information technology project managers’ commitment …
TRANSCRIPT
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PROJECT MANAGERS’
COMMITMENT TO SUSTAINABILITY
By
Grant Clinning
Dissertation
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
of
Magister Commercii
In
Information Technology Management
in the
Faculty of Management
at the
University of Johannesburg
Supervisor: Prof. Carl Marnewick
May 2016
ii
Declaration
I certify that the dissertation submitted by me for the degree Master’s of Commerce
(Information Technology Management) at the University of Johannesburg is my independent
work and has not been submitted by me for a degree at another university.
Grant Clinning
iii
Abstract
The concept of sustainability is becoming increasingly important in the face of dwindling
resources and increasing demand, boding ill for future generations. Despite this, there are still
many industries and disciplines in which sustainability is not actively addressed. The ability to
meet current and future needs is not an issue from which IT projects are exempt. Ensuring
sustainability requires managing sustainability in all activities. The field of IT and
sustainability is one in which literature is appearing, albeit at a slow pace and this leaves many
unanswered questions on, among other things, the state of sustainability in IT projects and the
commitment of IT project managers to sustainability. In not knowing what the state of
sustainability is, potential shortcomings remain unknown, and corrective action cannot be
taken.
This research focused on assessing the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability
and, by extension, the state of sustainability in IT projects.
The quantitative research methodology was followed through the use of a survey in the form
of a structured questionnaire. This research was cross-sectional as the focus was to assess the
state of sustainability at a single point in time. IT project managers were randomly sampled to
get an objective view of how committed they are to sustainability. This research made use of a
project management sustainability maturity model to measure the extent to which sustainability
is addressed in IT projects. Furthermore, the underlying structure of sustainability in project
management was assessed through the use of factor analysis in order to determine if it differed
for IT projects.
This research found that IT project managers are not committed to sustainability. While the
economic dimension showed the best results, they were not ideal; it is, however, the social and
environmental dimensions that require the most attention. This poor performance is not limited
to select aspects within each dimension as each dimension’s aspects are in a similarly poor
state. The results also indicate that the structure of sustainability in projects may not be static
and may differ between projects of different types.
This research suggests that sustainability needs to become a focus for IT project managers.
However, for this to happen, they need to recognise the importance of sustainability and acquire
the relevant knowledge. This research shows that as a means to address sustainability, projects
can be broken down into aspects according to the three dimensions of sustainability. Each
aspect can then be assessed to determine how the project is performing with regard to
sustainability, resulting in an actionable base from which to address sustainability.
Keywords: Sustainability, project management, IT project management, sustainability maturity
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to take this opportunity to thank some very important people. Without their support and
encouragement I would not have completed this research endeavour.
Prof. Carl Marnewick, for the guidance he gave me, for the experience he shared with me
and for taking the time out of his busy schedule to meet with me regardless of whether I
had an appointment or not.
My mom Lizelle and my dad John who continually supported me throughout the process.
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How to cite this thesis
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v
Contents
Chapter 1 - Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research question ................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Research goals ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Research design and method ................................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 Research design............................................................................................................... 3
1.4.2 Research methods ........................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Study layout ............................................................................................................................ 4
1.5.1 Sections ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.5.2 Chapters .......................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2 - Literature review .................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Understanding sustainability ................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Economic dimension ....................................................................................................... 7
2.2.2 Social dimension ............................................................................................................. 7
2.2.3 Environmental dimension ............................................................................................... 7
2.2.4 Need for all three dimensions ......................................................................................... 8
2.2.5 Importance of sustainability ............................................................................................ 9
2.2.6 Stages of sustainability .................................................................................................. 12
2.2.7 Difficulties incorporating sustainability ........................................................................ 13
2.3 Understanding projects and project management ................................................................. 15
2.4 Linking projects to sustainability .......................................................................................... 16
2.4.1 Relating sustainability to projects ................................................................................. 16
2.4.2 Scope of sustainability in projects................................................................................. 18
2.4.3 The extent of including sustainability in projects ......................................................... 21
2.4.4 Sustainability as a requirement for success ................................................................... 24
2.5 Sustainability and IT projects ............................................................................................... 26
2.5.1 Definitions of IT and IS ................................................................................................ 26
2.5.2 Sustainability and IT ..................................................................................................... 27
2.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 29
Chapter 3 - Research methodology ....................................................................................................... 30
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 30
3.2 The concept of research ........................................................................................................ 30
3.3 Research design .................................................................................................................... 31
vi
3.4 Research paradigms .............................................................................................................. 32
3.4.1 Quantitative methodology ............................................................................................. 33
3.4.2 Qualitative methodology ............................................................................................... 34
3.4.3 Qualitative and quantitative methodology comparison ................................................. 34
3.5 Design frame ......................................................................................................................... 35
3.5.1 Design frame selection .................................................................................................. 35
3.5.2 Time frame .................................................................................................................... 38
3.6 Study sample ......................................................................................................................... 39
3.6.1 Sampling techniques ..................................................................................................... 40
3.6.2 Sample size ................................................................................................................... 43
3.7 Data analysis ......................................................................................................................... 44
3.7.1 Data collection .............................................................................................................. 44
3.7.2 Data preparation ............................................................................................................ 45
3.7.3 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 46
3.7.4 Interpretation and discussion ........................................................................................ 47
3.8 Models................................................................................................................................... 48
3.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 48
Chapter 4 - Data analysis and discussion .............................................................................................. 50
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 50
4.2 Data analysis framework ....................................................................................................... 50
4.3 Data collection and preparation ............................................................................................ 50
4.3.1 Data editing ................................................................................................................... 51
4.3.2 Data coding and entry ................................................................................................... 51
4.4 Data analysis, interpretation and discussion ......................................................................... 51
4.4.1 Reliability and validity .................................................................................................. 51
4.4.2 Biographic and demographic characteristics ................................................................ 52
4.4.3 Perceived importance of the aspects of the sustainability definition ............................ 57
4.4.4 Overall perspective ....................................................................................................... 59
4.4.5 Three dimensions of sustainability................................................................................ 63
4.4.6 Factor analysis............................................................................................................... 76
4.4.7 SPM3 model .................................................................................................................. 83
4.5 Structure of sustainability ..................................................................................................... 86
4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 88
Chapter 5 - Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 91
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 91
vii
5.2 Overview ............................................................................................................................... 92
5.2.1 Chapter 2: literature review ........................................................................................... 92
5.2.2 Chapter 3: research methodology ................................................................................. 92
5.2.3 Chapter 4: data analysis and description ....................................................................... 93
5.3 Research goals and question ................................................................................................. 94
5.4 Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 95
5.5 Future research ...................................................................................................................... 96
5.6 Contribution .......................................................................................................................... 97
5.7 Final word ............................................................................................................................. 98
References ............................................................................................................................................. 99
Appendix A: Questionnaire ................................................................................................................ 114
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List of figures
Figure 1.1: Study layout ......................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2.1: Three dimensions of sustainability ...................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.2: Relationship between the pillars of society and sustainability .......................................... 10
Figure 2.3: Sustainability stages .......................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.4: Consideration of sustainability in the full scope of projects ............................................. 18
Figure 2.5: Four dimensions of sustainable projects............................................................................ 21
Figure 2.6: Conceptual model of the assessment ................................................................................. 23
Figure 2.7: Project success criteria ...................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2.8: Relationship between IS components ................................................................................ 27
Figure 3.1: Research recipe ................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 3.2: Data analysis framework ................................................................................................... 44
Figure 3.3: Study method ..................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 4.1: Gender distribution ............................................................................................................ 52
Figure 4.2: Age distribution ................................................................................................................. 54
Figure 4.3: Qualification distribution .................................................................................................. 54
Figure 4.4: Project type ........................................................................................................................ 55
Figure 4.5: Countries impacted ............................................................................................................ 56
Figure 4.6: Perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability ....................................................... 57
Figure 4.7: Breakdown of the perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability .......................... 58
Figure 4.8: Overall sustainability position ........................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.9: Sustainability position in strategy and project level groupings ......................................... 60
Figure 4.10: Organisational and project reporting comparison ........................................................... 61
Figure 4.11: Averages of economic dimension aspects ....................................................................... 63
Figure 4.12: Breakdown of economic dimension aspects .................................................................... 64
Figure 4.13: Averages of social dimension aspects ............................................................................. 66
Figure 4.14: Breakdown of social dimension aspects .......................................................................... 66
Figure 4.15: Social dimension three-way correlation .......................................................................... 70
Figure 4.16: Averages of environmental dimension aspects ............................................................... 70
Figure 4.17: Breakdown of environmental dimension aspects ............................................................ 71
Figure 4.18: Environmental dimension three-way correlation ............................................................ 74
Figure 4.19: Sustainability dimension averages .................................................................................. 74
Figure 4.20: Social dimension factor plot ............................................................................................ 78
Figure 4.21: Environmental dimension factor plot .............................................................................. 79
Figure 4.22: Three dimensions factor plot ........................................................................................... 83
Figure 4.23: SPM3 model .................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 4.24: Original sustainability structure ...................................................................................... 86
Figure 4.25: IT project sustainability structure .................................................................................... 87
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List of tables
Table 2.1: Contrast between sustainability and projects ...................................................................... 15
Table 2.2: Sustainability principles ...................................................................................................... 16
Table 2.3: Checklist for integrating sustainability in projects ............................................................. 21
Table 3.1: Positivism and interpretivism paradigms ............................................................................ 32
Table 3.2: Comparison between quantitative and qualitative methodology ........................................ 34
Table 3.3: Prevalent research designs .................................................................................................. 36
Table 3.4: Time frames ........................................................................................................................ 39
Table 3.5: Sampling techniques ........................................................................................................... 41
Table 4.1: Cronbach’s alpha ................................................................................................................ 52
Table 4.2: Job title and gender representation...................................................................................... 53
Table 4.3: Project industry segment ..................................................................................................... 55
Table 4.4: Project budget ..................................................................................................................... 57
Table 4.5: Cross-tabulation between organisation and project sustainability reporting ...................... 62
Table 4.6: Correlations between social aspects .................................................................................... 69
Table 4.7: Correlations between environmental aspects ...................................................................... 73
Table 4.8: Correlation between dimension aspects .............................................................................. 75
Table 4.9: Correlation between dimensions ......................................................................................... 76
Table 4.10: Economic dimension factor loadings ................................................................................ 77
Table 4.11: Social dimension factor loadings ...................................................................................... 77
Table 4.12: Environmental dimension factor loading .......................................................................... 79
Table 4.13: All sustainability aspects’ factor loadings on four factors ................................................ 80
Table 4.14: Sustainability aspects’ factor loadings on three factors .................................................... 81
Table 4.15: Revised sustainability aspects’ factor loadings on three factors ....................................... 82
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Acronyms and abbreviations
CSR/I Corporate social responsibility/ investment
ICT Information and communication technology
IT Information technology
IS Information system
LC Life cycle
NPD New product development
OEF Organisation environmental footprint
PEF Product environmental footprint
PR Public relations
TBL Triple bottom line
1 Chapter 1 – Introduction
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1 Introduction
The ability of the present generation to meets its needs while still affording future generations
the same opportunity is the definition of sustainable development expressed in the Brundtland
Report by the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). In recent years,
sustainability in general, but specifically from an organisational perspective, has come under
the spotlight as the resources that organisations rely on are no longer perceived as infinite
(Shao-lu, 2001; Azizi, 2005; Shafiee, 2009; Kendall & Willard, 2014). Sustainability is not
merely of environmental concern. Organisations jeopardise their social licence to operate by
failing to meet the needs of millions (Kendall & Willard, 2014; Pike, 2012). Kendall and
Willard (2014) also recognise the degradation of the ‘planetary services’ such as a stable
climate, access to materials as well as security of energy sources, which threaten the continuity
of organisations.
As is evident from the previous paragraph, sustainability consists of more than just the financial
viability of an organisation. Elkington (1997) identifies three elements of sustainability,
namely people, profit and planet. The implications for organisations are that they cannot simply
address financial profitability concerns. The people element encompasses the employees of the
organisation as well as the communities in which the organisation operates (Dempsey,
Bramley, Power and Brown, 2011; Dillard, Dujon and King, 2008). The planet element
encompasses the physical environment in which the organisation operates, including physical
resources required by the organisation. Without addressing all of these elements, the
organisation runs the risk of not being able to acquire resources, operate effectively or foster a
community to sustain its existence.
Additionally, organisations which fail to innovate and develop lose their competitiveness and
risk their sustainability (Hartman, 2001). The sustainability of an organisation is typically
ensured through the implementation of projects when those projects are aligned with the
strategies of the organisation (Keeys, 2014). This requirement places a large responsibility on
the project management capabilities of an organisation to ensure that not only the financial
sustainability of the organisation is considered, but also the sustainability of the planet and its
people. Silvius and Schipper (2014b) as well as Wang, Wei and Sun (2013) maintain that
project managers are in a position to significantly impact how sustainability is implemented
within the organisation. Gareis, Huemann and Martinuzzi (2013) recognise that the
management paradigm has shifted from viewing sustainability as an optionality to now being
concerned with sustainable development.
1.2 Research question
It is clear that projects play a crucial role in enabling organisations to operate in a sustainable
fashion. Projects are even described as temporary organisations so they too ought to include an
element of sustainability (Silvius, Schipper, Planko, Van den Brink and Köhler, 2012). There
is, however, a paucity of literature on the topic of project management and the link to
2 Chapter 1 – Introduction
sustainability (Gareis, Huemann and Martinuzzi, 2009). Unsustainable practices will continue
as long as this topic remains unfamiliar to the parties involved, which emphasises the
importance of research in this field. According to Marnewick (2015), literature regarding
sustainability and project management is appearing but at a slow pace. The existing body of
literature is confined mainly to construction and is scant as far as the African continent is
concerned.
Another trait of the existing literature regarding sustainability and project management is that
it is considered to be interpretive (Silvius et al., 2012; Silvius & Nedeski, 2014) and conceptual
(Martens & De Carvalho, 2014). A lack of empirical research in this regard is recognised by
Martens and De Carvalho (2014) and described as necessary to develop an understanding of
how sustainability concepts can be implemented within project management.
The state of sustainability in information technology (IT) project management is unknown.
This creates the problem that what is lacking is unknown when it comes to addressing
sustainability in IT project management. In not knowing what is lacking, what needs to be done
or where a start can be made to overcome potential failings is also not known. In addition to
this, the apparent void in research regarding sustainability in IT projects hinders an
understanding and ability to apply sustainability concepts in project management (Ugwu &
Haupt, 2007; Edum-Fotwe & Price, 2009; Herazo, Lizarralde and Paquin, 2012; Martens & De
Carvalho, 2014). This void is even more apparent in the context of the African continent
specifically (Hedman & Henningsson, 2011; Herazo et al., 2012; Silvius & Nedeski, 2014). To
address these concerns, the following research question was investigated:
To what extent are IT project managers committed to sustainability?
1.3 Research goals
The aim of this research was to determine the state of sustainability in project management,
specifically IT project management, by assessing the commitment of IT project managers to
sustainability. Several themes were explored: (i) understanding sustainability within the
context of IT project management, (ii) measuring sustainability in IT projects and (iii) assessing
the structure of sustainability in IT projects. To this end, the following research goals were
formulated:
Assess the notion of sustainability within projects, more specifically IT projects,
through the critical evaluation of the literature pertaining to this topic. In order to
understand the area of research as well as to avoid reinventing the wheel, it was
necessary to review the relevant literature. Reviewing the relevant literature also
covered the outcomes of other research that could be used in this research.
Examine and discuss the concept of research in order to discern an appropriate research
method for this study. To ensure that research is not conducted in a haphazard manner,
a plan must be followed. Following a plan ensures that due diligence is taken, which
greatly increases the reliability and validity of the research.
3 Chapter 1 – Introduction
Analyse, interpret and discuss the data collected for the purpose of assessing the
commitment of IT project managers to sustainability. Research that does not add new
knowledge is of no consequence. Analysing data provides information. That
information, together with a discussion, provides insight into the research area and
generates new knowledge.
In order to achieve these goals, an appropriate research method was employed as discussed in
the next section.
1.4 Research design and method
This section outlines the research design and methods employed.
1.4.1 Research design
The quantitative research methodology is the approach that was followed. This methodology
lends itself to the positivist paradigm and allows for objective research to be carried out
(Thomas, 2013:116). As this research made use of various statistical techniques, it was
important that the data be in the form of numbers.
The design frame employed was a survey. A survey allows for the collection of a large number
of responses with relative ease and few constraints. It also allows for the collection of data on
a large number of variables, which was important for this research. The particular method used
was a questionnaire. Refer to appendix A for the full questionnaire. This method facilitates data
collection in a standardised and numerical form which conforms to the methodology followed
(Thomas, 2013:207). The survey is used in conjunction with the sustainable project
management maturity model (SPM3), which forms the basis of this study.
This research made use of a cross-sectional studies time frame. A cross-sectional study looks
at studying a sample or samples at a single point in time. This time frame can be described as
a snapshot. This was appropriate in this study as the research aimed to portray the current
commitment of IT project managers to sustainability.
This research was based on the idea that by being able to assess the commitment of IT project
managers to sustainability, the state of sustainability in IT projects could be determined. As
such, IT project managers were randomly sampled to get an objective view of how
sustainability in IT projects is addressed. The questionnaire used was in line with a
sustainability measurement model to allow for the measurement of sustainability in IT projects.
1.4.2 Research methods
As mentioned above, the research method used was a questionnaire distributed randomly to IT
project managers. A questionnaire was used as it is the most convenient survey tool that still
allows for the necessary data to be gathered from a sufficient number of respondents. An
important aspect of this research is the large number of variables that were assessed, which was
achievable using the questionnaire. A questionnaire was therefore the most suitable method for
this study.
4 Chapter 1 – Introduction
The questionnaire comprised primarily closed questions, which goes hand-in-hand with the
measurement model used. The majority of the questions also resulted in numerical answers,
which conforms to the quantitative methodology followed in this study, as well as the statistical
analyses performed.
1.5 Study layout
This study comprises five chapters distributed over four sections. Figure 1.1 illustrates the
layout of this study.
Figure 1.1: Study layout
1.5.1 Sections
Section 1 outlines the research problem and background. This section provides the context in
which this study took place. Section 2 covers the various research methods employed in this
study, as well as the data analysis process. Section 3 deals with the results of the data collected,
including the statistical techniques used and discussion of the resulting information. Section 4
concludes the study with a summary of each chapter and the research outcomes.
1.5.2 Chapters
Chapter 1: Introduction
The first chapter introduces the research background, research goals as well as the research
methods employed. This chapter begins to address the first research goal, which is to assess
the notion of sustainability within IT projects.
5 Chapter 1 – Introduction
Chapter 2: Literature review
The second chapter is dedicated entirely to the first research goal and picks up where chapter
1 left off. The literature review completes the research background. This chapter starts off by
focusing on the concept of sustainability. This is then followed by the concept of projects and
the relevance of sustainability in projects. Finally, the chapter ends with sustainability and IT
projects.
Chapter 3: Research methodology
The third chapter deals with the second research goal of discerning an appropriate research
method. The research methodology employed in this study is explained in further detail. The
approach followed by the researcher is discussed, including the design frame, time frame, data-
gathering method and data analysis process used.
Chapter 4: Data analysis and discussion
The fourth chapter concerns the third research goal of assessing the commitment of IT project
managers to sustainability through the analysis, interpretation and discussion of the collected
data. The results of this chapter provide the insight needed to answer the research question.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
In the final chapter the contents of this study are summarised and the research question and
goals are revisited to determine the outcome of the research question. The limitations of this
study, the possibility for future research and the contributions made by this research are then
highlighted.
The next chapter presents a literature review pertaining to sustainability and project
management.
6 Chapter 2 – Literature review
Chapter 2 - Literature review
2.1 Introduction
Thomas (2013:57) notes that the work done by a researcher exists within the context of what
is already known. Researchers needs to be aware of the context in which they are conducting
the research. This requires the researcher to review work already done in the field. In carrying
out a literature review, researchers can narrow the research idea as well as avoid reinventing
the wheel. The goal of this chapter is to:
Assess the notion of sustainability within projects, more specifically IT projects,
through the critical evaluation of the literature pertaining to this topic.
For the purpose of achieving the aforementioned goal, the following objectives have been
formulated:
1. To explore and build an understanding of sustainability, including its dimensions and
importance, as well as the problems with incorporating sustainability into organisations.
2. To understand projects and project management.
3. To explore the relationship between IT projects and sustainability.
4. To determine how sustainability is measured within projects.
The structure for the chapter is as follows: section 2.2 builds an understanding of sustainability
as well as its importance and the difficulties with incorporating sustainability. Section 2.3 deals
with the concepts of projects and project management. In section 2.4 the relationship between
projects and sustainability is explored. The relationship between IT projects and sustainability
is discussed in section 2.5.
2.2 Understanding sustainability
According to Toman (2006), the term ‘sustainability’ is inherently ambiguous. It can be
understood as preserving and maintaining ecological systems from the perspective of
ecologists, or maintaining or improving living standards from the perspective of economists
(Toman, 2006). Sustainability is also defined as operating in a manner that may be sustained
indefinitely, to generate without depleting or destroying necessary resources (Silvius et al.,
2012). Different perspectives allow for different interpretations, which can make understanding
sustainability more difficult. According to Keeys (2014) as well as Silvius and Schipper
(2014a), the definition that is most commonly accepted is that of the Brundtland Report. The
definition reads as follows: “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”
(World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987).
