory. Audiovisual electronic media are important landmarks in

knowledge transfer. “with electronic media both teaching and learning become very

pleasant experiences. Their power to teach and socialize has been varied as

documented in literature”. (Hepburn, 1998). Similarly, Ndubisi (2001) argued that

textbooks for teachers and students are very necessary for learning. Though sensory

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devices are very important, as a textbook is one of the materials for learning, they are

not only the only instructional materials that can be used in teaching History.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Introduction

Instructional materials are materials that are used to aid in the transference of

information from one person usually a teacher to another known as learner(s). For

example, a teacher may use instructional materials to aid in the learning of subject

matter for a class. These instructional materials could include textbooks, flash cards,

radio, television, typewriters and computer systems. Some call them instructional

materials, while others may call them learning or teaching aids. However, this chapter

is the concluding part of this research work, which studies a glossary of instructional

materials in History and usage in Lagos State secondary schools. Numerous relevant

materials, which were both of empirical and theoretical importance, were reviewed.

Also, conceptualization of the issues under study was done in this research work. In

addition, the major findings of the study were summarized and conclusions were

made based on the inferences drawn from the whole research work.

Finally, recommendations were made for effective ways of using instructional

materials for teaching and learning History and to enhance students’ performance in

the subject.

Summary of Findings

The first hypothesis formulated to guide this research work was tested using the Chi-

square method and revealed that there is significant relationship between availability

of instructional materials and students’ performance in History. This means that

availability of instructional materials enhances students’ performance in History.

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The second hypothesis revealed that there is significant relationship between

effectiveness of instructional materials and students’ performance in History.

Testing the third hypothesis, it was discovered that there is significant relationship

between using instructional materials and students’ performance in History.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of this research work, the following conclusions were made:

Positive relationships exist between availability of instructional materials and

students’ performance in History.

Effectiveness of instructional materials and students’ performance in History is

significantly related.

Educational technology enables students to access more information that helps to

improve their performance than ever before.

Significant relationships exist between using instructional materials and students’

performance in History.

Instructional materials promote meaningful communication, hence effective learning.

Abstract concepts are easily demonstrated by using instructional materials thereby

aiding understanding through concrete impression.

Using instructional materials make boredom and frustration to be maximally

eliminated.

Instructional materials ensure better retention, which makes learning more permanent.

Recommendations

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In this research work, recommendations were made for school principals, History

teachers and the Government.

School Principals

They should ensure that History teachers attend classes regularly and promptly.

Adequate teaching and learning materials should be provided for History teachers.

Computer and other ICT equipments provided by the Government for school use

should be properly maintained.

Ensure that students have recommended History textbooks.

Adequate provisions should be made for training of History teachers in the area that

involve the use of ICT equipments for teaching and learning.

History teachers should be informed about any avenue for them to develop and

function efficiently and effectively in discharging their duties.

Seminar and workshops should be organised for all teachers including History

teachers in the school at least once in a term.

Business Studies Teachers

Instructional materials such as computer systems, typewriters and telephone provided

for use by history students should be properly utilized and maintained.

History teachers must be prepared adequately for each lesson to be taught.

Relevant instructional materials should be used for each topic or lesson in History.

They should improve the effectiveness of materials by using them in a context of

many instructional techniques.

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They should attend class regularly.

Trainings that can improve teacher’s effectiveness and performance should be

attended.

Relevant methods of teaching should be used for each topic or lesson in History.

Government

Typewriters, computer systems, telephones, photocopiers and other relevant materials

for teaching of History should be provided for use in schools.

History teachers should be well remunerated

History teacher’s salary and allowances should be paid as at when due.

Only qualifies teachers should be recruited and allocated to schools.

Adequate instructional media should be provided for use in schools

On the job trainings should be given to History teachers so as to enhance their

effectiveness.

Constant power supply should be supplied to secondary schools. Also, alternate

power supply should be made available.

History resource centre’s should be established in each local district and local

government in Lagos State.

Well-equipped library with current history textbooks should be provided in the

schools.

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