The term ‘sustainable development’ is considered to be a synonym for sustainability
(Seghezzo, 2009). A distinction can however be made between sustainability and sustainable
development. Sustainability is the state of balance between current and future needs while
7 Chapter 2 – Literature review
sustainable development, is undertaking activities for the purpose of, as well as in such a
manner so as to ensure sustainability (Gareis, Huemann and Martinuzzi, 2013).
The definition provided in the Brundtland Report is abstract, and thus not confined to a single
interpretation of sustainability and therefore applicable to all interpretations. The two core
themes encapsulated in this definition are as follows:
To meet the needs of the current generation.
To afford future generations the opportunity to meet their needs.
Sustainability is thus ensuring that the actions taken today do not affect future generations in
an adverse way. Sustainability, according to the Brundtland Report, is concerned with three
dimensions, namely people, profit and planet (World Commission on Environment and
Development, 1987). Elkington (1997) identifies sustainability and its dimensions (people,
profit and planet) as the triple bottom line (TBL) or Triple-P. The dimensions of sustainability
are more commonly known as the social, economic and environmental dimensions (World
Commission on Environment and Development, 1987; Dillard et al., 2008). The dimensions of
sustainability as well as the relationship between them are discussed in the next section.
2.2.1 Economic dimension
Maximising profit, reducing costs, growing revenue and improving quality are considered to
be some of the traditional business imperatives (Holme & Watts, 1999; Thomas & Lamm,
2012). The primary goal of an organisation could be stated as generating wealth for its owners,
namely the shareholders. Martens and De Carvalho (2014) recognise the importance of the
economic dimension as it protects the capital of the organisation’s investors. The goods and
services by which we live are considered by some as a by-product of the expectation to make
money (Dillard, 1987). Since moving away from a goods bartering system to a money-based
economy, organisations and individuals require money to obtain the resources they need and
want from others (Handy, 2002; Weatherfoord, 1997:107). Apart from those who are self-
reliant, for example subsistence farmers, money is a necessity for sustaining our way of life.
2.2.2 Social dimension
The social dimension refers to humanity. The communities in which organisations operate as
well as the employees of an organisation are encapsulated by this dimension (Dempsey et al.,
2011; Dillard et al, 2008). Organisations do not operate by themselves or in isolation. They
must take cognisance of the communities in which they operate and of their employees. The
employees are said to be the most valuable asset of an organisation (Brummet, Flamholtz and
Pyle, 1968; Kaplan & Norton, 2001). Employees are the ones who generate the results of the
organisation and should be cherished by the organisation. The results of the organisation are
also dependent on how the community supports the organisation (customer base). Prescott-
Allen (2001) outlines social well-being as the fulfilment of basic needs as well as the exercise
of social, economic and political freedoms.
The extent to which employees and communities can support organisations before they are
exploited is overlooked (Aronson & Neysmith, 1996; Pines & Meyer, 2005). It is evident that
8 Chapter 2 – Literature review
the well-being of employees and communities is treated as secondary to the objectives of
organisations. Utilising communities and employees for organisational success while not
exploiting them is the balance espoused by the concept of the social dimension.
2.2.3 Environmental dimension
This dimension is concerned with the environment which people inhabit. Sustainability has
largely become linked to the preservation of the environment and the failings of humanity to
date in preserving it (Gore, 2006; Higgins, 2010). It is evident from the literature that the planet
has been negatively impacted by the activities of the human race (Douthwaite, 1993; Gore,
2006; Higgins, 2010; Ludwig, Hilborn and Walters, 1993). Gore (2006) describes how the
world’s environment has deteriorated and is continuing down that path. As early as 1993 it was
conceived that the pursuit of economic goals has led to the degradation of the environment
which sustains humankind and will continue to do so (Douthwaite, 1993).
Climate change as a result of global warming has led to a variety of hardships, such as severely
reduced crop yield (famine), flooding, rising sea level, potable water scarcity, drought, climate
refugees and political instability, which are only some of the resulting problems (Gore, 2006).
These problems have been deemed to be the ‘cost of carbon’ and threaten the sustainability of
current practices (Gore, 2006).
2.2.4 Need for all three dimensions
The TBL concept proposes a balance between the dimensions of sustainability (Elkington,
1997). It has become widely accepted that the wise use of natural resources, social well-being
and economic growth cannot be achieved without considering all of the dimensions and their
effect on each other (Keating, 1993). The dimensions and their relationship can be seen in
figure 2.1. The Venn diagram clearly highlights that only when there is a balance between all
three dimensions is sustainability achieved (Neudorff, 2014; Silvius et al., 2012).
Figure 2.1: Three dimensions of sustainability (Neudorff, 2014)
According to Rosen and Kishawy (2012), the intersections denoted in figure 2.1 (bearable,
equitable and viable) have the following meanings:
9 Chapter 2 – Literature review
Bearable entails the protection of the environment and natural resources on a local,
regional and global scale.
Equitable comprises corporate social responsibility, fair trade, worker protection as
well as business ethics.
Viable requires subsidies/incentives and taxes/penalties to promote efficient,
environmental stewardship.
King III, a corporate governance framework in South Africa, stresses that the board of directors
should ensure that the organisational strategy results in sustainable outcomes with regard to
people, profit and planet (Institute of Directors Southern Africa, 2009). The Johannesburg
Stock Exchange (JSE) instructs companies listed with it to report on the triple bottom line
(Sonnenberg & Hamann, 2006). According to King III, reporting solely on the financial
performance of an organisation is no longer sufficient. The Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD), within its guidelines, expresses that responsible business
conduct should include consideration of employment and human relations, human rights and
environmental protection (Clarke & Branson, 2012:595).
2.2.5 Importance of sustainability
In the following section the importance of sustainability is explored. Due to the scope of this
research, this section focuses on how sustainability impacts on organisations (businesses) and
the importance of sustainability in the context of organisations. The importance of
sustainability in government and civil society should not, however, be underestimated.
Together, organisations, government and civil society make up the three pillars of society
(Wartick & Wood (1998), cited in Labuschagne & Brent, 2005).
The organisations referred to above follow the definition provided by Kilby (2006:952), which
states that organisations are independent self-governed bodies, voluntary in nature, may engage
with supporters and constituencies for the purpose of values or some shared interest or concern,
and have the purpose of creating public benefit. Governments are defined as the structures and
processes in societies which have recognised authority to make and apply policies to govern
these societies (Kuye, Ogundele and Alaneme, 2013). The definition of society used for the
purpose of this research is a community of people residing in a particular region or country and
having shared laws, customs and organisations (Society Oxford English Dictionary, 2010). The
relationship between the dimensions of sustainability and between business, government and
society is symbiotic (Kuye et al., 2013). Just as all three dimensions of sustainability are
necessary for sustainability, so are the three aspects that make up the pillars of society.
Figure 2.2 reflects the relationship between sustainability and the pillars of society.
Sustainability within each pillar is important for its own sake, but also to sustain the system
that supports the way we live. In every civilisation, throughout history, the pillars of society
have existed in some form or another (Kuye et al., 2013). Should one of the pillars disappear
(fail to be sustained), the system as a whole would disappear. Kuye et al. (2013) propose that
the impact reaches further than simply sustaining the system, as without one of the pillars it is
not just the system that will cease to exist, but all the pillars as well.
10 Chapter 2 – Literature review
Figure 2.2: Relationship between the pillars of society and sustainability
Generating profit is recognised as one of the primary imperatives of an organisation (Holme &
Watts, 1999; Thomas & Lamm, 2012). Non-profit organisations, on the other hand, do not have
the goal of generating profit, but they do share a common goal with their monetary focused
counterparts. This goal is continued existence (Dedhia, 1995). Regardless of whether the
organisation is a non-profit or not, they all require money (Handy, 2002).
Money is necessary for organisations to cover their operating costs and, where relevant, to pay
dividends to the shareholders. Profits are also reinvested into the organisation to ensure that
the organisation achieves growth (Seidman, 2003). Growth enables an organisation to compete
with its rivals through innovation and investing in new solutions, thus sustaining its existence
(Klitgaard & Krall, 2012; Weitzel & Jonsson, 1989). Hopkins (2009) as well as Martens and
De Carvalho (2014) are of the opinion that direct benefits, especially from the economic
perspective, can be obtained from acting in a sustainable manner. Hopkins (2009) notes that by
operating in a sustainable fashion, organisations can reduce their operating costs, which has a
direct impact on the financial bottom line. The use of more energy-efficient technologies and
methods is one aspect of sustainable operations that provides real economic benefit for
organisations.
For organisations, the environment provides an important infrastructure and source of
resources which need to be preserved to ensure continuity of operations (Turner, Pearce and
Bateman, 1994). The support provided by the natural environment, termed planetary services
by Kendall and Willard (2014), is necessary for the operation of most organisations. Many
organisations rely on the natural resources found throughout the world. As these resources
dwindle, organisations find it more and more difficult to continue their operations (World
Economic Forum, 2015). Not considering the sustainability of the environment has a negative
impact on organisations and affects the profits realised (World Economic Forum, 2015).
11 Chapter 2 – Literature review
According to the concept of supply and demand, when supply cannot meet demand, the price
increases (Trostle, 2010). The impact on business is increased operating costs as the sourcing
of materials becomes more costly. A point may conceivably be reached where it is not viable
for the organisation to acquire the materials it needs.
The argument could be made that sustainability is not important to all organisations as there
are organisations which do not rely on natural resources. Banks, universities and consulting
firms are but a few of these organisations. These industries could be considered to be relatively
clean as their environmental burden in term of energy use, water and paper usage is not
comparable to many other sectors (Jeucken & Bouma, 1999). Jeucken and Bouma (1999) make
the point that one banking firm is insignificant but the whole banking sector is large enough to
have a significant environmental impact. In addition to energy, water and paper usage, the
business travel per employee, CO2 emissions per employee as well as the number of computers
per employee per year could also be considered when assessing the environmental impact
(Jeucken & Bouma, 1999).
The implication for the organisation if employees are not looked after can be devastating
(Chuang & Liao, 2010). Organisations must also look after the communities in which they
operate. Organisations which create pollution harm the environment and such harm may also
extend to communities in that environment. Chemical dumping has been found to impact on
communities living in the area, with many of the inhabitants developing ill health symptoms
caused by such chemicals (Dayal, Gupta, Trieff, Maierson and Reich, 1995). A similar
argument to the one made previously can be made for organisations which are considered
environmentally clean. The same counterargument can be used, that even though these
organisations may only have a small impact, in greater numbers the impact can be significant.
In the case of financial institutions in the United States of America, they can be held
accountable for the environmental damage caused by other organisations if the bank is
considered to be an operator or owner of such an organisation (Gobert & Poitevin, 1998).
In China, there is currently pollution on such a scale that it affects the living conditions of its
people (Yong, 2001; Zhang & Smith, 2007). Breathing is reported as being a risk to children
(Wong, 2013). Pollution has reached such an extent that children are not allowed to play outside
and schools are being chosen based on whether they have air filtration systems (Wong, 2013).
Such a poor quality environment threatens the lives of the people living there, which in turn
threatens organisations. Even operations that do not have such a negative impact on the
community can hurt the business drastically. The organisation’s reputation can be considered
to be its most valuable long-term asset (Alsop, 2006). According to Minor and Morgan (2011),
the competitive advantage of an organisation lies in its reputation. Organisations which impact
negatively on the community in which they operate can hurt their reputation and they can lose
customers to more reputable organisations. Those which recognise the importance of people
often engage in corporate social responsibility/investment (CSR/I) initiatives. These initiatives
are organisational actions taken to improve the quality of life of employees as well as for
society at large, while still ensuring economic development (Holme & Watts, 1999; World
Business Council for Sustainable Development, nd). A study done by Park and Pavlovsky
12 Chapter 2 – Literature review
(2010) found that of the companies that engage in these social initiatives, the focus is on
improving working conditions. The study also found that community-oriented efforts are made.
These initiatives are not limited to social engagements and may have an environmental focus.
According to Minor and Morgan (2011), engaging in CSR can act as insurance towards
maintaining an organisation’s reputation.
The importance of sustainability for organisational continuity also has a legal basis. Numerous
countries, including South Africa, have a regulatory framework in place to ensure that
organisations meet certain sustainable objectives (Eisma, Christie and Hershman, 2005; Patlis,
2005; Holmes-Watts & Watts, 2008). Willard (2005) categorises organisations into one of five
stages of sustainability, as described in the next section.
2.2.6 Stages of sustainability
Community pressure and legal regulations have stimulated the acceptance of responsibility for
sustainability in many organisations (Silvius et al., 2012). This acceptance is described by
Willard (2005) as being at one of the five sustainability stages. Figure 2.3 provides an
adaptation of the sustainability stages. The first two stages, pre-compliance and compliance,
indicate whether the organisation fails to meet the social and environmental regulations or
whether it complies with the regulations and no more, respectively. Organisations which do
not comply with regulations face the threat of fines, removal of licences and legal action
(Schaltegger & Burritt, 2010).
Figure 2.3: Sustainability stages (adapted from Willard, 2005)
Stage 1 Pre-compliance: At stage 1 the organisation feels that the only obligation it has
is to achieve profits. Cutting corners and breaking the law are tactics used in the pursuit
of profit. Sustainability is ignored and the organisation may actively fight against
regulations that are imposed on it.
Stage 2 Compliance: At stage 2 the organisation reduces its liabilities by complying
with regulations. It only does what it has to legally and treats social and environmental
actions as costs.
13 Chapter 2 – Literature review
Stage 3 Beyond compliance: Organisations at stage 3 and higher take a proactive
approach to sustainability. They realise that they can save on expenses by increasing
efficiencies, handling waste better and using cleaner processes. They also participate in
social and environmental investments as a way of reducing uncertainty. Sustainability
is adopted within organisations but it is still only marginal.
Stage 4 Integrated strategy: At the third stage sustainability is viewed as an add-on that
can have certain benefits for the organisation. At the fourth stage sustainability is
integrated with the organisation’s strategy. Sustainability is seen as an investment and
opportunity that can lead to competitive advantages.
Stage 5 Purpose and passion: Organisations at stage 5 are passionate about
sustainability and it becomes a driver for decisions that the organisation makes.
Organisations at this stage are committed to improving the world in which they operate.
The stage at which an organisation is at is important, as it will determine what sustainable
endeavours the organisation is likely to engage in. It is only at stage 3 that the organisation will
look to actively include sustainability in its operations. The extent of this inclusion may only
be as far as to implement some CSR initiatives which do not represent a meaningful
contribution (Smith & Sharicz, 2011). At stages 4 and 5 there is a significant adoption of
sustainable thinking, which may result in the inclusion of sustainable principles in the projects
that an organisation undertakes.
The sustainability stages reinforce the notion that sustainability is linked to an organisation’s
governance structure. Alänge and Steiber (2009) as well as Willard (2005) maintain that the
inclusion of sustainability within an organisation relies on the top executives and managers, as
they have the authority to make decisions. Oram (2010) regards sustainability as an ethical
principle that needs to be considered by organisations. Schwartz, Dunfee and Kline (2005)
claim that it is the directors of an organisation who have overall responsibility for the ethics of
the organisation, as well as for setting the tone.
2.2.7 Difficulties incorporating sustainability
In spite of the apparent importance of sustainability for organisations, there are issues regarding
how it is incorporated, if at all. The TBL concept advocates a balance between the dimensions
of sustainability, but organisations value profit above the other two aspects, resulting in the
social and environmental dimensions being neglected (Labuschagne, Brent and Van Erck,
2005; Edum-Fotwe & Price, 2009; Singh, Murty, Gupta and Dikshit, 2009; Smith & Sharicz,
2011; Ullah, Lai and Marjoribanks, 2013; Martens & De Carvalho, 2014). These authors also
note that the social dimension is the one most often neglected.
According to Nidumolu, Prahalad and Rangaswami (2009), there are many organisations which
neglect the social and environmental dimensions of sustainability, as they are under the
impression that efforts in this regard will erode the competitiveness of the organisation. The
justification is that catering for these dimensions will require funding that will not produce
immediate benefits of a financial nature. This implies that the future benefits achieved from
14 Chapter 2 – Literature review
acting sustainably are not perceived to be as important as the immediate benefits which can be
achieved by not acting sustainably.
A portion of the reduction of the application of sustainable initiatives can be attributed to CSR
projects being implemented for the wrong reasons. CSR projects have been used as public
relations (PR) ‘stunts or exercises’ by several organisations (Frankental, 2001; Strategic
Directions, 2002; Kim, 2014). A study conducted on the McDonald’s franchise found that the
CSR initiatives that were implemented were little more than PR stunts which did not result in
significant sustainable developments (Strategic Directions, 2002). Smith and Sharicz (2011)
identify other factors for why CSR initiatives fail to address the sustainability responsibilities
of organisations. One such factor is that CSR is an ill-defined concept which has led to
conflicting interpretations and implementations (Smith & Sharicz, 2011). The lack of a
definition results in unclear guidelines for how CSR should be adopted. Organisations end up
using their own guidelines and mechanisms to manage CSR. Measuring CSR performance then
becomes problematic, as it is impossible to draw valid conclusions between the data produced
and the differing measuring mechanisms used (Smith & Sharicz, 2011). Smith and Sharicz
(2011) state that even when organisations engage in sustainable endeavours such as CSR, it
only constitutes a marginal activity at best.
According to Kendall and Willard (2014), the biggest contributor to the failings of
organisations’ sustainable performance is the gap between awareness and action. The authors
report that the majority of business leaders recognise the need for sustainability, but
underestimate what needs to be done. This in turn leads to a gap between current performance
and the performance required with regard to sustainability.
Alänge and Steiber (2009) attribute the difficulties of implementing sustainability to the
governance structure of an organisation. How sustainability is implemented within an
organisation depends on the understanding and orientation of the board. Top management
needs to have the correct understanding of sustainability, which ties into the ‘awareness and
action’ that was mentioned by Kendall and Willard (2014). Alänge and Steiber (2009) also note
that even if top management understands and supports sustainability, eventually this sentiment
changes. There is a risk that with the inevitable change of management, this understanding and
support of sustainability may not be reflected in the direction given by new management.
Including sustainability in organisations can also be considered at project level, but inherent
problems are still present. According to Gareis et al. (2013:11), projects that include sustainable
development principles, termed sustainable development projects, are not necessarily
integrated into the business processes as they may not be within the focus of the companies’
activities. This implies that sustainable development projects are not an integral part of the
organisation’s operations and therefore the first to get cancelled during economic hardship.
Wanger (2007) notes that to receive performance benefits from sustainability, it needs to be
integrated into the core functions and processes of the organisation. Sustainability is even being
linked to company performance by some researchers (Orlitzky, Schmidt and Rynes, 2003).
15 Chapter 2 – Literature review
The next section concerns the second objective, which is to understand projects and project
management.
2.3 Understanding projects and project management
The Project Management Institute (PMI) (2013) describes a project as an activity that has the
following characteristics: (i) projects are temporary in that they have a defined start and end,
(ii) projects are unique in that they are not routine operations, and (iii) projects are undertaken
by an individual or group of people. Projects are also described as temporary organisations
which contribute to the continued existence of the organisation (Marnewick, 2015; Silvius et
al., 2012). As a temporary organisation, a project itself should include sustainability principles
(Silvius et al., 2012).
The importance of projects cannot be understated. Organisational stagnation is recognised by
Weitzel and Jonsson (1989) as a source of organisational decline which impacts on the
sustainability of organisations. Lacking the ability to adjust as markets dictate can lead to the
liquidation of an organisation. Silvius et al. (2012) recognise projects as the mechanism to
deliver change to organisations. Nearly all organisations implement projects which serve as
instruments of change, enabling these organisations to pursue their goals and sustain their
existence (Silvius et al., 2012). Turner, Huemann, Anbari and Bredillet (2010) estimate that
approximately 30% of economic activities worldwide are initiated through projects.
Project management is described as applying skills, knowledge and techniques in order to
execute projects efficiently and effectively (Project Management Institute, 2013). Project
management is recognised as a strategic competency that facilitates project results, which in
turn leads to the achievement of business goals (Project Management Institute, 2013).
The importance of both projects and sustainability in organisations is echoed by numerous
authors, yet projects and sustainability may represent differing perspectives (Gareis et al., 2013;
Silvius et al., 2012). The characteristics and nature of projects and sustainable development
can lead to the conclusion that they are not ‘natural friends’ or best suited to go together (Silvius
et al., 2012). Table 2.1 shows the contrast between the nature of projects and sustainability.
Table 2.1: Contrast between sustainability and projects (Silvius et al., 2012)
Sustainable Development Project Management
Both long-term and short-term oriented Short-term oriented
The interests of the current and future
generation are taken into account
The interests of the stakeholders/sponsor are
taken into account
Life cycle oriented Deliverable/result oriented
Concerned with economic, social and
environmental elements
Concerned with scope, time and budget
Increasing complexity Reduced complexity
The contrasting nature of projects and sustainability may be perceived to indicate that projects
and sustainability do not go hand-in-hand. While this may be the case, it does not mitigate the
16 Chapter 2 – Literature review
need for sustainability within projects. The next section deals with the link between projects
and sustainability.
2.4 Linking projects to sustainability
The connection between projects and sustainability is now discussed.
2.4.1 Relating sustainability to projects
“The need to integrate sustainability in project management has emerged” (Martens & De
Carvalho, 2014). The field of sustainability integrated with project management is considered
to still be an emerging field and as such there is a paucity of research. McKinlay (2008)
describes the future of project management as connected to sustainability. According to Gareis
et al. (2013:11), sustainability principles are considered in specific project types. These types
include public, engineering and construction projects. Gareis et al. (2013:11) identify several
studies that focus on each of the aforementioned industries with regard to sustainability and
projects.
Gareis et al. (2013:7) point out that sustainability is relevant not only to societies and
organisations, but also projects. As society moves towards a more sustainable orientation, it
requires the implementation of effective projects in order to realise this change (Silvius et al.,
2012).
Gareis et al. (2013:7-9) note that sustainability has been considered at strategic level, but
operational levels, including projects and programmes, have yet to receive focus. There are
many organisations which have embraced sustainability as a fundamental aspect of doing
business (Silvius et al., 2012). This embracing of sustainability orientates the business context
of projects to address sustainability. This includes the way that projects are managed and
executed with regard to sustainability.
The relationship that has been identified between sustainability and project management has
been gaining recognition and interest among academics and professionals (Silvius, Schipper
and Nedeski, 2013). Sustainability and project management have been the focus in a multitude
of studies but the relationship between and intersection of the two constructs have been
addressed in only a few studies (Martens & De Carvalho, 2014). These authors do note that
there are studies in progress on the intersection, but considerable additional research is needed
in order to develop project management techniques, tools and methodologies relevant to
sustainability.
Silvius et al. (2012) describe six principles of sustainability that have an implication
specifically for projects and project management. The principles as well as their accompanying
descriptions can be seen in table 2.2 (Silvius et al., 2012).
17 Chapter 2 – Literature review
Table 2.2: Sustainability principles
Number Sustainability Principle Description
1 Sustainability is about
balancing or harmonising
environmental, social and
economic interests.
In accordance with the TBL concept of
sustainability, the integration of sustainability in
projects and project management requires that all
three dimensions of sustainability are considered.
2 Sustainability is about
both short-term and long-
term orientation.
The definition of sustainability identifies both the
short- and long-term orientation of sustainability.
Projects, however, have a short-term orientation. As
noted above, Gareis et al. (2013:74) state that the
boundaries of project management may end up being
expanded, which may allow for the inclusion of a
long-term orientation.
3 Sustainability is about
local and global
orientation.
The business world is increasingly becoming more
global. The impact that projects may have on
communities and environments is no longer confined
to those found locally. Project teams, suppliers and
beneficiaries of projects may exist across several
countries for the same project.
4 Sustainability is about
consuming income, not
capital.
Meeting the needs of the present without
compromising on the future generation’s ability to
meet their needs requires that resources not be
exhausted. There are several resources utilised in
projects such as people and raw materials. While a
project is temporary, there will be future projects
that may rely on the same resources.
5 Sustainability is about
transparency and
accountability.
The accountability for the economic aspect of a
project is clearly presented in project management.
Sustainability requires that the environmental and
social aspects also be accounted for. The project
manager controls the flow of information, most often
with the goal to influence or manipulate the
perceptions that stakeholders have about a project.
Sustainability requires the expansion of stakeholders
to include the social and environmental aspects with
more transparency.
6 Sustainability is about
personal values and
ethics.
Sustainability is regarded by some as an ethical
decision which ultimately comes down to the values
and beliefs of those involved in a project. Project
managers can refer to codes of ethics and
professional conduct to determine the professional
ethics and values they should subscribe to. The PMI
code of ethics and professional conduct states that
the decisions and actions taken by project managers
are based on the best interests of society, public
safety and the environment. There is a clear
connection between ethics and professional conduct
with the concepts of sustainability.
18 Chapter 2 – Literature review
In light of these principles Silvius et al. (2012) provide their own definition of sustainability in
projects and project management:
“Sustainability in projects and project management is the management, development and
delivery of project-organised change in, processes, resources, policies, assets or
organisations, with consideration of the six principles of sustainability, in the project, its
results and its effects.”
The next section deals with the aspects constituting a project and the implication of
sustainability on them.
2.4.2 Scope of sustainability in projects
Applying sustainability in projects and project management requires that the scope or system
boundaries of project management be discussed (Silvius et al., 2012:35). Silvius et al. (2012)
note that there is debate amongst researchers and practitioners about what should be considered
to be in scope. The remainder of this section focuses on the differing views on which processes
are in scope for considering sustainability within projects. Figure 2.4 illustrates the
consideration of sustainability in the full scope of projects.
Figure 2.4: Consideration of sustainability in the full scope of projects (adapted from Silvius
et al., 2012)
The differing perspectives of scope when considering sustainability, discussed in the following
sections, refer to the processes illustrated in figure 2.4. The successive scope perspectives build
on the previous perspectives in that they include the processes discussed in the previous
perspectives.
19 Chapter 2 – Literature review
2.4.2.1 Scope of considering sustainability in the project management process
The SustPM1 research project considers the scope of including sustainability in projects as
being limited to the project management processes and methods (Gareis et al., 2009). Including
sustainability within the project management processes is promoted by Gareis et al. (2009), as
they suspect that this will support the achievement of sustainable project results. The temporary
nature of projects causes the project management process to be overlooked by organisations in
striving to achieve a more sustainable business, requiring that the project management process
receive more appreciative consideration (Silvius et al., 2012).
Project managers are responsible for the project management process, making them vital to
project execution. The importance of project managers with regard to sustainability in projects
has also been recognised in the literature. Silvius and Schipper (2014a) recognise that project
managers play a pivotal role in realising sustainable development in organisations. McKinlay
(2008) envisions that in the future of project management, sustainability will be considered and
that project managers will be required to take responsibility for sustainability. Russell (2008)
asserts that project managers are perfectly positioned to influence the operations of an
organisation to include a sustainable orientation. Integrating and implementing sustainable
design or technology into projects is even considered a responsibility of project managers
(Wang et al., 2013).
The relevance and importance of project managers with regard to sustainability are apparent.
It is recognised that project managers are not sufficiently equipped to contribute to sustainable
development within an organisation (Silvius et al., 2012). Kendall and Willard (2014) echo this
sentiment as they are of the opinion that business leaders understand the need for sustainability,
but lack knowledge about the action that needs to be taken. There is evidence that suggests that
educational programmes and training can be effective in elevating the awareness of
environmental issues as well as the ecological impact of organisational activities (Cordano,
Ellis and Scherer, 2003). Cordano et al., (2003) note that sustainability-oriented technical skills
and procedures can also be conveyed. Cramer (2005) notes that the “critical reflection on
existing principles and values”, required for a deeper understanding as well as
operationalisation of sustainability principles, may not be successfully stimulated by training.
The question of whether managers, even those who have undertaken formal training with
regard to sustainability or social responsibility, undertake the effort to incorporate
sustainability considerations into the decision-making process, as it may not be seen as
legitimate (Pava & Krausz, 1997; Springett & Kearins, 2001; Thomas, 2005; Thomas & Lamm,
2012). Simply training managers in sustainability principles may not be sufficient for
sustainability to be incorporated into projects.
2.4.2.2 Scope of considering sustainability in project management
As mentioned previously, the system boundaries of project management may end up being
expanded (Gareis et al., 2013; Silvius & Schipper, 2014b). This conclusion was derived by
1 A research project conducted as part of a broader research initiative about sustainability and undertaken in
cooperation between the PROJEKTMANAGEMENT GROUP and the Research Institute for Managing
Sustainability.
20 Chapter 2 – Literature review
following the notion that integrating sustainability into projects should not be limited only to
the project management processes. According to Silvius et al. (2012), project management
extends to include the project resources and project delivery processes within its scope.
2.4.2.3 Scope of considering sustainability in the project
Considering sustainability in projects may extend to the project as a whole (Silvius et al., 2012).
Projects undertaken by a permanent organisation may overlap with the resources, assets and
operations of that organisation. Sustainability in the project considers the result or product at
the end of a project. The resources, assets and operation processes of the permanent
organisation are included when considering sustainability in the projects.
2.4.2.4 Scope of considering sustainability in the project life cycle
The scopes previously mentioned examine the way in which the project is run and how the
product or result is delivered; however, they fail to examine the motivation for doing the project
in the first place, namely the goals to be achieved. Considering sustainability in the life cycle
of projects extends the scope to cover the effects of projects (Silvius et al., 2012). Sustainability
in the project life cycle considers all processes related to projects, including the deliverable and
its impact. Considering the result of the project indicates another area where the system
boundaries have expanded due to the integration of sustainability (Silvius & Schipper, 2014b).
Labuschagne and Brent (2005) highlight the importance of the deliverable or “product”; they
state that the project itself will only have minimal environmental, social and/or economic
consequences. The deliverable or “product” of the project, on the other hand, will have these
impacts and consequences. The project itself is subject to its own sustainability efforts, but also
contributes to the sustainability of the organisation (Keeys, 2014). While the project itself must
be executed in a sustainable fashion, it is of greater importance that the deliverables contribute
to the sustainability of the organisation (Keeys, 2014). Therefore projects cannot be executed
for their own sake and must fit into the context of what the organisation is attempting to
achieve. This makes sustainability important within the strategic management of an
organisation.
Marcelino-Sádaba, González-Jaen and Pérez-Ezcurdia (2015) support the life cycle approach,
but their interpretation of the scope is different. Figure 2.5 presents the conceptual model for
managing projects sustainably developed by Marcelino-Sádaba et al. (2015). The model is
based on four dimensions, unlike the processes presented in figure 2.4. The first dimension
focuses on sustainable products of the project. The second dimension focuses on the processes
which help to include sustainability in the project. The third dimension focuses on
organisations that undertake projects and are committed to sustainability. The last dimension
focuses on the members of the project team who are trained and are aware of sustainability.
21 Chapter 2 – Literature review
Figure 2.5: Four dimensions of sustainable projects (Marcelino-Sádaba et al., 2015)
2.4.3 The extent of including sustainability in projects
Research currently done on sustainability in project management is considered to be
interpretive (Silvius et al., 2012; Silvius & Nedeski, 2014) as well as conceptual (Martens &
De Carvalho, 2014). These studies give meaning as to how the concepts of sustainability could
be interpreted within the context of projects (Silvius & Schipper, 2010). Seeing as the studies
are interpretive, they provide the ingredients but not a clear recipe on how sustainability should
be integrated into projects. In light of this, a goal at the 2010 International Project Management
Association (IPMA) Expert Seminar was to translate the concepts of sustainability into
practically applicable tools which can be used by project management professionals. One such
tool that was developed is a sustainability checklist, shown in table 2.3. The checklist provides
specific areas in a project for which sustainability can be considered.
Table 2.3: Checklist for integrating sustainability in projects (Silvius & Schipper, 2010)
Economic
sustainability
Return on investment - Direct financial benefits
- Net present value
Business agility - Flexibility/optionality in the project
- Increased business flexibility
Environmental
sustainability
Transport - Local procurement
- Digital communication
- Travelling
- Transport
22 Chapter 2 – Literature review
Energy - Energy used
- Emission/CO2 from energy used
Waste - Recycling
- Disposal
Material and resources - Reusability
- Incorporated energy
- Waste
Social sustainability Labour practices and
decent work
- Employment
- Labour/management relations
- Health and safety
- Training and education
- Organisational learning
- Diversity and equal opportunity
Human rights - Non-discrimination
- Freedom of association
- Child labour
- Forced and compulsory labour
Society and customers - Community support
- Public policy/compliance
- Customer health and safety
- Products and services labelling
- Market communication and
Advertising
- Customer privacy
Ethical behaviour - Investment and procurement
practices
- Bribery and corruption
- Anti-competition behaviour
Similar to the checklist, the four dimensions of the sustainable projects model as per figure 2.5
includes all three dimensions of sustainability. The product, process and organisation
dimensions specifically indicate that all three of the sustainability dimensions are to be
included. The four dimensions of the sustainable projects model are, however, less specific in
terms of how sustainability is addressed and rely on other guides, some of which are not project
specific (Brones, De Carvalho and De Senzi Zancul, 2014). As such, there is great emphasis
on the learning and training of the project team members (Marcelino-Sádaba et al., 2015).
With regard to the extent to which sustainability should be included in projects, Silvius and
Schipper (2010) have developed a maturity model. However, as research in this field is
interpretive, the maturity model is for monitoring, assessing and improving the incorporation
of the concepts and principles of sustainability within projects (Silvius & Nedeski, 2014).
Figure 2.6 illustrates the maturity model assessment.
23 Chapter 2 – Literature review
Figure 2.6: Conceptual model of the assessment (Silvius & Shipper, 2010)
The maturity model is based on two concepts.
1. The first concept is that project sustainability maturity is expressed in terms of depth of
vision (Silvius & Nedeski, 2014; Silvius & Schipper, 2010). This approach is based on
the observation and experience of the authors that sustainability can be considered at
different levels. The maturity model consists of four levels which exclude the state at
which sustainability does not feature within a project. The first level is resources used
in the project. The authors provide the example of using hybrid cars over normal cars
to reduce environmental impact. This action reduces the negative impact of the project,
but does not change the cause of the project to be sustainability focused. The second
level is the business process of delivering or managing the project. Teleconferencing
instead of travelling to a physical location detracts from the cause of non-sustainable
effects. The third level of consideration is the business model within which the project
is executed. Changing the contract of a project from merely the construction phase to
the full life cycle can produce favourable effects on the project delivery. This is due to
the emphasis in moving from a single phase to all the phases that are involved. The
fourth level of consideration is the deliverable or result of the project. Considering
sustainability in the deliverable or result connects the sustainability in the management
of the project with the sustainability of the project itself. The levels reflect how the
focus has shifted to become more positive by making services, products and processes
that make customers more sustainable (Silvius et al., 2012).
2. The second concept that the maturity model builds upon is the principles of
sustainability, operationalised in the sustainability integration checklist. Each of the
four levels of the model is assessed according to different aspects or criteria which are
grouped into one of the dimensions of sustainability (Silvius & Nedeski, 2014). The
model assesses the level, namely resources, business process, business model,
products/services (deliverable/result), at which the different aspects or criteria of
sustainability are embodied in the project.
24 Chapter 2 – Literature review
The maturity model for projects is similar to that for business maturity in that they both imply
an origin or base where no sustainable activity is contemplated (Silvius & Shipper, 2010;
Willard, 2005). The business maturity model stages and the project maturity levels both
indicate a ranking, which implies that the last stage and level is the optimal position for
businesses and projects, respectively, with regard to sustainability. For the purpose of
determining the extent to which sustainability should be included in projects, the highest level
of the project maturity model can be used. According to the business stages of maturity, it is
only at the third stage that organisations take a proactive approach to incorporate sustainability
within their projects.
The maturity model, now known as SPM3, has since evolved to using a different set of maturity
levels, namely compliant, reactive, proactive and purpose (Silvius & Schipper, 2015). The first
level is compliant and is concerned with considering sustainability minimally and implicitly
with the intention of only complying with laws and regulations. The second level is reactive
and is concerned with considering sustainability explicitly but only to reduce the negative
impacts of the project. The third level is proactive and considers sustainability explicitly and
as one of the areas that the project contributes to. The fourth and final level is purpose, which
considers making a contribution to sustainability as one of the drivers behind the project and,
as such, sustainability considerations are included in the justification of the project.
The model works the same way as it did with the previous levels, that is to say that each of the
four levels of the model is assessed according to different aspects or criteria which are grouped
into one of the dimensions of sustainability. More detail is provided on how the checklist may
be used and the variables in the checklist may be tailored to the specific project at hand (Silvius
& Schipper, 2015). This model works by allowing for each dimension to be broken up into
smaller aspects and assigning a score. This allows for sustainability to be judged in detail as
well as for incremental changes to be made as each aspect is a potential area for improvement.
All the aspects in a dimension can be aggregated to give a score for that dimension and all
dimensions can be aggregated to give a score for overall sustainability.
2.4.4 Sustainability as a requirement for success
Success criteria are an integral part of project management and are required to direct the project
team and discern whether or not a project was successful in the eyes of the stakeholders (Müller
& Turner, 2007; Wateridge, 1998). As a directing force, success criteria influence the way in
which a project is carried out as well as what is included in the project. Should a requirement
not be viewed as a success criterion, especially in projects under tight constraints, the
requirement of sustainability may not be met. Only those factors which are regarded as success
criteria are likely to be pursued. As such, it is important to understand what criteria are used to
determine whether a project was successful or not.
Unfortunately the definition of project success in current literature is ambiguous (Baccarini,
1999; Belassi & Tukel, 1996; Marnewick & Labuschagne, 2009). Success, according to Belassi
and Tukel (1996) as well as Lim and Mohamed (1999), is defined and interpreted differently
by various stakeholders. This creates the probability that there will be a difference in the
25 Chapter 2 – Literature review
perception of stakeholders as to whether a project was successful or was a failure. The mere
fact that there is variation across project types dictates that there cannot be a single definition
of project success (Camilleri, 2011:16). Project success was initially measured against
technical terms, namely whether the project was functional after it was completed (Erasmus &
Marnewick, 2012). As project management evolved, project success came to be defined as
completing the project on time, within budget and at an expected level of quality (Erasmus &
Marnewick, 2012; Ika, 2009). These three criteria have come to be known as the iron triangle,
golden triangle as well the holy trinity (Atkinson, 1999; Ika, 2009). The definition of project
success has since evolved even further to include a variety of other criteria (Joseph, 2013).
Figure 2.7 illustrates the project success criteria, including those identified by the Project
Management Institute, ISO 21500, P2M, APM and PRINCE2 (OGC).
Figure 2.7: Project success criteria (adapted from Joseph, 2013)
While different success criteria may be used on a project, there will be those success criteria
that are regarded as prime objectives and those that are not (Atkinson, 1999). The implications
are that there can be levels of success and that certain stakeholders will be more influential on
the outcome of a project. Of the success criteria illustrated in figure 2.7, there is scope to include
sustainability concepts within some of them, but none of them address sustainability
specifically. Without any success criteria addressing sustainability specifically, there is no
standard by which a project can be measured in terms of sustainability. As such, only those
success criteria that are specifically stated will be pursued.
While there may not be specific sustainability success criteria, there are authors who recognise
the importance of sustainability. Chan, Scott and Lam (2002) maintain that environmental
sustainability plays a big role in determining the success of a project. These authors advocate
that an impact analysis of the environment should be conducted after a project is completed to
determine what impact the project has had. These authors specifically mention construction
26 Chapter 2 – Literature review
projects, indicating that the same considerations may not be found in IT projects. A study
conducted by Khang and Moe (2008) found that the sustainability of the project deliverable or
result has a larger bearing on the perceived success of a project over all the other criteria of
success. Serving sustainable environmental and social development needs are also recognised
as a priority in stakeholder evaluations.
Sustainability is evidently considered within projects, but the extent is unknown. In the case of
the project deliverable being sustainable, there is no indication if the project was completed in
a sustainable manner, for example the sourcing of materials and handling of waste materials
are not discussed. Successful projects also need to meet the sustainability requirements set out
in legislation (Gibson, 2006). It can therefore be concluded that project-specific sustainability
considerations need to be met for a project to be assessed as being as successful. However, this
selective approach goes against the holistic essence of sustainability.
In the following section the relationship between IT projects and sustainability is explored.
2.5 Sustainability and IT projects
According to Gareis et al. (2013), sustainability principles are considered in specific project
types. These types include public, engineering and construction projects. Gareis et al. (2013)
identify several studies that focus on each of the aforementioned industries with regard to
sustainability and projects. There is an apparent void in the literature regarding sustainability
and its consideration in information systems (IS) projects and IT projects.
2.5.1 Definitions of IT and IS
There is a realisation amongst authors that there is some confusion between IS and IT
(Checkland & Holwell, 1997:9; Gunasekaran, Love, Rahimi and Miele, 2001). IS is defined as
“a wider concept which refers to how information flows are designed in an organisation so as
to meet an organisation’s information needs” (Gunasekaran et al., 2001). IT is defined as “a
generic term for the convergence of computers, hardware, software, telecommunications,
internet, electronics and the resulting technologies” (Gunasekaran et al., 2001). The confusion
arises in that there are items contained within the IT definition that exist within IS (Checkland
& Holwell, 1997:39). Checkland and Holwell explain that the field of IS is the orderly
provision of data and information within an organisation using IT. In addition to IT and users,
Kroenke, Bunker and Wilson (2013:10) include procedures within the composition of IS.
Kroenke et al. (2013:10) recognise that IS do not necessarily require a computer/IT component.
IS that do make use of a computer/IT component can be termed computer-based IS. This
research focuses only on computer-based IS. An information system is recognised as a user-
machine system that supports decision making and communication. Due to such a significant
portion of these systems comprising IT, IS projects will be considered as IT projects. Figure
2.8 depicts the relationship between the components of an information system.
27 Chapter 2 – Literature review
Figure 2.8: Relationship between IS components
While existing literature considers sustainability linked to information systems and technology
projects, the African continent is not included (Marnewick, 2015; Silvius & Nedeski, 2014).
There are several studies that have examined sustainability in projects that include an element
of IT (Cox, 2002; Bengtsson & Ågerfalk, 2011; Dao, Langella and Carbo, 2001). However,
these are not IT projects and the inclusion of IT is to support the sustainability initiatives of
other areas.
The IT project aspect differs in several ways from projects in other fields, which warrants
further investigation in the IT field. The result or deliverable of IT projects is not entirely
concrete. While there is hardware present, typically computers and servers, there is also a
software component (Schwalbe, 2013:64). Unlike the physical result of IT projects and the
result of other industries such as construction, agriculture and manufacturing, software is
intangible. Judging the result of an IT project can therefore be difficult, especially from the
perspective of the customers who may not have an IT background. Schwalbe (2013:64)
describes how IT projects differ from projects of other industries as they can be very diverse.
Even when just reviewing the area of IT projects, there is a plethora of decisions that need to
be made from deciding on hardware types, technologies, scale, typology to even the language
used for the software component. As IT forms a significant portion of IS, it is necessary to
explore the relationship between IT and sustainability.
2.5.2 Sustainability and IT
The relationship between IT and sustainability is discussed below according to the three
dimensions of sustainability, for the purpose of discerning whether all three dimensions of
sustainability should be considered within the IT field.
2.5.2.1 Economic considerations
Possibly the biggest reason for such a wide adoption of IT is the impact on the bottom line
(Gunasekaran et al., 2001). A competitive advantage is necessary to sustain an organisation
from the economic perspective and IT is necessary to sustain a competitive advantage
28 Chapter 2 – Literature review
(Gunasekaran et al., 2001). Thite (2000) states that IT management is a strategic component of
any business today.
Despite the apparent need for IT in business, there is concern regarding the rate at which IT
and IT-related projects fail (Eveleens & Verhoef, 2010; Joseph, 2013; Marnewick, 2012;
Whittaker, 1999). Eveleens and Verhoef (2010) reveal that in 2009, 24% of IT projects failed,
44% of IT projects were challenged and only 32% of IT projects were successful. Marnewick
(2012) reveals, from a South African perspective, that in 2011, 12% of IT projects failed, 29%
of IT projects were challenged and only 59% of IT projects were successful. Joseph (2013)
estimates that in 2009 alone US$777 billion was squandered on IT projects. In South Africa
for 2011 the estimated value that was squandered is R13.68 billion. The International Data
Corporation (IDC) (2015) predicted that expenditure on IT and telecommunications
expenditure worldwide would exceed US$3.8 trillion in 2015.
2.5.2.2 Social considerations
IT affects virtually everyone on a daily basis. According to Boren (2014), there are more mobile
devices (7.22 billion) than there are people in the world (7.19 billion). The rate at which new
technology is developed makes it seemingly impossible to keep up with what is new and how
it affects us (Vicente, 2010). The impact on the social dimension is greatly expanded as IT is
included more and more into daily life, and the impact that IT can have on humanity therefore
needs to be recognised. Cheng, Zhang and Tan (2005) describe how protection of privacy is a
key issue that has resulted from the inclusion of technology in people’s lives. People
continuously store information about their personal lives online and in computer systems. If
privacy of information is not protected, then some form of misfortune may befall the
owner/author of the information. One example of such misfortune is computer-related fraud
(Haugen & Selin, 1999; Vasiu & Vasiu, 2004).
2.5.2.3 Environmental considerations
Typically what is thought of when sustainability is mentioned is the environment. While the IT
field does not appear to have a large environmental impact, there is mounting concern in this
regard (Du Buisson & Naidoo, 2014). The most recognisable impact that the IT industry has
is its energy consumption (Du Buisson & Naidoo, 2014; Lincke, 2012). According to Lincke
(2012), data centres require 40 times more energy than ordinary offices. Gartner estimates that
2% of global CO2 emissions are attributable to information and communication technology
(ICT) (Goasduff & Forsling, 2007). Given that the Gartner study only considered ICT and was
conducted in 2007, the current day percentage for the IT industry is in all likelihood greater.
The term ‘green IT’ is used to describe information technology and system programs and
initiatives that are aimed at addressing environmental sustainability (Jenkin, Webster and
McShane, 2011). Du Buisson and Naidoo (2014) note that green IT refers to IT that is
environmentally sound. Green IT is the study and practice of designing and using IT-related
components (computers, printers, monitors, networks, communication systems and storage
devices) effectively and efficiently with as little impact on the environment as possible.
Hopkins (2009) as well as Du Buisson and Naidoo (2014) comment on how there are financial
29 Chapter 2 – Literature review
benefits that can be achieved by acting in a sustainable fashion. By simply using less, in this
case energy, money is saved.
Du Buisson and Naidoo (2014) believe that IT workers should turn their attention to green IT.
They should become custodians and ambassadors of green IT and create green IT cultures in
the communities in which they operate.
Based on the literature the following research questions were formulated
1. What is the perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability?
2. What is the commitment to the three dimensions of sustainability as well as the
relationships between them?
3. What is the commitment to sustainability in terms of the SPM3 model?
4. Are there any underlying factors that may be present in the assessment of sustainability?
5. Is the initial structure of sustainability adequate within the context of IT projects?
2.6 Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter was to assess the notion of sustainability within projects, more
specifically IT projects, through the critical evaluation of the literature pertaining to this topic.
This chapter was successful in this regard by building an understanding of sustainability and
project and IT project, exploring the relationship between sustainability and IT projects and
determining how sustainability is measured within projects.
The notion of sustainability is widely recognised as crucial to the efforts of humanity in meeting
current and future needs. Sustainability is an important concept for organisations that are
oriented primarily towards viable future circumstances. As projects are the mechanisms
through which organisations attempt to adapt and position themselves for future success, it
would seem short-sighted to consider projects and sustainability as being mutually exclusive.
While there is substantial literature on sustainability and project management, only a small
fraction of this pertains to both sustainability and project management in a joint context.
Research in this regard is still emerging, but at a slow pace. When narrowing the focus to IT
projects, the lack of research in this area is even more apparent. The practical inclusion of
sustainability into IT projects is largely unknown and presents a void in research. In order to
develop this line of research, it is important to build a current understanding of how
sustainability is perceived and included within IT projects. IT project managers are those
stakeholders who are in a position to influence how IT projects are undertaken thereby making
them key stakeholders for ensuring that these projects are undertaken with sustainability in
mind. In accordance with developing research that redresses the paucity of research in this
field, more specifically the state of sustainability in IT projects, this study aims to determine
the extent to which IT project managers are committed to sustainability.
The various research methods that could be employed when conducting research are discussed
in the next chapter.
30 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
Chapter 3 - Research methodology
3.1 Introduction
Human beings are inquisitive by nature, and this is evident in the desire to learn new approaches
to doing something, or understanding why we learn as a means to explain a phenomenon of
interest (Picardi & Masick, 2013:6). This inquisitive nature frequently leads to questions of
who, where, why, when, what and how with regard to the particular area of interest (Dane,
2010:12; Picardi & Masick, 2013:6). In order to answer these questions, a scientific approach
can be followed. However, research of this ilk requires an understanding of the scientific
approach to problem solving (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000:3). The goal of this chapter is to:
Examine and discuss the concept of research in order to discern an appropriate research
method for this study.
For the purpose of achieving the aforementioned goal, the following objectives have been
formulated:
1. To examine the concept of research.
2. To explore the concept of research design.
3. To explore the possible research paradigms and determine the appropriate paradigm
presented in this study.
4. To review the various design frames and data-gathering techniques
5. To select an appropriate sampling technique.
6. To define the data analysis framework used in this study.
7. To explore potential modelling techniques and select the appropriate technique for this
study.
The structure for the chapter is as follows: in sections 3.2 and 3.3, the concepts of research and
research design are examined, respectively. Section 3.4 deals with exploring the possible
research paradigms. In section 3.5 the various design frames and data-gathering techniques are
reviewed. The sample used in the study is described in section 3.6. Section 3.7 covers the
definition of the data analysis framework used in this study. The potential modelling techniques
are explored in section 3.8.
3.2 The concept of research
The best way to start to learn about a new topic is to start at the beginning, and in research that
beginning is the definition (Dane, 2010:3). Dane (2010:3) points out that there is no single
definition of research, as just about everyone who writes about research proposes some
definition or another.
Nachmias and Nachmias (1981:22) provide the definition that research is the “overall scheme
of scientific activities in which scientists engage in order to produce new knowledge”. Dane
(2010:3) is of the opinion that while research is conducted by scientists, it is not exclusive to
scientists. Research done by non-scientists tends to be conducted differently, but this does not
31 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
necessarily lead to research being carried out poorly (Dane, 2010:3). This sentiment contradicts
the definition provided by Nachmias and Nachmias (1981:22) and Kerlinger and Lee (2000:14)
therefore uses the following definition: “research is systematic, controlled, empirical, amoral,
public and critical investigation of natural phenomena”. This does not indicate who undertakes
the research. Kerlinger and Lee’s definition does, however, come with other restrictions, one
of them being that the more controlled and systematic the research is, the better that research
is. Kerlinger and Lee refer to this type of research as scientific research.
Fox and Bayat (2007:5) broaden the definition of research to make reference to a research
design and research process. Their definition reads as follows: “Research is a study or
investigation in order to discover facts or gain information. It is a universal activity by which
a specific phenomenon in reality is studied objectively in order to create a valid concept of that
phenomenon. The process of research simply constitutes the formation of a problem, from
which may flow a question or questions and the methods used to gain the information needed
to answer it or them.”
The definitions presented here are not exhaustive and only serve as a starting point for
understanding the research concept. The following section covers the second objective, which
is to explore the concept of the research design as identified in the definition provided by Fox
and Bayat (2007:5).
3.3 Research design
The research design is the plan and structure for the research (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000:449;
Thomas, 2013:103). Kerlinger and Lee (2000:449) describe the research design as
encapsulating the overall research scheme, from hypothesis formation through to data analysis.
Tomas (2013:104) makes note of a design route or research process that will ultimately be
considered when addressing the research design. Goddard and Melville (2004:12) echo this
sentiment, mentioning a “research recipe” that should be employed when conducting research.
The research recipe provided by Goddard and Melville is illustrated in figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Research recipe (adapted from Goddard and Melville, 2004:12)
The first step is that the researcher becomes aware of and selects an area of interest as well as
defines a problem within that area. The topic for this study is project management and
sustainability with regard to IT projects in particular. The problem identified is the lack of
literature on and investigation into the area of IT projects and sustainability. The second step
involves converting the identified problem into a well-defined research problem or goal. This
study assesses the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability.
Become aware of a topic and
problem
Convert the problem into a
well-demarcated
research problem
Carry out the research (data
collection)
Analyse the results
Write up the findings
32 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
In order to achieve this goal, several research objectives were devised. The first and second
research objectives pertain to the third step in the research recipe. The third step prescribes that
the data needs to be collected. Data collection takes place in two phases. The first phase, which
is also the first objective, is data collection through conducting a literature review. A literature
review in this study was necessary to assess the notion of sustainability and its implications for
IT projects. The second phase (the second objective) focuses on examining the various research
methods which can be employed when conducting the research. The selected research methods
are then employed in order to acquire the data. The fourth step involves analysing the acquired
data and comparing it with the information found in the literature review. This is accomplished
through the third research objective, which is to analyse and discuss the data collected to
achieve the research goal. The final step is to document the findings of the research so that it
may contribute to the body of knowledge and provide insight for further research. This step is
achieved through the composition of a research paper (Goddard & Melville, 2004:12).
There are varying interpretations of the research design, not discussed here, yet there are
inherent similarities between some of them which lead to correlating views (Joseph, 2013). Of
the research design interpretations analysed by Joseph (2013), they all begin with identifying
a topic area of interest and then narrowing the topic to a specific research problem or goal.
Once the research problem or goal is identified, the next step is to collect and analyse the data
that is required to solve the research problem or achieve the research goal. Research does not
stop there, however, as doing the research itself may result in new questions being raised
(Leedy, 1989:9; Thomas, 2013:3).
Joseph (2013) notes that inherent gaps may be present in research designs, so three critical
questions should be asked by both novice and seasoned researchers:
1. Which research paradigm is to be adopted? This question refers to whether a
quantitative or qualitative research methodology will be followed.
2. When and how is the research to be conducted and the relevant data collected? This
question refers to the research strategy, data collection technique and time frame.
3. From where is the data collected? This question refers to the unit of analysis used for
the research.
In light of these questions, the next section deals with exploring the research paradigms in order
to identify the most appropriate research methodology for this study.
3.4 Research paradigms
Paradigm is the term used to describe how we think about and research the world (Thomas,
2013:105). Thomas (2013:106) and Neuman (2000:64-65) identify two main paradigms for
how we seek and use knowledge, namely positivism and interpretivism. Table 3.1 presents the
differing characteristics between positivism and interpretivism.
33 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
Table 3.1: Positivism and interpretivism paradigms (adapted from Oakley, 2000:26-27)
Positivism Interpretivism
Researcher aims to: Predict and explain, usually
generalising from carefully
selected samples
Understand the particulars,
contributing to building a
framework of multiple realities
Researcher makes use of: Survey, experiment,
structured observation
Unstructured observation, case
study, unstructured interview,
participant observation
Researcher aims to be: Independent, an outsider Interacting with participants,
an insider
Researcher looks at: Things that can be counted
and quantified
Perceptions, feelings, ideas,
thoughts, actions as heard or
observed
Researcher analyses: Variables decided on in
advance of fieldwork
Emergent patterns
Design of research is: Fixed Flexible
Summed up using these
terms:
Nomothetic, quantitative,
scientific
Naturalistic, qualitative,
idiographic
The research paradigm followed by the researcher will impact on the nature of the data and the
research problem, which dictates the research method to be used (Leedy, 1989:139). According
to Leedy (1989:139) and Thomas (2013:116), all data that reaches the researcher does so as
either numbers or words. The quantitative research methodology is associated with numbers
and the qualitative research methodology is associated with words (Leedy, 1989:139-143;
Thomas 2013:116). The link between the research paradigm and the research methodology
comes from positivism lending itself to the quantitative approach and interpretivism to the
qualitative approach (Neuman, 2000:122; Thomas, 2013:116). Qualitative and quantitative
methodologies have distinct differences in that they are governed by different assumptions and
ground rules. However, this does not mean that they are incompatible; on the contrary, these
two methodologies are said to complement each other (Neuman, 2000:122; Thomas,
2013:116).
Mixing methods, according to Leedy (1989:143), falls under the concept of triangulation.
Triangulation in social sciences indicates viewing from several points, as it is better than
viewing from one (Thomas, 2013:146). Triangulation is not limited to a methodology, but can
be used for data, investigator and theoretical perspectives (Leedy, 1989:143).
While quantitative and qualitative methodologies are recognised to complement each other, a
divide is also recognised between the two methodologies (Leedy, 1989:143; Neuman,
2000:122). The differences between the methodologies leads to confusion among researchers,
as researchers of one particular methodology can find it difficult and often disappointing when
reviewing research carried out based on the alternative methodology. Neuman (2000:122)
points out that it is best to appreciate the strengths of each style, but in order to do this, the
34 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
differing orientations must be understood. The quantitative and qualitative methodologies are
discussed next.
3.4.1 Quantitative methodology
The quantitative methodology is often referred to as the cold approach as the researcher takes
an impersonal approach (Leedy, 1989:142). With the endeavour to collect objective data, the
researcher elects to remain an ‘outsider’ (Joseph, 2013; Walliman, 2005:247). The nature of
the data used in research following the quantitative methodology is numerical and is analysed
using statistical techniques (Leedy, 1989:140; Thomas 2013:116). The results derived from the
quantitative methodology aim to be generalisable to environments, phenomena or instances
which are similar to those from which the data was collected (Glesne, 2006:7). The reliance on
statistical analysis often leads to a process that can be replicated by other researchers (King,
Keohane and Verba, 1994:3). Following the quantitative methodology allows for the researcher
to develop predictions about the area of interest (Glesne, 2006:7).
3.4.2 Qualitative methodology
In contrast to the quantitative methodology, the qualitative methodology is often referred to as
the warm approach as a great part of the research is concerned with human beings and their
personal values, beliefs, thoughts, meanings, interpersonal relationships and feelings (Leedy,
1989:142). Researchers following the qualitative methodology adopt an ‘insider’ position with
the commitment to “see through the eyes” those under observation (Walliman, 2005:247). Data
in the qualitative methodology is not limited to numbers, so analysis is done through flexible,
ongoing processes of measure, which leaves the data in varying forms (Neuman, 2000:158).
As such, there is less emphasis placed on the generalisability of the results or repetition of the
process (Neuman, 2000:123).
3.4.3 Qualitative and quantitative methodology comparison
A comparison is now made between the qualitative and quantitative methodologies.
Table 3.2: Comparison between quantitative and qualitative methodology (adapted from
Glesne, 2006:7; Joseph, 2013; King et al., 1994:3; Neuman, 2000:16 & 123)
Quantitative Methodology Attributes Qualitative Methodology Attributes
Test hypotheses that were established at the
beginning
Capture and discover meaning when the
researcher becomes immersed in the data
Data is in the form of numbers Data is in the form of words
Procedures are standard, replication is
assumed
Research procedures are particular, and
replication is very rare
Analysis proceeds by using statistics, tables,
charts and discussing how what they reveal
relates to the formulated hypotheses
Analysis proceeds by extracting themes or
generalisations from evidence and
organising data to present a coherent and
consistent picture
Measure objective facts Construct social reality and cultural
meaning
Focus is on variables Focus is on interactive events and processes
Reliability is key Authenticity is key
35 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
Reliability and validity stem from vigilant
instrument construction
Trustworthiness stems from the researcher’s
skill and competence
Independent of the context Situationally constrained
Researcher is detached Researcher is involved
Many subjects, large sample size Few subjects, small sample size
Generalisations Extrapolations
Erasmus and Marnewick (2012) explain that qualitative research investigates the ‘what’,
‘where’ and ‘when’, whereas quantitative research investigates the ‘why’ and ‘how’. The
purpose of this research was to assess the extent to which (how much) sustainability is
incorporated in IT projects. Various statistical methods were employed, making it necessary to
express data in numerical form. Research already undertaken in this area by Silvius, Schipper
and Nedeski (2013) followed the quantitative approach, which supports the decision to follow
a quantitative approach with this current research. These factors led to the quantitative
approach being adopted for this research.
The following section deals with the fourth objective of this chapter, which is to review the
various design frames and data-gathering techniques.
3.5 Design frame
The design frame or research strategy constitutes the most important element in the way
research is structured (Joseph, 2013; Thomas, 2013:133). The design frame is the ‘scaffold’
within which research is structured (Thomas, 2013:133). Joseph (2013) echoes this by calling
the design frame a thorough plan of action, approach or method in order to realise the research
goal. There are a variety of design frames which can be utilised and in some research projects
more than one design frame can be used (Walliman, 2005:271). Each design frame provides
an alternative approach and involves its own logic for collecting and analysing data (Walliman,
2005:271). Thomas (2013:133) notes that the design frames do not prescribe how data will be
collected, but rather how it can be collected.
3.5.1 Design frame selection
There are a variety of possible design frames but only those that are most prevalent are
discussed (Joseph, 2013; Neuman, 2000:149; Thomas, 2013:133; Walliman, 2005:272). These
design frames are (i) action research, (ii) experiment, (iii) survey, (iv) case study and (v)
ethnography. These design frames as well as their advantages and disadvantages are reflected
in table 3.3.
36 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
Table 3.3: Prevalent research designs (Joseph, 2013; Maree, 2007; Picardi & Masick, 2013; Thomas, 2013)
Design frame Description Advantages Disadvantages
Action
research
Action research is understood to be research
undertaken by and/or with practitioners (teachers,
social workers, nurses, doctors) of the area of
enquiry. This research takes a hands-on approach
with a focus on finding a practical solution. Action
research is a flexible design frame where the initial
assumption is revisited throughout the process and
revised. This research takes place within real-
world environments where a problem has been
identified. The strong focus on understanding a
problem as well as working closely with people
involved places action research under the
qualitative approach.
Research is done in the area of the
researcher as well as other
practitioners, so skills and
knowledge about the area are
present.
The output of this research is an
actual solution to real-world
problems and not just a theory.
The resulting benefit from action
research is for both the researcher
and the environment in which the
research was done.
The research setting may be unique and the
solutions derived may only be for the setting in
which the research was undertaken. This calls into
question the generalisability of the results.
Action researchers have minimal control over the
various variables due to the real-world setting. This
creates challenges for the researcher.
The level of involvement and position of the
researcher may introduce some bias into the
research with regard to data collection and
contamination.
Once the researcher leaves the setting or forgoes the
researcher role, there may be an impact on the
setting, which in turn may impact on the
effectiveness of the solution.
Experimental
research
Experimental research seeks to answer a specific
type of research question which is cause and effect.
Experimental research has three characteristics that
differentiate it from other designs:
1. Manipulation: some of the participants or
variables receive some kind of treatment.
2. Control: some of the participants or variables
are used as a control, as they do not receive
the treatment.
3. Randomisation: the way in which participants
are assigned to groups.
Experimental research relies on controlled
conditions to ensure accurate measuring of cause
and effect. A wide range of statistical analysis
methods are employed in this design.
The control employed in
experiments leads to a repeatable
process, allowing other researchers
the chance to replicate the results.
Experimental research has been
regarded as the most scientific and
credible form of research.
The use of randomisation aids in the
reliability of results for the purpose
of generalisation.
The controlled environment in which the research
takes place can call into question the real-world
applicability of the results.
There is concern about whether the control group
and experiment group constitute a ‘matched pair’.
Should the two groups not possess the same
characteristics, then the effect of the treatment may
not be accurately measured.
It can be a great challenge to control the wide
variety of variables that may be present in the
research environment.
Case study
Case study research is in-depth research into one
or a set of cases for the sake of describing and
explaining the phenomenon. The phenomenon is
investigated in its real-life context through the use
Findings from a case study tend to
be more descriptive and offer a
deeper understanding of a
Case studies typically have a small sample size and
the uniqueness of each case study reduces the
37 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
of multiple sources of evidence. A case study is
not limited to a set of established rules, parameters
or criteria with the manner of conducting it and
data collection varying from case study to case
study. This design frame falls under the qualitative
approach due to the data typically collected.
phenomenon over other types of
non-experimental research.
Theories and hypotheses can be
derived from the finding, forming a
starting point for further research.
This multi-perspective approach
enforces validation of the results.
likelihood that there will be any degree of
generalisability.
The theories and hypotheses derived from the
finding need to be tested through experimental or
quasi-experimental methods.
The variety of data sources may introduce access
difficulties and ethical dilemmas such as
maintaining confidentiality.
Ethnography
Ethnography is a highly interpretive research
design sometimes referred to as ‘case study’;
however, as seen in the case study section, many
more methods are encompassed. In this design the
researcher spends time with the community or
subject under study in an attempt to learn from
them. The primary method for gathering data is
through observation. Ethnography is used
primarily for the purpose of studying cultures and
communities. Ethnography falls under the
qualitative approach.
Ethnography normally results in
gathering rich data.
Data can be obtained on events that
are either unobtainable via other
methods or potentially overlooked
by the subjects under investigation.
Ethnographic research can be used
to develop and test theories.
The involvement of the researcher may raise ethical
issues where privacy and consent are concerned.
The researcher may have to spend considerable time
and effort just to gain access to the environment
before data capturing can actually begin.
Ethnography rarely facilitates generalisations due to
the unique environments and subjects under study.
Ethnography may lead to purely theoretical
conclusions (story telling).
Survey
Surveys are the most widely used method of
gathering information from people. A survey
involves selecting a sample of respondents and
then administering questionnaires or conducting
interviews. The research collects information about
attitudes, values, feelings, opinions and
demographics. Surveys generally have two
characteristics:
1. Sample sizes are generally large.
2. Many variables are measured.
Surveys may be used in both quantitative and
qualitative approaches, but are generally used in
the quantitative approach.
Data retrieved from surveys comes
directly from the respondent and
may only be obtainable in this way.
Surveys are an effective method of
data gathering due to their
affordability and ability to cover a
large number of respondents.
Surveys can be used for both
qualitative and quantitative
approaches.
Surveys can facilitate generalisation
through the use of large sample sizes
and certain sampling techniques.
The variety of data collection
methods allows the researcher to
select the most appropriate ones for
their research.
Surveys cover a wide number of respondents
(breadth) rather than focusing on a select number of
respondents (depth), which can lead to a lack of
detail in the data acquired.
Survey distribution is relatively inexpensive;
however, obtaining responses can take time as the
onus is on the respondent.
Respondents may have a ‘rating style’ where they
consistently select an answer independent of the
question (e.g. always select the middle option).
38 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
Each design frame has inherent advantages and disadvantages and the researcher needs to
decide which design frame will best help facilitate the research goal (Maree, 2007:70; Thomas,
2013:133). In order to realise the research goal of this study, covering a large number of
variables was a key criterion. The design frame should also correspond to the aforementioned
research paradigm employed in the research. Ethnography, action research and case study
design frames focus on depth and acquiring rich data over gaining an initial understanding of
the situation. These design frames also fall under the qualitative approach. For these reasons
they were rejected. A key characteristic of experimental design frames is the ‘manipulation’
applied to some of the participants. For this research there was no need to apply any
manipulation or control variables to the extent required by experimental designs. Experimental
design frames were therefore rejected.
The design frame implemented in this study was a survey. The survey design frame allows for
many variables to be measured, enabling a wide view of phenomena. The focus of this study
was on breadth rather than depth, which mitigates the weakness associated with the lack of
richness of data obtained through surveys. The survey design frame affords the researcher the
option to take either a quantitative or qualitative approach, which supports its selection for this
study. In addition to the advantages that match the key requirements of the study, surveys allow
for relatively cost-effective data collection which aids in obtaining a meaningful number of
responses.
Using the survey design frame, the researcher can follow either the questionnaire or interview
method (Joseph, 2013). The questionnaire was the method employed in this study. The
questionnaire method better facilitates obtaining a meaningful number of responses as well as
collecting data in a standardised form (Maree, 2007:155).
3.5.2 Time frame
When using data relating to large numbers of individuals or groups, the researcher must decide
whether they will undertake a longitudinal or cross-sectional study (Thomas, 2013:170).
Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies have their own advantages and disadvantages and
must be chosen according to the research goal (Beins, 2004:282; Thomas, 2013:170).
Longitudinal studies involve studying a group of individuals or cases spanning an extended
period. Time is used to examine a change in the variables of interest. The researcher will collect
data from the same respondents or cases several times. When conducting a longitudinal study
the researcher must decide on the distance (time) between the collection points. Frequency of
change in the variables will determine how frequently the data should be collected (Thomas,
2013:170). Longitudinal studies are typically used to examine trends as well as make
predictions (Beins, 2004:282; Thomas, 2013:170).
Cross-sectional studies relate to groups or a group which is studied at a single point in time
typically referred to as a snapshot (Beins, 2004:284; Thomas, 2013:173). This type of study
can explore several variables to determine if there is a relationship between them, or examine
differing cases to determine if there is a relationship between them. The key aspect is that the
39 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
observations are all made at the same time (Thomas, 2013:173). Table 3.4 gives a comparison
between the two possible research time frames.
Table 3.4: Time frames (Beins, 2004; Joseph, 2013; Thomas, 2013)
Time Frame Advantages Disadvantages
Longitudinal studies:
study of the same
individuals or groups
over time
Examines trends Making observations
over time makes this
type of study time
consuming.
There is the risk that
participants may drop
out during the study.
Cross-sectional
studies: study of
various individuals or
groups at a single point
in time
Only making observations at a
single point in time makes this
type of study time efficient.
Participation is short term,
which diminishes the issue of
participant attrition.
No examination of
trends.
The cross-sectional approach was adopted in this study, as it was appropriate to achieve the
research goal, namely to assess the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability as
described in the literature. Assessing whether there is a change in the commitment to
sustainability did not fall within the scope of this study.
The following section concerns the fifth objective of this chapter, which is to select an
appropriate sampling technique.
3.6 Study sample
Research is the process by which new knowledge is created about a phenomenon, and in order
to do research, data about the phenomenon is required (Fox & Bayat, 2007:5; Walliman,
2005:275). While a researcher can make the choice as to what it is they want to investigate, the
data they collect must be relevant to the phenomenon they are investigating (Walliman,
2005:275).
The objects researchers study are more commonly referred to as units of analysis (Graneheim
& Lundman, 2004). These units take many forms such as an organisation, a community, a
country, a classroom or a person. The importance of the unit of analysis is that it is from these
objects that we obtain the data for research (Joseph, 2013). The unit of analysis for this study
was managers who had been involved in IT-intensive projects or projects in which a significant
portion could be attributed to the IT component. These project managers were chosen as they
were involved throughout the project’s life cycle. As such, they represented the ideal candidates
for gathering data about how sustainability is catered for in these types of projects. Working
on these projects throughout their life cycle should impart knowledge about the organisation
governing the project and their stance on sustainability. An important note is that this study
40 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
was not limited to specific industry types. The data gathered from these individuals allows for
insights to be gained into the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability.
A study may be concerned with the entire population (all IT project managers), but in many
cases it is not possible to gather data from the entire population (Dane, 2010:107; Kerlinger &
Lee, 2000:163; Maree, 2007:172; Picardi & Masick, 2013:154). Time and cost are the main
restrictions as to why gathering data from the entire population is not practical, which leads to
most researchers making use of sampling (Maree, 2007:172).
There are various sampling techniques, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. The
various sampling techniques are described in the next section.
3.6.1 Sampling techniques
A sample is a portion of the population that inherently has characteristics of the population,
making it somewhat representative of the population (Picardi & Masick, 2013:154). Thought
should go into selecting a sample, as a representative sample allows for inferences to be made
with confidence as well as for generalisations about the population as a whole (Picardi &
Masick, 2013:154). Sampling techniques which facilitate a representative sample fall under the
probability category (Beins, 2004:100; Maree, 2007:172; Picardi & Masick, 2013:155; Sekaran
& Bougie, 2013:255). Conversely, sampling may be done where representativeness of the
sample is not critical for the study. These sampling techniques fall under the non-probability
category. In such cases, the study may be more concerned with obtaining information quickly
and economically, or information that is only relevant and available with certain groups or the
study is exploratory in nature (Beins, 2004:103; Maree, 2007:176; Picardi & Masick, 2013:156;
Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:255). The most prominent survey techniques as well their advantages
and disadvantages can be seen in table 3.5.
41 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
Table 3.5: Sampling techniques (Beins, 2004; Dane, 2010; Joseph, 2013; Maree, 2007; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013)
Sampling Technique Description Advantages Disadvantages
Probability
sampling
techniques
Simple
random
sampling
Every element (constituent) in the
population is known to the researcher. This
precise knowledge allows for each element
to have an equal opportunity of being
selected. Elements are selected using a
planned process that ensures randomisation.
The sample from this technique
is likely to be representative of
the entire population.
A representative sample
facilitates generalisation.
There is low bias from this
sampling technique which
provides an objective view.
Identifying the population
precisely as well as the
process of sampling can be
time consuming and costly.
Systematic
sampling
Systematic sampling is very similar to
simple random sampling with the exception
of the process of actually selecting the
sample. For this technique a random starting
position is chosen and then every nth
element is chosen.
More efficient than simple
random sampling when a large
sample frame or sample size is
used.
The researcher must be sure
that the list from which they
select the sample is in a
random order to reduce the
probability of bias and
misrepresentation.
Stratified
sampling
Stratified sampling is used when there are
subgroups within the population who need to
be represented in the sample. Samples from
each of these subgroups are aggregated and
this can be done either in proportion to how
much of the population they make up or
disproportionately. Selection of the samples
from each subgroup can be done with simple
random sampling or systematic sampling.
This technique ensures that
subgroups within the population
are accounted for.
Insight can be gained into
differing groups within the
population and not just the
population as a whole.
This sampling technique is
only viable if subgroups can
be identified.
Cluster
sampling
In many cases the researcher does not have
the capability to select randomly from the
entire population. Such would be the case of
sampling school teachers. Several schools
(clusters) would be randomly selected and
the teachers of these schools would form the
sample. This technique is similar to stratified
sampling; however, there is likely to be a
higher level of homogeneity across clusters
rather than within them. The clusters should
Provides a means of sampling
when the entire population
cannot be used.
Data collection costs are reduced.
There is the greatest chance
with this method that the
sample will be less
representative of the
population.
42 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
reflect the heterogeneity of the population as
much as possible.
Double
sampling
In some instances a subgroup within the
original sample is identified. This subgroup
may warrant additional investigation so
these participants are sampled again.
The subgroup may provide a
more detailed understanding of
the area of study.
Participants may not be
inclined to participate again.
Any bias or intervening
factors may affect the results
of the new survey.
Non-probability
sampling
techniques
Convenience
sampling
(accidental
sampling)
Information is collected from members of
the population who are conveniently able to
provide it.
This sampling method can be
quick and inexpensive to execute.
This sampling method is good for
exploratory research where the
researcher is interested in getting
a quick approximation of the
situation.
The researcher cannot attest
to the representativeness of
the sample which calls into
question the generalisability
of the results.
Quota
sampling
Quota sampling is very similar to stratified
sampling in that subgroups of the population
are represented in the proportions (quota)
desired by the researcher. This can be
proportional or disproportional to the
composition of the population. This
technique differs in that it is based on
convenience.
Ensures that insight is gained into
all subgroups, especially when
minority groups are involved.
Serves as a good starting point
for further research.
The generalisability of the
results is questionable as this
technique is based on
convenience.
Snowball
sampling
Snowball sampling is used where the
population is difficult to identify or the
researcher is studying a group of
interconnected people. The researcher starts
off by making contact with some individuals
from the population and requests from them
information about who else could form part
of the sample.
Gain access to participants who
are difficult to find or identify.
Good starting point when very
little information is known about
the population, for example
people in a rare job.
Good for exploratory research.
Generalisability is highly
unlikely as the researcher
must gain insight into the
population. There is also bias
in participant selection which
can reduce the
representativeness of the
sample.
Purposive
sampling
(judgement
sampling)
Purposive sampling is used when the
researcher targets specific people. The
researcher may only want individuals with
certain expertise. The research may identify
these individuals as most advantageously
positioned to provide the information
required.
Participants are considered
subject matter experts, which
allows for critical insight into the
area of study.
The selection of certain
individuals (a subgroup)
dictates that the results can
only be generalised to their
grouping and not the
population.
43 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
Simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling all
require precise knowledge about the population. The population used in this study was not well
known and the resources needed to acquire the required knowledge fell outside the budget for
this study. For these reasons, these techniques were rejected. Double sampling provides the
capabilities to gain a deeper understanding of the research area at the cost of additional
resources. Double sampling is not exclusive to the probability category, as it is very much
dependent on the initial sampling technique used. This lends itself to being used in conjunction
with other sampling techniques. The additional resources required exceeded those available for
this study and therefore double sampling was rejected.
Convenience sampling is the simplest sampling technique, making it an appropriate option for
this study. This sampling method, however, is not ideal for collecting a sample where the
population is largely unknown. While this technique supports exploratory research, it is not
adequate for acquiring a meaningful sample size in this instance. For these reasons convenience
sampling was rejected. Quota sampling follows on from convenience sampling, but with the
additional factor of accounting for subgroups within the sample. For this study there was no
need to account for subgroups within the population as they fell outside the scope of this study,
and thus quota sampling was rejected. In purposive sampling individuals are selectively chosen
from the population. In order to do so, the researcher must understand the composition of the
population as well as recognise subgroups within the population. This study was not concerned
with subgroups in the population and therefore purposive sampling was rejected.
The sampling technique adopted for this research was snowball sampling. As the population is
largely unknown, relying on members of the population to recommend the inclusion of other
participants greatly increases the chances that meaningful data will be obtained. Beins
(2004:226) refers to snowball sampling as a chain-referral method that allows for the researcher
to find hidden populations. Snowball sampling is used in a similar fashion to convenience
sampling in that the acquired sample comprises those who are available. In this situation
snowball sampling better facilitates the acquisition of sample participants. Snowball sampling
also lends itself to exploratory research. Based on these factors, snowball sampling was
selected.
3.6.2 Sample size
Sample size is regarded as difficult to determine due to the number of factors involved (Maree,
2007:178). Maree (2007:178) describes three primary factors, namely (i) type of statistical
analysis, (ii) accuracy of results required and (iii) homogeneity of population - which determine
how large a sample size should be. Maree (2007:179) concludes that the larger the sample size,
the better these factors can be catered for. The benefits of having a larger sample size are echoed
throughout the literature on the topic with some authors maintaining that a larger sample size
reduces deviation from population values (Dane, 2010:114; Kerlinger & Lee, 2000:175).
A large sample size is regarded as important when representativeness is critical for the study
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:255). However, there are factors which support a smaller sample size
44 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
such as time, cost and whether a representative sample is needed, which must also be
considered (Beins, 2004:99; Maree, 2007:178).
Joseph (2013) takes the approach of determining sample size by identifying the end goal of
developing a model. The type of model being developed must be considered as it also has an
impact on the required sample size. Exploratory models, such as the one used in this study,
often require sample sizes smaller than models used in predictive analysis (Shmueli & Koppius,
2011). Joseph (2013) concludes that sample sizes in excess of 250 are sufficient for a variety
of modelling, including structural equation modelling.
The next section covers the sixth objective, namely to define the data analysis framework used
in this study.
3.7 Data analysis
The previous section covered how data is collected as well as from where it is collected. This
section deals with how data is prepared and analysed. Various statistical techniques were used
in this study, which enabled the extraction of meaningful information from raw data (Downing
& Clark, 2010:1). Before data analysis can take place, the data must first be prepared (Sekaran
& Bougie, 2013:274). The data analysis process encompasses data collection all the way
through to interpretation and discussion. This study made use of a data analysis framework
based on the data analysis processes of Biggam (2008:113-127), Sekaran and Bougie
(2013:275-297) and Joseph (2013). An overview of the data analysis framework used in this
study can be seen in figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Data analysis framework (adapted from Biggam, 2008:113-127; Joseph, 2013;
Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:275-297; Walliman, 2005)
3.7.1 Data collection
The data collection strategy employed in this study was a survey (research strategy) and, more
specifically, in the form of a structured questionnaire (research method), as discussed in the
previous section.
45 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
3.7.2 Data preparation
Data preparation is a necessary step before data analysis can take place (Neuman, 2000:313-
317; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:276-280). In the event that data analysis takes place without data
preparation first occurring, the researcher cannot attest to the validity and reliability of the data
(Joseph, 2013; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:276). Data preparation comprises three elements, as
depicted in figure 3.2, namely (i) coding and data entry, (ii) editing data and (iii) data
transformation.
3.7.2.1 Coding and data entry
Neuman (2000:314) describes coding data as converting the data so that it can be analysed via
computers. Sekaran and Bougie (2013:276) note that computers play a crucial role in the
analysis of data. Coding data simply means assigning a unique identifier to each participant as
well as identifiers for questions that have more than one possible answer, for example 1 for yes
and 2 for no (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:276). In this study, participants were identified by a
number and questions were allocated a numeric identifier for the answer according to the
number of possible options. Once the raw data has been coded, it can be entered into any
analysis software (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:276).
3.7.2.2 Editing data
Editing data covers a variety of issues that can be present in a data set, including the handling
of blank responses (missing values), outliers, illogical data, inconsistent data and errors made
when entering the data (Neuman, 2000:316; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:279).
There are several techniques available to the researcher when dealing with ‘unclean data’,
including the removal of incomplete entries, using proxy variables, allocating a mean value or
making use of algorithms such as classification and regression trees (Sekaran & Bougie,
2013:279; Shmueli & Koppius, 2011). When dealing with outliers or inconsistent responses,
the researcher can simply remove the respondent if the respondent is determined to be an ‘error’
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:279). Sekaran and Bougie (2013:279) state that caution must be
exercised when dealing with these errors as they may not necessarily be an error and removing
them may introduce bias. In this study, outliers were identified through scatterplots and
removed where necessary. Incomplete responses were removed if more than 75% of the survey
was not completed.
3.7.2.3 Data transformation
Data transformation involves changing the initial numerical representation of a quantitative
value (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:280). Data transformation is typically used to avoid running
into problems at a later stage in the data analysis process (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:280). There
was no need to alter the numerical representation of quantitative data in this study.
3.7.2.4 Reliability and validity
Reliability is a measure of the extent to which a research instrument consistently reflects the
construct it is measuring (Field, 2009:673; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:228; Thomas, 2013:138).
That is to say, if a study is conducted again at another point in time under similar circumstances,
then the results of the second study should be comparable to the first. This study made use of
46 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
scales in the assessment of sustainability and, as such, Cronbach’s alpha was used as it is a
measure scale reliability (Field, 2009:674). A Cronbach’s alpha value of .7 or greater is used
to determine if there is internal consistency (Field, 2009:675).
The validity relevant in this study was instrument-based validity as the primary concern was
whether the research instrument measured what it was supposed to measure (Sekaran &
Bougie, 2013:225; Thomas, 2013:140). The specific instrument-based validity considered was
construct validity as all other forms of validity are just offshoots of construct validity (Thomas,
2013:140). Construct validity is the extent to which the results of the ‘test’, in this case the
survey, conform to the theoretical construct around which the test is designed. The survey used
in this study was based on the survey developed by Silvius et al. (2012) and so construct validity
was ensured.
3.7.3 Data analysis
Data analysis following the quantitative approach makes use of mathematical operations to
investigate the properties of data (Walliman, 2005:302). The analysis of data through the use
of mathematical operations for the purpose of investigating properties of data is referred to as
statistics (Walliman, 2005:302). The varying range of statistical tests fall under two main
categories, namely parametric and non-parametric. Parametric tests can be further broken down
into descriptive and inferential statistics as depicted in figure 3.2 (Walliman, 2005:303).
3.7.3.1 Parametric statistics
Parametric statistics are based on populations where a parameter serves as a constant feature
among them, for example frequency distribution (Walliman, 2005:304). A bell curve for height
and a bell curve for marks are instances of a common factor. Parametric statistics can be further
broken down into descriptive statistics and inferential statistics (Walliman, 2005:302).
Parametric data is said to behave in the form of a Gaussian curve (Walliman, 2005:307).
Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics describe the characteristics of data such as where the centre is and how
broadly the data is spread (Walliman, 2005:304). Descriptive statistics typically assess
frequency distribution, measures of central tendency and measure of dispersion (Downing &
Clark, 2010:9; Neuman, 2000:317; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:283-287; Walliman, 2005:304-
305). The following descriptive statistics tests were used in this study:
Frequency: the measure of how many times an answer is selected. Frequency is
typically measured within the context of a question or category and is expressed as a
number or percentage of the sample (Downing & Clark, 2010:20-22; Sekaran &
Bougie, 2013:283).
Mean: the measure of the average answer with regard to a question or category. Mean
is a measure of central tendency that identifies the central item (Downing & Clark,
2010:10; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:285).
Mode: this statistic is also a measure of central tendency and identifies the value or
answer that appears the most (Downing & Clark, 2010:12; Sekaran & Bougie,
47 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
2013:286). It is not uncommon for more than one mode to be found for a given data set
(Joseph, 2013).
Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics are used to produce correlations between variables, make predictions
through inferences drawn on the data analysed and test statistically based hypotheses (Neuman,
2000:338; Walliman, 2005:305). The data in this study was of the nominal and ordinal type
which made certain parametric tests inappropriate (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:288). For this
reason, no inferential statistics were used in this study.
3.7.3.2 Non-parametric statistics
Non-parametric statistical tests were devised as specialised methods to cater for data that is
‘non-curve’, namely nominal and ordinal data (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013:288; Walliman,
2005:305). Even though certain parametric tests are inappropriate for nominal and ordinal data,
there are non-parametric counterparts for some of these tests. The following non-parametric
statistics tests were used in this study:
Correlation: the measure of the relationship between two variables including the
strength and direction of the relationship (Downing & Clark, 2010:228-229; Sekaran &
Bougie, 2013:288; Thomas, 2013:257). Correlation was used in this study to determine
whether the commitment to one of the sustainability dimensions (economic,
environmental and social) has a correlation with the commitment to the others.
Correlation was also used to determine the relationship between the variables of each
dimension.
Variance: the measure of the spread of data about the mean (mathtutordvd, 2013). The
spread can be measured within a group and between groups (Downing & Clark,
2010:349-351; Stephens, 2006:299-305). Variance was used in this study to determine
the confidence level at which it can be assumed that the dimensions are the same, as
well as the uniformity of responses within the dimensions.
Factor analysis: the process by which variables are transformed into variable sets that
are uncorrelated (Blunch, 2013:51). The resulting variables, referred to as factors, are
fewer than the initial set of variables and each represents a dimension of the data
(Blunch, 2013:51; Kaplan, 2000:45; Lambert, 2014). Factor analysis was used in this
study to explain the underlying covariance between variables.
3.7.4 Interpretation and discussion
The interpretation phase entails documenting and describing the results acquired from the data
analysis phase (Biggam, 2008:129-132; Neuman, 2000:472-473). The discussion phases focus
on scrutinising the results within the context of the literature review (Biggam, 2008:129;
Thomas, 2013:271). Thomas (2013:271) describes this as “coming full circle”, where gaps in
the literature may be filled. In addition to filling gaps, Biggam (2008:130) states that the results
should be used to compare and contrast what was described in the literature.
48 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
The next section covers the seventh objective, namely to explore potential modelling
techniques and select the appropriate technique for this study.
3.8 Models
Researchers in many different fields utilise models for various reasons, including clarification,
prediction, conceptualisation, simplicity and mathematical manipulations, to assess maturity
and as a means to capture the critical components of a process or system (Frank & Andreas,
2015; Joseph, 2013; Milani, Dumas, Ahmed and Matulevičius, 2016; Olivier, 2009:45-49;
Prema & Rao, 2015; Silvius & Schipper, 2015). Olivier (2009:45) notes that it is not required
or possible to create a fully comprehensive model for any given process or system. Olivier
(2009:45) claims that models can have different levels or views, making it highly unlikely that
a single model will be fully comprehensive.
While sustainability is not a new field of research, the focus on IT is still novel and models
with this focus are therefore meagre (Silvius & Nedeski, 2014). Initial models tend to have the
aim of providing clarification about the area of research as can be seen with the example of the
three dimensions of sustainability model, sustainability stages model and system boundaries of
projects model in the literature review (Olivier, 2009:46). The purpose of subsequent models
moves from clarification to analysis of the problem or area (Olivier, 2009:46). For the purpose
of this study the maturity model, SPM3, proposed by Silvius and Schipper (2015) as described
in the literature review, was used. The SPM3 model is a subsequent model that allows for the
analysis of the research area. By measuring the maturity of the IT project management process,
with regard to sustainability, the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability could be
assessed.
The subsequent models mentioned previously do not necessarily become the final model for a
particular area of research (Olivier, 2009:46). Differing assumptions as well as specific forms
of the research area stem from analysis of the research area and result in new models known as
differentiated models. Once sufficient ‘differentiated’ models have been proposed trends may
be determined and these models aggregated into a general model which caters for the
assumptions made by earlier models (Olivier, 2009:46). In addition to using the SPM3 model,
this study endeavoured to determine if a differentiated version of this model was appropriate
for the focus on IT projects. The questionnaire used was developed by Silvius et al. (2012)
based on the SPM3 model.
3.9 Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter was to examine and discuss the concept of research in order to
determine an appropriate research method that could be employed when conducting this study.
Research is the process by which new knowledge is created. The research process followed can
be controlled and systematic, which is believed to lead to better research. As research is a
process, several steps are followed, referred to in this study as the research design.
This study was conducted following a quantitative approach as the focus was on investigating
the ‘how’ of the research area. The statistical techniques employed in this study required that
49 Chapter 3 – Research methodology
the data be expressed in numerical form, and research already conducted in this area followed
a quantitative approach. The design frame employed in this study was a survey. The survey
was selected as it allowed for the collection of data appropriate for this study within the
parameter constraints of time and cost while still allowing for the quantitative approach to be
followed. The study is cross-sectional as the aim was not to assess trends, but rather to build
an initial view of the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability, and this serves as a
starting point to which subsequent studies may compare results.
Snowball sampling was used to acquire participants because the population was largely
unknown and this type of sampling supported the exploratory nature of this study. The data in
this study was analysed in accordance with the data analysis framework described. Various
statistical techniques were used in conjunction with the Silvius and Schipper (2015) SPM3
maturity model to assess the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability. The final
goal of the analysis section is to determine if any adjustments to the SPM3 model should be
proposed in accordance with the data. Figure 3.3 provides a graphic representation of the
method followed in this study.
Figure 3.3: Study method
The next chapter covers the analysis, interpretation and discussion of the data collected.
50 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Chapter 4 - Data analysis and discussion
4.1 Introduction
The goal of this research was to assess the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability,
and in order to answer the questions posed in this research, some kind of evidence had to be
relied on (Thomas, 2013:20). Gathering data is the first step in acquiring evidence to answer
the research question, but in its raw form little sense can be made of it, necessitating the analysis
of this data (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000:192; Walliman, 2005:301). Analysis of the research data
does not in itself provide answers to research questions, as interpretation of the data must be
coupled with the analysis in order to be meaningful (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000:191). The goal of
this chapter is to:
Analyse, interpret and discuss the data collected for the purpose of assessing the
commitment of IT project managers to sustainability.
For the purpose of achieving the aforementioned goal, the following objectives have been
formulated:
6. To discuss the process of collecting and preparing the data.
7. To examine and discuss the biographic and demographic characteristics of the
respondents.
8. To explore and discuss the perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability.
9. To explore and discuss the commitment to the three dimensions of sustainability as well
as the relationships between them.
10. To assess the commitment to sustainability in terms of the SPM3 model.
11. To identify any underlying factors that may be present in the assessment of
sustainability.
12. To assess the initial structure of sustainability within the context of IT projects.
The structure for the chapter is as follows: in section 4.2 the data analysis framework used is
discussed. Section 4.3 deals with the process of collecting and preparing the data. In section
4.4 the biographic and demographic characteristics of the respondents are examined and
discussed, the commitment to the three dimensions as well as the relationship between them
are explored and the commitment to sustainability according to the SPM3 model is assessed.
Section 4.5 covers the structure of sustainability with regard to IT projects.
4.2 Data analysis framework
The data analysis framework, as discussed in chapter 3 (figure 3.2), is followed. The phases of
the data analysis framework are discussed in terms of how they apply to this study. The phases
are discussed below.
4.3 Data collection and preparation
The data collection instrument adopted in this study was a survey, administered as a
questionnaire. Responses were obtained through manual distribution of the questionnaire to
51 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
project managers. Responses were captured on an Excel spreadsheet, which served as a
template to facilitate consistent capturing of the responses.
Apart from serving as a template, the Excel spreadsheet served as a master spreadsheet. Of the
responses, 34 were not captured in accordance with the template and made no logical sense, so
they were removed. A further 55 entries had the respondents’ answers captured with a prefix
of the question number. For these spreadsheets, the prefixes were removed. A total of 1 107
responses were collected into the single master spreadsheet.
Preparation of the data is described in further detail below.
4.3.1 Data editing
Of the 1 107 responses, 8 were removed due to being deemed incomplete (less than 75%
complete). A further 161 responses were removed as they were not IT related, leaving 938
usable responses.
All answers have been checked by the researcher to determine if they were valid options for
the question. Several of the biographic and demographic sections contained answers in
differing formats which required editing, so that only one format for an answer remained.
4.3.2 Data coding and entry
Missing sensitive information was captured as “prefer not to say” and other missing values
remained unchanged as valid percentages were used. The data was coded as follows: only
numerical values were used to signify a response. Dichotomous questions used 1 for yes and 0
for no. The Likert scale questions were coded as follows: level 1 (1), level 2 (2), level 3 (3) and
level 4 (4). The biographic and demographic questions used numeric values based on the
number of possible options from which the respondents could choose.
Due to an error in the template, question 7, which deals with the regions that the project would
have an impact on, had to be manually captured by the researcher. The question was broken up
into the six possible geographic regions and assigned a 1 or 0, depending on whether the region
was impacted or not.
The master spreadsheet consisting of 938 responses and only numeric values were then
imported into SPSS. The following section deals with the second, third and fourth objectives.
4.4 Data analysis, interpretation and discussion
Reliability and validity is the first objective discussed in this section.
4.4.1 Reliability and validity
The questionnaire used in this study was tested for reliability by means of Cronbach’s alpha as
seen in table 4.1. An alpha value of .745 resulted from the analysis and indicates that there is
internal consistency.
52 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Table 4.1: Cronbach’s alpha
Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items
.745 24
As mentioned in chapter 3, construct validity was ensured as the questionnaire developed by
Silvius et al. (2012) was used as the basis for the questionnaire in this study.
4.4.2 Biographic and demographic characteristics
The respondents were asked several questions about their biographic and demographic
characteristics. The purpose of these questions was to establish which respondents were viable
candidates for this study and whether these characteristics had an impact on the respondents’
commitment to sustainability.
4.4.2.1 Gender
The distribution of the gender within the sample is illustrated in figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Gender distribution
Figure 4.1 shows that males accounted for 55.65%, females 40.19% and those who decided not
to indicate their gender, the remaining 4.16%. These results reflect a far more equal distribution
than the results found in the Prosperus report 2008 and Prosperus report: African edition where
female representation was 22.1% and 34.2%, respectively (Eloff, Labuschagne, Marnewick,
Steyn and Tobin, 2013; Labuschagne & Marnewick, 2008). These results indicate a trend of
increasing female representation in the IT project management domain.
When examining gender in the context of job title, the representativeness of each gender is
fairly indicative of the composition of the sample. Table 4.2 lists the job titles and their
respective gender representation. What is apparent is that across nearly all jobs there was strong
female representation. In a study conducted by Joseph (2013) there was found to be 62.9%
male representation and only 31.1% female representation in the project management domain.
The figures in this study differ significantly from those of Joseph (2013) as an average of above
40% for female representation across the various project management designations was found.
53 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
For certain jobs, namely project coordinator, programme manager and portfolio manager, there
was a higher representation of females. Even though the difference is slight, this in addition to
the high representativeness of females overall may be an indication of a shift away from a male-
dominated IT workplace (Festing, Knappert and Kornau, 2015).
Table 4.2: Job title and gender representation
Of the jobs represented, project managers (19.8%) and business analysts (12.2%) were the
majority. Nearly a fifth (19%) of respondents held a position not listed on the questionnaire
and were subsequently categorised as Other.
4.4.2.2 Age
The age distribution is illustrated in figure 4.2. The majority of respondents were between the
ages of 30 and 49 (65.24%), with 37.63% in the age group 30-39. The results indicate a
preponderance of maturity, which implies that experience is an important factor in management
positions. The remainder of the age distribution is as follows: a miniscule 0.11% of respondents
were below the age of 20, 20.26% were between the ages of 20 and 29, 8.85% were 50-59,
0.85% were 60 or older and 4.69% decided not to indicate their age.
Job Title Male Female
Prefer
Not to
Say
Percentage
of Total
Assistant Project Manager 26 25 3 5.8%
Project Coordinator 36 37 5 8.3%
Project Manager 101 77 8 19.8%
Senior Project Manager 38 25 2 6.9%
Project Leader/Project Team Leader 36 22 4 6.6%
Programme Manager 25 30 2 6.1%
Portfolio Manager 12 13 0 2.7%
Project Implementation Manager 12 4 3 2%
IT Manager 31 20 3 5.8%
Business Analyst 71 42 1 12.2%
Project Management Consultant 39 6 1 4.9%
Other 95 76 7 19.0%
Total 522 377 39 100%
54 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Figure 4.2: Age distribution
4.4.2.3 Highest qualification level
The respondents were asked to indicate their highest qualification. The qualification
distribution is illustrated in figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Qualification distribution
Just over half (57.04%) of the respondents had either a bachelor’s degree (31.77%) or an
honours degree (25.27%). The remainder of the distribution is as follows: Grade 12/Matric
made up 6.82%, diplomas 15.99%, master’s degrees 17.06%, doctoral degrees 0.77%, and
those who decided not to say made up the remaining 2.35%. It is clear that that a tertiary
qualification holds significant importance as 90.83% of respondents fell into this category.
55 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
4.4.2.4 Project type
While not all of the projects were strictly IT projects, for the purpose of this study, projects that
included a large IT component were considered as IT projects. Consequently, the responses of
those respondents who were not involved in IT-related projects were removed, resulting in the
aforementioned 938 usable responses. The distribution of project types is illustrated in figure
4.4.
Figure 4.4: Project type
IT projects were the most represented projects with a 41.26% share. Organisational change
projects represented 14.07% of the responses and research and development projects 11.83%.
The ‘other’ segment included projects that were not IT specific and did not fall under
organisational change or research and development. ‘Other’ represents the remaining 32.84%
of the responses.
4.4.2.5 Project industry segment
The respondents were asked to indicate the industry segment in which the project they were
undertaking was in. The results of the industry distribution are listed in table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Project industry segment
Agriculture 1.8%
Industry 5.9%
Energy 6.5%
Building and construction 2%
Healthcare 3.6%
Wholesale and retail 3.9%
Logistics services 6.4%
Financial services 25.6%
Facility and real estate services 1.7%
Legal services 0.2%
HR services 1.4%
56 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
ICT and communication services 14.9%
Consulting 5.2%
Public administration 7.2%
Education and training 3.7%
Other 9.8%
Total 100%
The most notable industries were the financial services (25.6%) and ICT and communication
services (14.9%). Numerous industries were represented, but due to there being 16 options,
each industry’s representation is marginal except for the two already mentioned. Consequently,
the results from this study may not apply to all industries represented here. There is also the
recurring theme of the pervasiveness of IT. The large number of IT-specific projects (figure
4.4) coupled with the variety of jobs represented in table 4.2 indicates the presence of IT
throughout organisations. The large number of industries represented in table 4.3 indicates that
IT is not limited to specific industries. The apparent presence of IT throughout organisations is
a characteristic of the information era (Beaudry & Green, 2002).
4.4.2.6 Regions impacted
The respondents were asked to indicate which regions of the world would be impacted by the
project they were working on. The results are illustrated in figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: Countries impacted
Close to 90% of projects (88.59%) would have an impact on the African continent, which is
not surprising given that part of the projects were managed in South Africa. What is of more
interest is the 11.41% of projects that would not have an impact on the African continent. The
reason for this is possibly the nature of IT projects in that the physical location of projects is
less important than in other types of projects. The rest of the regions all have some
representation, be it only minimal. These results do indicate that IT projects may not be
57 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
localised, so any sustainability considerations should be made with this in mind, as
sustainability is not just a local concern.
4.4.2.7 Project budget
A question regarding the budget of the project was included in the questionnaire. The results
are listed in table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Project budget
<R1 million 24%
Between R1 and R10 million 41.8%
Between R10 and R100 million 22.9%
> R100 million 11.3%
Total 100%
The breakdown of the project budget aspect is as follows: 24% of projects had a budget below
R1 million, 41.8% of projects had a budget between R1 and 10 million, 22.9% had a budget
between R10 and 100 million and the remaining 11.3% of projects had a budget in excess of
R100 million. While the significance of the investment in these projects cannot be verified,
there is still substantial investment with 34.2% of the projects having a budget of R10 million
or more. With such investments it is important that sustainability be considered, as it is most
likely that these projects are initiated in order to contribute to the sustainability of their
respective organisations.
4.4.3 Perceived importance of the aspects of the sustainability definition
The respondents were given aspects of the definition of sustainability and asked to rank them
in order of their importance. The perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability is
illustrated in figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: Perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability
58 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
The weighted averages of each aspect clearly show their order of importance (gcccmu, 2013).
The weightings are as follows: most important (5), very important (4), moderately important
(3), slightly important (2) and least important (1). A point of interest is the substantial and
overwhelming difference between the first two aspects (meeting current needs and the
economic dimension) and the last two (the social and environmental dimensions). The most
notable order of importance is that of the three dimensions. The economic dimension was
regarded as the most important by a substantial margin, with the social dimension placing
second with a negligible margin over the environmental dimension. The findings correspond
for the most part with what was found in the literature, but in this instance, the social dimension
was regarded as more important (Labuschagne et al., 2005; Edum-Fotwe & Price, 2009; Singh
et al., 2009; Smith & Sharicz, 2011; Ullah et al., 2013; Martens & De Carvalho, 2014). This
difference, even though only marginal, may be due to the nature of IT and those industries
which are considered to be relatively clean in terms of energy, water and paper usage (Jeucken
& Bouma, 1999).
A breakdown of the perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability is illustrated in figure
4.7.
Figure 4.7: Breakdown of the perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability
From the breakdown, the extent to which each aspect was favoured is evident. Meeting current
needs and the economic dimension collectively represented 74.4% of the most important rating
and 57.3% of the very important rating. On the other hand, the social and environmental
dimensions collectively only represented 14.6% of the most important rating and 26.5% of the
59 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
very important rating. As seen in figure 4.6, the social and environmental dimensions appear
to be almost identical. In figure 4.7 it can be seen just how similar these two dimensions are.
This may imply that the respondents were divided between these two dimensions. Of the three
dimensions, it is clear that the economic dimension was regarded as the most important.
The sustainability definition contains within it a duality which must be understood as a point
of compromise and regarded as equal. This duality is meeting current needs while still allowing
for future needs to be met. The results show that these two aspects were not regarded as equal,
with meeting current needs comprising 73.3% of the most important and very important ratings.
Allowing for future needs to be met, on the other hand, only comprises 37.7% of the most
important and very important ratings. These results are concerning, as without this duality
being treated as equal, the fundamental aim of sustainability will not be met.
The perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability was analysed, while taking into
account the demographic and biographic characteristics of the respondents, to assess whether
these characteristics had an impact on the aspect ratings. The results indicate that there is a
negligible difference in the ratings of the aspects based on the demographic and biographic
groupings.
4.4.4 Overall perspective
The sustainable project management maturity model questionnaire, developed by Silvius et al.
(2012), was used as the basis for the questionnaire in this study. Silvius and Schipper (2015)
note that the specific aspects used in the sustainability assessment may be tailored to the
organisation or project involved. Since the questionnaire was distributed to many participants,
as few changes as necessary were made to the questions to allow for them to remain general
and applicable to as many participants as possible. The questionnaire was also adjusted to
conform to the four-level approach used in the SPM3 model (Silvius & Schipper, 2015). The
levels represent the transition from ‘do no harm’ (level 1) to making a ‘positive contribution’
(level 4). As such, each aspect was measured on a four-level scale to allow for the measuring
of maturity according to the SPM3 model.
The overall perspective focuses on what percentage of projects were at each level, at what level
sustainability was positioned in the strategy of the organisation, at what level the organisation
found itself and project reporting with regard to sustainability.
4.4.4.1 Overall sustainability position
The overall position of sustainability is calculated as the average percentage of each level of a
project. The results are illustrated in figure 4.8.
60 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Figure 4.8: Overall sustainability position
What is apparent from the figure is that on average sustainability was generally disregarded.
The highest percentage was for the level 1 category, measuring 42.28%. The second highest
was level 2 at 22.06%. The majority of projects (64.34%) were at the first or second level. Only
19.26% and 16.4% of projects were at the third or fourth levels, respectively.
The respondents were asked to indicate the highest level at which sustainability was positioned
in the strategy of the organisation. These results were then compared to the number of projects
that fell under each level. The level which a project fell under was calculated based on the
overall average and rounded to the nearest level. The comparison is illustrated in figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Sustainability position in strategy and project level groupings
There is a clear disparity between how sustainability was positioned in the strategy of the
organisation and how sustainability was addressed in projects. For the organisational strategy
61 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
aspect, the largest portion of respondents (33.37%) felt that sustainability was positioned at the
fourth level. There is a stark difference between this figure and the 0.43% of projects that were
categorised under the fourth level. A similar difference is noticeable in the level 2 category
between the organisational strategy aspect (19.69%) and the project sustainability aspect
(64.18%), but the difference is in favour of the project aspect. These results indicate that the
majority of organisations (57.11%) recognise the importance of sustainability, yet this
awareness does not translate to projects, as only 21.97% of projects were deemed to be at level
3 or higher.
4.4.4.2 Overall reporting position
The respondents were asked to indicate the level at which the organisation addressed
sustainability reporting. Sustainability reporting forces the organisation to take cognisance of
how it is performing with regard to acting in a sustainable manner. The organisational
sustainability reporting was compared to the project reporting for each of the sustainability
dimensions. The results are illustrated in figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10: Organisational and project reporting comparison
There is an observable difference between the organisational and project reporting with regard
to sustainability. This difference is most noticeable at the first level. Nearly one-third (27%)
of the respondents felt that their organisation’s reporting in respect of sustainability was at the
first level, yet project reporting for each of the dimensions of sustainability was above 50% of
the responses for level 1. For the higher levels organisational sustainability reporting had
higher percentages than project reporting, with the exception of “people” for level 3. This
implies that organisational sustainability reporting does not translate to project reporting. An
overall trend is also observable and that is that the higher the level, the fewer the number of
62 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
respondents. The results indicate that sustainability reporting is inadequately addressed and
more so from the project perspective. These are concerning factors as underestimating what
needs to be done when addressing sustainability is considered the biggest contributor to the
failings of organisations’ sustainable performance (Kendall & Willard, 2014). Projects are the
vehicles through which sustainable change is realised, which makes understanding sustainable
performance all the more important (Silvius et al., 2012).
Sustainability reporting is not inconsequential and is in fact included in the corporate
governance framework known as King III. Reporting on sustainability is a key requirement of
King III and considered part of the holistic representation advocated by King III (Institute of
Directors Southern Africa, 2009). King III states that sustainability reporting should not be
limited to the organisation overall, but should rather include all areas of performance. King III
also notes that sustainability reporting is reporting that includes economic, social and
environmental issues. Despite this, the majority of respondents felt that sustainability reporting
was only addressed at either the first or second levels.
The relationship between organisational and project sustainability reporting was assessed from
a different perspective to determine where the majority of respondents fell according to both
reporting aspects. The results are displayed in table 4.5 as the percentage of projects that are at
each of the intersecting points.
Table 4.5: Cross-tabulation between organisation and project sustainability reporting
Organisational
Reporting
Project Reporting
(Economic)
Project Reporting
(Environment)
Project Reporting
(Social)
Level 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 16.6 5.3 2.2 2.9 18.9 3.3 3.4 1.5 17.7 3.4 3.3 2.7
2 21.6 8.3 3.2 4.6 24.9 5.2 4.6 3.0 20.0 7.2 6.5 4.0
3 7.6 6.6 2.9 2.6 8.8 4.1 4.3 2.6 7.8 4.6 5.7 1.7
4 6.6 4.1 1.8 2.9 4.2 3.8 3.6 3.8 5.5 2.0 5.0 2.9
The results show that that the highest percentage of respondents fell under level 1 for project
reporting and levels 1 and 2 for organisational reporting. The results are consistent across the
dimensions (economic: 38.2%, environmental: 43.8%, social: 37.7%) and show in greater
detail the distribution of figure 4.10. Table 4.5 does indicate that there is no consistency
between organisational and project sustainability reporting in that all possible combinations
have some representation. The relationship between these two types of reporting was further
tested by means of correlation. Positive correlations were found between organisational
reporting and each dimension in project reporting, but the strength of these correlations is weak
at best. This may imply that organisational reporting may have an impact on project reporting
with regard to sustainability, albeit only minimally.
63 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
The results from both figure 4.10 and table 4.5 indicate that both organisational and project
sustainability reporting are in a poor state, with project sustainability reporting the worst off of
the two.
4.4.5 Three dimensions of sustainability
The remainder of the questionnaire was divided into three sections, namely the economic
perspective, the social perspective and the environmental perspective. Each of these sections
focused on their respective sustainability dimensions and comprised several aspects.
4.4.5.1 The economic dimension
The economic dimension comprises four aspects, namely investment evaluation, managerial
flexibility, direct financial benefits and project reporting profit. The overall averages for each
of these aspects are presented in figure 4.11. Investment evaluation has the highest average at
2.76, followed by managerial flexibility (2.66), direct financial benefits (2.6) and lastly project
reporting profit with an average of 1.83. The first three aspects have similar averages,
indicating that they are addressed to a similar extent. On the other hand, project reporting is
substantially lower, which is expected from the results in figure 4.10.
Figure 4.11: Averages of economic dimension aspects
The breakdown for each of the economic aspects is illustrated in figure 4.12. The breakdown
indicates the percentage of respondents who felt they achieved a certain level in each of the
economic dimension aspects.
64 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Figure 4.12: Breakdown of economic dimension aspects
Each level of each aspect is addressed sequentially together with what those levels mean.
The investment evaluation aspect is concerned with the evaluation methods used in the
selection of IT projects. Level 1 had the smallest percentage of IT projects (11.4%), indicating
that only a small portion of IT projects were evaluated and selected based predominantly on
the payback period. Nearly a quarter of IT projects (23.5%) were evaluated and selected based
primarily on the net present value of the investment or its return on investment. Level 3 had
the highest percentage of IT projects (42.4%), implying that most IT projects were evaluated
and selected based on a combination of short-/medium- and long-term returns. Just over a fifth
of IT projects (22.7%) were categorised as being at the fourth level, which shows that a
substantial portion of IT projects were evaluated and selected, based not only on the level 3
criteria, but also the consideration of economic, environmental and social aspects.
The managerial flexibility and optionality aspect is concerned with the extent to which IT
projects allow for future decision making. Nearly a fifth of IT projects (18.6%) were at the first
level which indicates that this aspect was only considered implicitly and in accordance with
company regulations. The remaining 81.4% of IT projects were considered explicitly, but the
25.4% of IT projects at level 2 indicate that this was only done reactively. The level 3 IT
projects (27.6%) imply that this aspect was one of the areas that IT projects contribute to. Level
4 accounts for the highest percentage of IT projects (28.5%), which is in itself is a positive
occurrence and indicates that contributing to this aspect was part of the justification for IT
projects.
The direct financial benefits aspect is concerned with the types of benefits that are recognised
in the business case of the project. The 19% of IT projects at level 1 indicate that nearly a fifth
of IT projects recognised benefits implicitly. A further 22.8% of IT projects only recognised
benefits in the form of cost savings or reduced use of resources. Level 3 reflected the most IT
projects for this aspect (37.5%), which indicates that these IT projects recognised benefits from
65 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
improved business processes and/or improved models for existing offerings. The level 4 IT
projects indicate that just over a fifth (20.7%) of IT projects recognised benefits in terms of
increased revenue deriving from improved offerings.
In contrast with the aforementioned economic aspects, the results on project reporting profit
aspects gravitate towards the lower levels. This aspect is concerned with which items are
included in the project reports, including progress reports. Over half of IT projects (52.9%)
only reported on project activities, budget considerations and risk considerations in terms of
planned outcomes and actual results achieved. The percentage of level 2 IT projects (24%)
implies that nearly a quarter of IT projects reported on lessons learned and project
improvements in addition to what was reported at level 1. Only 10% of IT projects reported on
project design and delivery changes as well. The remaining 13% of IT projects reported on
changes such as market conditions which may impact on the business case of the project and
its resulting value, in addition to the previous levels.
For the most part, the economic dimension aspects had favourable distributions with
investment evaluation (65.1%), managerial flexibility (56.1%) and direct financial benefits
(58.2%) being addressed mostly at the third or fourth level. Incidentally, these three aspects
appear to have a somewhat similar distribution, implying that they were deemed to be of similar
importance. In contrast, the majority of projects for the project reporting profit aspect (52.9%)
addressed sustainability only at the first level.
The economic aspects were tested for correlations and while statistically significant positive
correlations were found between them, the correlations are weak. The implication of these
results is that each of these aspects should be addressed specifically, as performance in one
aspect may only have minimal positive impact on the performance in the other aspects of the
economic dimension.
4.4.5.2 The social dimension
The social dimension comprises eight aspects, namely training, education and organisational
learning, society and customers, bribery and anti-competitive behaviour, diversity and equal
opportunity, labour practices and decent work, project reporting people, human rights, and
health and safety. The overall averages for each of these aspects are presented in figure 4.13.
The averages range from 1.82 (health and safety) to 2.28 (training, education and organisational
learning). The averages for all of these aspects are notably similar to each other, in contrast to
those of the economic dimension. The implication is that they all have similar importance.
Another differentiating factor is how the social dimension aspects have noticeably lower
averages than the economic dimension aspects. This indicates that the social dimension is
addressed to a lesser extent, which may be an indication that it is perceived as being of less
importance. The social dimension being regarded as less important than the economic
dimension corresponds with what was found in the literature (Labuschagne et al., 2005; Edum-
Fotwe & Price, 2009; Singh et al., 2009; Smith & Sharicz, 2011; Ullah et al., 2013; Martens &
De Carvalho, 2014).
66 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Figure 4.13: Averages of social dimension aspects
The breakdown for each of the social aspects is illustrated in figure 4.14. It indicates the
percentage of respondents who felt they achieved a certain level in each of the social dimension
aspects.
Figure 4.14: Breakdown of social dimension aspects
Each level of each aspect is addressed sequentially, together with what those levels mean. Due
to the low averages of the social dimension aspects, it is not surprising to see that the highest
numbers of respondents felt that the first level was the highest level in each aspect at which
social sustainability is addressed.
The training, education and organisational learning aspect is concerned with the extent to which
IT projects include training, education and development of stakeholders. The largest portion of
67 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
IT projects (34.3%) only included appropriate training and education of end users as part of the
project’s deliverable. The second level accounted for 23.6% of the responses, indicating that
these projects included training and education for team members to improve performance in
the project. Just over a fifth of the IT projects (21.7%) showed that they included training for
improved performance after the project had been completed. The remaining 20.3% of IT
projects included activities for developing relevant competences in all stakeholders.
The society and customers aspect is concerned with the extent to which IT projects follow a
socially responsible approach towards the society in which they operate. Only recognising
social responsibility towards external stakeholders in the society of operation is what was
achieved by 40.2% of IT projects at level 1. Close to a quarter of IT projects (22.9%) required
that suppliers and partners of the project take on social responsibility towards the societies in
which they operated. For just over a fifth of IT projects (21.1%), results of the project were
designed in such a way as to translate into social responsibility towards external stakeholders
in the society in which they operated. Those IT projects in the level 4 category (15.9%)
extended this translation towards society as a whole.
The bribery and anti-competitive behaviour aspect is concerned with the extent to which IT
projects reject bribery and anti-competitive behaviour. According to the 2015 bribery survey,
released by the Ethics Institute of South Africa, bribery within South Africa is a serious issue
(Dobie, 2015). The survey found that 74% of the participants knew someone who had been
asked to pay a bribe and of those who were asked, 75% ended up paying the bribe. The most
disheartening statistic drawn from this survey is the 78% of participants who felt that paying a
bribe was a necessity to get through life. This apparent acceptance of bribery is a possible
reason for the poor results in the bribery and anti-competitive behaviour aspect. Based on these
results, it is not surprising to find that 44.3% of IT projects were at the first level, where the
team members are held accountable for rejecting bribery and anti-competitive behaviour. Just
over a fifth of IT projects (20.9%) also required that their suppliers and partners reject bribery
and anti-competitive behaviour. The 18% of IT projects at the third level indicates that bribery
and anti-competitive behaviour was prevented in the organisation by the way the project
deliverable and result were designed. The remaining 16.8% of IT projects indicates that bribery
and anti-competitive behaviour prevention was also extended to the community in which the
project result was directed.
The diversity and equal opportunity aspect is concerned with the extent to which IT projects
apply policies or standards for diversity and equal opportunity which reflect the society in
which they operate. Due to South Africa’s history, the diversity of the workforce is not
representative of the population. This necessitates that steps be taken to rectify the injustices
of the past. South Africa has a unique regulation known as broad-based black economic
empowerment (BBBEE) which has the aim of addressing diversity in the workforce. The
inclusion of this regulation in South Africa puts additional pressure on South African
organisations to comply with regulations. The added pressure in turn makes it more difficult
for these organisations to progress past the first level and may play a role in the following
results. The highest percentage of IT projects (41.5%) merely complied with applicable
68 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
standards and regulations regarding equal opportunity in areas such as gender, religion and
race. Just under a third of IT projects (27.9%) required such compliance from suppliers and
partners as well. Only 16.1% of IT projects designed deliverables to improve diversity and
equal opportunity within the organisation and even fewer (14.5%) designed deliverables to
improve diversity and equal opportunity within the community as well.
The labour practices and decent work aspect is concerned with the extent to which policies or
standards for labour practices and decent work are applied to IT projects. The highest
percentage of IT projects (39.8%) just complied with applicable standards and regulations
regarding labour practices and decent work. Just over a third of IT projects (31.1%) required
such compliance from suppliers and partners as well. Close to a fifth of IT projects (17.2%)
designed deliverables to improve labour practices and decent work in the organisation. The
remaining 11.9% of IT projects designed deliverables to improve labour practices and decent
work in the communities towards whom the result was directed.
The project reporting people aspect is concerned with whether IT projects report on indicators
of social sustainability. Just over half of IT projects (51.4%) only reported on what was
necessary in order to comply with laws and regulations. Almost a fifth of IT projects (16.8%)
reported on social sustainability in terms of the resources used. Just over a fifth of IT projects
(20.5%) reported on social sustainability in terms of the project deliverables. The remaining
11.3% of IT projects also reported on social sustainability in terms of the use and disposal of
the project deliverables.
The human rights aspect is concerned with the extent to which IT projects apply policies or
standards for respecting and improving human rights such as non-discrimination, freedom of
association and stopping child labour. Over half of the IT projects (50.2%) only recognised this
aspect implicitly and only complied with the necessary laws and regulations. Close to a quarter
of IT projects (23.3%) considered this aspect explicitly, but only reactively with the intention
of not compromising stakeholder interests. Only 14.3% of IT projects explicitly considered this
as an area that the project contributed to. The remaining 12.2% of IT projects considered
making a contribution to this aspect as part of the justification for the project.
The health and safety aspect is concerned with the extent to which policies or standards for
health and safety are applied in IT projects. Health and safety is an aspect that is more
commonly associated with projects in the construction and engineering fields, but this does not
mean that IT projects are exempt. Nearly half of IT projects (49.5%) just complied with the
applicable standards and regulations regarding health and safety. A further 28% of IT projects
required such compliance from suppliers and partners of the project. As little as 13.4% of IT
projects designed the deliverables of the project in such a way as to improve health and safety
conditions within the organisation. Less than a tenth of IT projects (9.1%) extended this
improvement to the communities towards whom the project results were directed.
The similarity between the bribery and anti-competitive behaviour aspect and the majority of
the other aspects in the social dimension may indicate similar dispositions towards these
69 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
aspects. What is more concerning are those aspects that are noticeably in a worse position such
as project reporting people, human rights and health and safety, whose level 1 responses made
up 51.4%, 50.2% and 49.5% of their total responses, respectively. The rest of the aspects had
a level 1 representation ranging from 34.3% to 44.3%. The highest level 3 and 4 representation
was for training, education and organisational learning at 42%. This number drops to 22.5%
for health and safety, with the rest of the aspects falling between these two. Overall it is clear
that the social dimension is poorly catered for. While the measurements of the social dimension
cannot be compared to the literature, what is common in both the literature and this study is
that the social dimension is addressed to a lesser extent than the economic dimension.
The social aspects were tested for correlations and several interesting correlations were found.
Only those with a moderate or greater strength are included. The correlations are listed in table
4.6.
Table 4.6: Correlations between social aspects
Health and Safety Human Rights Society and Customer
Spearman
Correlation
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Spearman
Correlation
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Spearman
Correlation
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Labour
practices and
decent work
.413** .000
Diversity and
equal
opportunity
.402** .000 .404** .000
Human rights .402** .000
An interesting point is that these noteworthy correlations between the aspects of the social
dimension are positive, moderate in strength and statistically significant (p < 0.001). As the
correlations are all positive, an increase in one of the aspects presented in table 4.6 would
indicate a moderate increase in its corresponding aspect. Based on these results, it can be
concluded that acting sustainably in one aspect may result in other aspects being addressed in
a sustainable way as well. Furthermore, the aspects that have correlations are closely related to
each other. From these results, it can be said that a plausible reason for this may be due to
processes or policies that overlap several closely related aspects, which may be an important
consideration for organisations fostering more sustainable practices.
From the correlation analysis it was discovered that there is a three-way correlation between
the human rights, diversity and equal opportunity, and society and customer aspects. This
correlation relationship can be seen in figure 4.15. This specific correlation relationship is
mentioned as it may be an indicator of a latent variable. Whether a latent variable exists requires
factor analysis to be performed. As such, this relationship is taken into consideration for the
factor analysis discussed later in this chapter.
70 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Figure 4.15: Social dimension three-way correlation
4.4.5.3 The environmental dimension
The environmental dimension comprises seven aspects, namely procurement, travel, waste,
energy, water, project reporting planet and, lastly, materials. The overall averages for each of
these aspects are presented in figure 4.16. The averages range from 1.77 (materials) to 2.57
(procurement). The majority of the aspects have similar averages, with only procurement
standing out as the best addressed aspect having the highest average outside of the economic
dimension. The procurement average is similar to the investment evaluation, managerial
flexibility and direct financial benefits aspects of the economic dimension and this may be due
to procurement being associated with the economic dimension. Apart from procurement, the
other environmental aspects have similar averages to the aspects of the social dimension. This
similarity with the social dimension also having lower averages than the economic dimension
corresponds with what was found in the literature.
Figure 4.16: Averages of environmental dimension aspects
The breakdown for each of the environmental aspects is illustrated in figure 4.17. The
breakdown indicates the percentage of respondents who felt they achieved a certain level in
each of the environmental dimension aspects.
71 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Figure 4.17: Breakdown of environmental dimension aspects
Each level of each aspect is addressed sequentially, together with what those levels mean. As
in the case of the social dimension aspects, it is not surprising that the environmental dimension
aspects have high percentages of level 1 responses.
The procurement aspect is concerned with the criteria against which suppliers for IT projects
are selected. Just over a quarter of IT projects (26.3%) selected suppliers based solely on laws
and regulations. In South Africa laws and regulations can be increasingly imposing due to
additional factors such as BBBEE which weigh heavily in the choice of supplier. A very similar
portion of IT projects (26.5%) selected suppliers based on cost and location while still ensuring
that the interests of stakeholders were not compromised. Only around a tenth of IT projects
(11.2%) selected suppliers based on the supplier’s use of natural resources and environment-
enhancing policies. Surprising and positive is that the highest percentage of IT projects (35.9%)
were at the fourth level, indicating that suppliers were selected based on their ability to help
deliver the project in a more sustainable way or aid in the contribution of the project result to
sustainability.
The travel aspect is concerned with the extent to which travel policies of the project consider
environmental aspects. Travel can form a major part of IT projects as team members may need
to meet with various stakeholders. In project rollouts that are geographically dispersed, the
need for travel is that much more important. In just over half of IT projects (51.3%) travel is
based on necessity for completing project activities and selected based on time and cost. 12%
of IT projects based travel on necessity for completing project activities, but the means of travel
was selected while taking into account environmental aspects. Just over a fifth of IT projects
(21.7%) sought alternatives to travel such as video conferencing when possible. The remaining
15% of IT projects designed their deliverables and results to minimise the required travel.
The waste aspect is concerned with the ways in which the project tries to minimise waste. Just
under half of IT projects (48.6%) considered this aspect implicitly and merely ensured
72 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
compliance with laws and regulations. Just over a fifth of IT projects (20.9%) considered this
aspect explicitly, but only reactively with the aim of not compromising stakeholder interests.
15% of IT projects considered this aspect explicitly and as one of the areas the project
contributed to. The remaining IT projects (15.5%) considered contributing to this aspect as part
of the justification for the project.
The energy aspect is concerned with whether the project has any specific policies regarding
energy consumption. Nearly half of IT projects (48.9%) had no specific energy consumption
policies and followed the general energy consumption policies of the organisation. Another
22.9% of IT projects had energy consumption policies, but only promoted the smart use of
energy and energy-efficient equipment where possible. 17% of IT projects kept energy
consumption as low as possible and attempted to acquire the necessary energy from ‘green’
sources. The remaining 11.1% of IT projects considered minimising energy consumption as
one of the parameters in the design of the project.
The water aspect is concerned with whether the project has any specific policies regarding
water consumption and pollution. Clean water is a scarce resource in South Africa and while
water usage during an IT project’s implementation may be low, the project manager should be
take note of how water is managed in the manufacturing of equipment and how it is managed
by the team members. More than half of IT projects (56.7%) had no specific water consumption
policies and followed the general water consumption policies of the organisation. Just under a
fifth of IT projects (17.8%) had water consumption policies, but they only promoted the smart
use of water and water-saving equipment where possible. A further 13.3% of IT projects kept
water consumption as low as possible and recycled or purified the water utilised. The remaining
12.1% of IT projects considered minimising water consumption and pollution as one of the
parameters in the design of the project. Water was recycled or purified if it was to be disposed
of.
The project reporting planet aspect is concerned with whether IT projects report on indicators
of environmental sustainability. More than half of IT projects (56.4%) only reported on what
was necessary in order to comply with laws and regulations. A further 16.9% reported on
environmental sustainability in terms of the resources used. A little over 15% of IT projects
(15.6%) reported on environmental sustainability in terms of the project deliverables. The
remaining 11% also reported on environmental sustainability in terms of the use and disposal
of the project deliverables.
The materials aspect is concerned with the criteria against which materials for the project are
selected. Of all the aspects included in this study, the materials aspect had the highest level 1
representation with 62.4% of IT projects falling into this category. While this result appears to
be negative, it should be considered in context. IT projects make use of very few materials,
with the exception of infrastructure projects, which makes it logical to find such a high level 1
representation for this aspect. These projects indicated that materials for the project were
selected solely on cost as well as functional and technical requirements. Just over a tenth of the
projects (11.7%) also selected materials for the project based on the waste they caused. A
73 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
further 12.2% of IT projects selected their materials based also on the energy they consumed
and pollution created during their production. The remaining 13.7% of IT projects, in addition
to what has been previously mentioned, selected materials based on their reuse capabilities and
value.
Procurement (26.3%) is the only environmental aspect that had a level 1 representativeness of
less than 48.6%. It also had the highest level 4 representativeness at 35.9%, which is more than
double any of the other environmental aspects. Procurement is the most noticeable
environmental aspect, with the remaining ones all having similar distributions. The implication
is that these other aspects have similar importance. These results also indicate that the
environmental dimension is in a poor position, even more so than the social dimension. Once
again, the actual measurements cannot be compared to the literature; however, it is clear that
the environmental dimension was not addressed to the same extent as the economic dimension,
which conforms to what was found in the literature.
The environmental aspects were tested for correlations and several correlations were found.
Only correlations with a moderate or greater strength are included. The correlations are listed
in table 4.7.
Table 4.7: Correlations between environmental aspects
Water Waste
Spearman
Correlation
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Spearman
Correlation
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Energy .579** .000 .466** .000
Water .447** .000
The correlations found between the environmental dimension aspects follow a similar trend to
the correlations found between the social aspects in that they are positive, moderate in strength
and statistically significant (p < 0.001). Only three correlations were found between the aspects
of the environmental dimension and are as follows: energy with water (0.579), energy with
waste (0.466) and water with waste (0.447). Once again, the correlations are between closely
related aspects and may be explained by processes or polices that overlap the aspects.
The correlations between the water, energy and waste aspects form a three-way correlation.
This correlation relationship can be seen in figure 4.18. Just as in the social dimension analysis,
this three-way correlation merits special mention as it may be an indicator of a latent variable.
Whether a latent variable exists requires factor analysis to be performed. As such, this
relationship is taken into consideration for the factor analysis discussed later in this chapter.
74 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Figure 4.18: Environmental dimension three-way correlation
4.4.5.4 Dimension comparison
The dimensions as a whole were assessed and compared with each other in order to determine
their overall standing within projects and with each other. The overall dimension standing is
determined as the average of all the aspects comprising it. The results are displayed in figure
4.19.
Figure 4.19: Sustainability dimension averages
Not surprising, based on the results from the individual dimension analysis and the definition
analysis, the economic dimension has a noticeably higher average than the social and
environmental dimensions. These results correspond with what was found in the literature,
except for the social dimension appearing to be better addressed than the environmental
dimension, albeit only slightly (Labuschagne et al., 2005; Edum-Fotwe & Price, 2009; Singh
et al., 2009; Smith & Sharicz, 2011; Ullah et al., 2013; Martens & De Carvalho, 2014). Once
again, the balance between the dimensions of sustainability as advocated by the TBL concept
is not maintained, reinforcing the point that this is a problem regarding the incorporation of
sustainability. The overall average for sustainability is only 2.15, indicating that the
commitment of IT project managers to sustainability is somewhat lacking.
1.98
2.02
2.46
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7
Environmental dimension
Social dimension
Economic dimension
75 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
An explanation for the environmental dimension reflecting such poor results in this study, more
so than the social dimension, can possibly be attributed, in part, to the adoption of green IT.
Utilising green IT is perceived as addressing environmental sustainability within the IT field
(Jenkin et al., 2011). Green IT looks at designing and using IT-related components effectively
and efficiently to reduce the impact on the environment as much as possible (Du Buisson &
Naidoo, 2014). Green IT addresses the development and use of IT components, but does not
explicitly address the implementation of IT. The travel and reporting aspects of the
environmental dimension are examples of areas that may fall outside the scope of green IT.
Furthermore, IT is considered as relatively clean when looking at environmental sustainability
with energy consumption being the most prominent aspect, and as such, the other aspects may
fall by the wayside.
However, according to figure 4.16 and figure 4.17, the energy aspect is addressed to a similar
extent to most of the other environmental dimension aspects. The extent is poor, indicating that
environmental sustainability is not of particular importance in IT projects. Procurement, having
the highest average of aspects other than those in the economic dimension, highlights that
money is still the primary focus. The similarly dismal results are seen in the social dimension,
indicating that social sustainability is also not of particular importance in IT projects. The
similarity between the social dimension and environmental dimension results may signify that
there is a relationship between these dimensions that is separate from the economic dimension.
The relationships between the aspects of each dimension were tested for correlations and one
interesting correlation was found. Correlations between the aspects of the dimensions were
tested to determine what the relationship between the aspects of differing dimensions may be.
Only one correlation was of significant strength to warrant mentioning and is shown in table
4.8.
Table 4.8: Correlation between dimension aspects
Project Reporting People
Spearman Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
Project reporting planet .407** .000
The correlation found is between project reporting planet from the environmental dimension
and project reporting people from the social dimension. The correlation is positive and
significant (p < 0.001), indicating that as one is addressed better, so is the other and vice versa.
These results support the notion that the social and environmental dimensions are addressed
separately from the economic dimension while being linked to each other.
The relationships between the dimensions as a whole were tested for correlations and one
noteworthy correlation was found. The correlation found is between the social and
environmental dimensions and is shown in table 4.9.
76 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Table 4.9: Correlation between dimensions
Social Dimension
Spearman Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
Environmental dimension .505** .000
The correlation is positive as well as significant (p < 0.001) and further supports the idea that
the social and environmental dimensions are linked. As one of the two is better addressed, so
is the other. These results may be an indication that the social and environmental dimensions
are in fact perceived and/or treated as one dimension. If this is the case, then a fair assessment
would be to say that these dimensions are only half addressed.
The following section deals with the fifth objective, namely to assess the commitment to
sustainability in terms of the SPM3 model.
4.4.6 Factor analysis
Through factor analysis, the structure or dimensionality of a set of variables (in this case
aspects) can be better understood (Brown, 2006:20; Field, 2009:628). Factor analysis is used
in this study to examine the underlying covariance between the sustainability aspects of each
dimension in order to determine if latent variables (factors) exist in the data (Brown, 2006:13;
Field, 2009:628). From this the human-made construct of sustainability can be compared to a
mathematical model based on the same variables. The results of this comparison can then be
used to refine or reaffirm the understanding of sustainability.
Factor analysis was performed within each dimension to determine if any factors existed within
a dimension. Factor analysis was also done on all the aspects to determine if there were aspects
that formed a factor with aspects outside of their respective dimensions.
4.4.6.1 Economic dimension factor analysis
A maximum likelihood extraction factor analysis was conducted on the four aspects
(investment evaluation, managerial flexibility, direct financial benefits and project reporting
profit) using the direct oblimin rotation to allow for the factors to correlate with each other
(Field, 2009:643-644; how2stats, 2011a). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of
sampling adequacy found the analysis to be 0.584 (miserable), indicating that performing factor
analysis on this set of data was justified (Field, 2009:651; how2stats, 2011b).
Only one factor was found to have an eigenvalue over Kaiser’s threshold of 1 and explains
14.98% of the variance. This result was compared with the scree plot and also led to the
conclusion that one factor should be retained (Field, 2009:652). The factor loadings for the
economic dimension are shown in table 4.10. All aspects in the economic dimension load on
this factor, which suggests that this factor represents the economic aspects. As such, the
economic dimension is in and of itself the factor.
77 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Table 4.10: Economic dimension factor loadings
Factor 1: Economic Dimension
Direct financial benefits .467
Managerial flexibility and optionality .415
Investment evaluation .347
Project reporting profit .297
While the factor loadings are somewhat small, especially the project reporting profit aspect, all
the aspects contribute to the economic perspective
4.4.6.2 Social dimension factor analysis
A maximum likelihood extraction factor analysis was conducted on the eight aspects (training,
education and organisational learning, society and customers, bribery and anti-competitive
behaviour, diversity and equal opportunity, labour practices and decent work, project reporting
people, human rights, and health and safety) using the direct oblimin rotation to allow for the
factors to correlate with each other (Field, 2009:643-644; how2stats, 2011a). The KMO
measure of sampling adequacy found the analysis to be 0.83 (middling), indicating that doing
factor analysis on this set of data was justifiable.
Three factors were found in the analysis of the social aspects. Only two of the factors had
eigenvalues over Kaiser’s threshold of 1. However, after consideration of the scree plot, a third
factor was retained (Field, 2009:652). The factor loadings for the social dimension are shown
in table 4.11. The item clusters suggest that factor 1 represents training, education and
organisational learning, factor 2 represents human consideration and factor 3 represents well-
being.
The three-way correlation (figure 4.15) uncovered between the human rights, diversity and
equal opportunity, and society and customer aspects in the social dimension analysis was
revealed through factor analysis to not be a factor. These three variables are in fact spread
across two factors.
Table 4.11: Social dimension factor loadings
Factor 1:
TEOL
Factor 2: Human
Consideration
Factor 3:
Well-being
Training, education and organisational
learning (Q26) .995 .029 -.015
Society and customers (Q29) -.030 .798 -.097
Project reporting people (Q31) .021 .657 .013
Bribery and anti-competitive behaviour
(Q30) .117 .436 .103
Diversity and equal opportunity (Q27) .081 .385 .259
Health and safety (Q25) -.029 -.014 .717
Labour practices and decent work (Q24) .074 -.034 .569
Human rights (Q28) -.075 .313 .430
78 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Figure 4.20 illustrates the results of the factor analysis for the social dimension using the factor
plot in a rotated factor space diagram rendered in SPSS. The factor plot confirms that there are
in fact three factors. Factor 1 is denoted by the red grouping. Factor 2 is denoted by the blue
grouping. Factor 3 is denoted by the green grouping.
Figure 4.20: Social dimension factor plot
4.4.6.3 Environmental dimension factor analysis
A maximum likelihood extraction factor analysis was conducted on the seven aspects
(procurement, travel, waste, energy, water, project reporting planet and materials) using the
direct oblimin rotation to allow for the factors to correlate with each other (Field, 2009:643-
644; how2stats, 2011a). The KMO measure of sampling adequacy found the analysis to be
0.794 (middling), indicating that doing factor analysis on this set of data was justifiable.
Two factors were found in the analysis of the environmental aspects. Only one of the factors
had an eigenvalue over Kaiser’s threshold of 1. However, after consideration of the scree plot,
a second factor was retained (Field, 2009:652). The factor loadings for the environmental
dimension are shown in table 4.12. The item clusters suggest that factor 1 represents resource
provision and reporting, and factor 2 represents travel.
The three-way correlation (figure 4.18) uncovered between the water, energy and waste aspects
in the environmental dimension analysis was revealed through factor analysis to not be a factor
79 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
by themselves. These three variables are in fact part a factor that includes project reporting
planet, materials and procurement.
Table 4.12: Environmental dimension factor loading
Factor 1: Resource
Provision and Reporting Factor 2: Travel
Water (Q20) .885 -.211
Energy (Q19) .743 -.063
Waste (Q21) .493 .218
Project reporting planet
(Q23) .385 .252
Materials (Q18) .368 .096
Procurement (Q17) .239 .098
Travel (Q22) .047 .560
Figure 4.21 illustrates the results of the factor analysis for the environmental dimension using
the factor plot in a rotated factor space diagram rendered in SPSS. The factor plot confirms that
there are in fact two factors. Factor 1 is denoted by the blue grouping. Factor 2 is denoted by
the red grouping.
Figure 4.21: Environmental dimension factor plot
80 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
4.4.6.4 Overall factor analysis
A maximum likelihood extraction factor analysis was conducted on all 19 sustainability aspects
using the direct oblimin rotation to allow for the factors to correlate with each other (Field,
2009:643-644; how2stats, 2011a). The aim of this analysis was to assess whether a three-
dimension approach to sustainability conforms to the data as well as what the compositions of
the dimensions may be. The KMO measure of sampling adequacy found the analysis to be
0.849 (middling), indicating that doing factor analysis on this set of data was justifiable.
The initial analysis suggested the presence of four factors. This number of factors is based on
Kaiser’s threshold of 1 as well as consideration of the scree plot (Field, 2009:652). The factor
loadings for all of the sustainability aspects are shown in table 4.13.
Table 4.13: All sustainability aspects’ factor loadings on four factors
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Society and customers .793 .023 -.167 .055
Project reporting people .568 .089 .059 .083
Bribery and anti-competitive
behaviour .486 -.061 .173 .074
Diversity and equal opportunity .451 .133 .149 -.013
Human rights .396 .196 .268 -.211
Water .077 .780 -.194 -.005
Energy -.092 .773 -.021 .024
Waste -.006 .536 .099 .065
Project reporting planet .134 .368 .136 .060
Materials .011 .327 .155 .074
Labour practices and decent work .101 .008 .641 -.062
Health and safety .176 .195 .437 -.115
Project reporting profit -.041 -.003 .409 .133
Training, education and
organisational learning .232 -.039 .246 .226
Travel .012 .168 .216 .092
Direct financial benefits -.186 .021 .140 .495
Procurement .031 .114 .001 .466
Managerial flexibility and
optionality .118 .079 -.064 .383
Investment evaluation .133 .001 -.017 .240
The results indicate that the majority of sustainability aspects form a factor with other aspects
in their respective dimensions. Factor 1 consists entirely of aspects from the social dimension,
namely society and customers, project reporting people, bribery and anti-competitive
behaviour, diversity and equal opportunity, and human rights. Factor 2 comprises water,
energy, waste, project reporting planet and materials. Factor 3 comprises labour practices and
decent work, health and safety, project reporting profit, training, education and organisational
learning, and travel. Factor 4 comprises direct financial benefits, procurement, managerial
flexibility and optionality, and investment evaluation.
81 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
There are three sustainability aspects that form factors with sustainability aspects outside of
their respective dimensions. These are project reporting profit, travel and procurement. The
project reporting profit and travel aspects form a factor with three other aspects which all derive
from the social dimension. As such, the project reporting profit aspect’s grouping does not
make logical sense. The travel aspect’s grouping can be explained in the sense that it is
employees who are affected. This grouping brings into question whether travel should be a part
of the social dimension or whether there is a strong social element that should be considered.
The procurement aspect forms a factor with aspects from the economic dimension, which is
not unexpected due to the results of the dimensions analysis. This introduces the notion that
the procurement aspect should rather be associated with the economic dimension.
Since the project reporting profit aspect was grouped in a manner that did not make logical
sense, it was removed and factor analysis was rerun. Three factors were found in the analysis
of all of the sustainability aspects after removing the project reporting profit aspect. The KMO
measure of sampling adequacy found the analysis to be 0.851, which is a slight improvement
on the previous measure. The factor loadings for the sustainability aspects, without project
reporting profit, are shown in table 4.14.
The results indicate that, once again, the majority of sustainability aspects form a factor with
other aspects in their respective dimensions. Factor 1 comprises all the aspects from the social
dimension. Factor 2 comprises all the aspects from the environmental dimension with the
exception of procurement. Factor 3 comprises all aspects from the economic dimension, with
the exception of the project reporting profit aspect and the inclusion of the procurement aspect.
The travel aspect has weak loadings that are very similar across the factors. It has readings that
signify cross-loading and imply that it does not fit into a single factor. Perfect simple structure
is not expected from this data due to the correlations, but cross-loadings this significant can
affect the model. The procurement aspect retains the grouping it had in the previous analysis.
This further supports the procurement aspect being associated with the economic dimension.
Table 4.14: Sustainability aspects’ factor loadings on three factors
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Society and customers .646 -.011 -.085
Project reporting people .620 -.057 .001
Bribery and anti-competitive behaviour .615 .111 .051
Diversity and equal opportunity .560 -.087 -.019
Human rights .555 -.164 -.160
Health and safety .410 -.171 .004
Labour practices and decent work .406 -.017 .105
Training, education and organisational learning .377 .078 .273
Energy -.093 -.788 .020
Water .011 -.730 -.052
Waste .054 -.524 .109
Project reporting planet .229 -.344 .081
Materials .109 -.320 .097
82 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Travel .132 -.167 .141
Direct financial benefits -.138 -.019 .560
Procurement .006 -.102 .478
Managerial flexibility and optionality .060 -.075 .342
Investment evaluation .115 .004 .194
Factor analysis was rerun after removing the travel aspect as it was cross-loading on all three
aspects. Three factors remained in the analysis of all of the sustainability aspects after removing
the travel aspect in addition to removing the project reporting profit aspect. The KMO measure
of sampling adequacy found the analysis to be 0.851, which is the same as the previous
measure. The factor loadings for the sustainability aspects, excluding the project reporting
profit and travel aspects, are shown in table 4.15.
All remaining aspects, with the exception of procurement, are grouped by their dimension. The
results strongly reflect the number of dimensions and composition of dimensions proposed by
Silvius et al. (2012). Once again, the procurement dimension is grouped with the economic
aspects. These consecutive occurrences make a strong case for considering the procurement
aspect as part of the economic dimension rather than the environmental dimension.
Based on the composition of each factor, they are named according to the dimensions from
which the aspects originate.
Table 4.15: Revised sustainability aspects’ factor loadings on three factors
Factor
1: Social
Factor 2:
Environmental
Factor 3:
Economic
Society and customers .642 -.008 -.065
Project reporting people .620 -.057 .001
Bribery and anti-competitive behaviour .614 .109 .044
Diversity and equal opportunity .559 -.086 -.011
Human rights .555 -.163 -.153
Health and safety .412 -.172 .007
Labour practices and decent work .410 -.021 .080
Training, education and organisational learning .379 .071 .252
Energy -.090 -.782 .033
Water .011 -.727 -.032
Waste .062 -.518 .096
Project reporting planet .234 -.344 .062
Materials .112 -.319 .093
Direct financial benefits -.134 -.020 .568
Procurement .009 -.100 .493
Managerial flexibility and optionality .062 -.071 .354
Investment evaluation .114 .006 .214
83 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Figure 4.22 illustrates the results of the factor analysis for the final factor analysis iteration
performed on all of the sustainability aspects using the factor plot in a rotated factor space
diagram rendered in SPSS. The factor plot confirms that there are in fact three factors. Factor
1 is denoted by the green grouping. Factor 2 is denoted by the red grouping. Factor 3 is denoted
by the blue grouping.
Figure 4.22: Three dimensions factor plot
4.4.7 SPM3 model
The SPM3 model was developed to assess the integration of sustainability into a project based
on four levels (Silvius & Schipper, 2015). The model is typically used to assess an individual
project and therefore the scores for each of the aspects are at definitive levels. In this study
many projects were assessed so the mean score as well as the spread about the mean (coefficient
of variation) were used instead. The mean is used to assess the position of each aspect and the
spread about the mean is used to determine the variability between projects.
The SPM3 model also uses the desired state which is derived from the participants by means
of an additional input for each aspect on the questionnaire. The desired state is simply the level
for each aspect that the participants would like the project to be at. As the aim of this study was
to assess the current commitment of IT project managers to sustainability, the desired state was
not necessary and was subsequently left out.
84 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Based on the results of the factor analysis, one aspect, namely project reporting profit, was
excluded from the model as its inclusion in this grouping did not make logical sense. The travel
aspect was removed from the final factor analysis iteration as it was cross-loading on all three
factors, but this does not mean that travel should not be considered when addressing
sustainability. The travel aspect also had low factor loading values, which may be due to travel
being poorly addressed in IT projects. The travel aspect is placed in the environmental
dimension, as this is where it had the highest factor loading value. Even though in the survey
the procurement aspect was associated with the environmental dimension, the results of this
study indicate that procurement is associated with the economic dimension to a greater degree
for IT projects. The notion that procurement should in fact fall under the economic dimension
is accepted in this study and the procurement aspect is therefore regarded as an economic
dimension aspect. The SPM3 model is illustrated in figure 4.23. The mean for each aspect is
indicated as the black line separating the upper and lower bound coefficient of variation
(shaded area).
The model clearly indicates the poor commitment of IT project managers to sustainability with
the majority of aspects only being addressed at the first level. The economic dimension is the
only dimension where all aspects are at the second level and more than that, there is an
indication of a shift towards the third level. All of the aspects in the environmental dimension
are at the first level, but there is an indication of a shift towards the second level. The majority
of the aspects in the social dimension are at the second level. Unlike with the other dimensions’
aspects, the aspects in the social dimension show little indication of a shift to the next level.
The coefficient of variation reveals some interesting insights as the variability of each aspect
can be compared with the others. The economic dimension aspects have the smallest
coefficients of variation, indicating that there is some consistency in these aspects across IT
projects. On the other hand, the aspects from both the social and environmental dimensions
have significantly higher coefficients of variation. The implication is that there is little
consistency in these aspects across IT projects. These results further support the idea that the
economic dimension is better addressed and introduces the notion that the economic dimension
aspects are afforded similar importance across IT projects. For the other dimensions it can be
seen that their aspects are addressed to a similar extent, on average, but the variability indicates
that these aspects do not hold similar importance across IT projects.
86 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
4.5 Structure of sustainability
The result of the factor analysis indicates that the sustainability aspects of project reporting
profit and travel do not fit in the current overall sustainability structure and that the procurement
aspect has more association with the economic dimension. Structure refers to the conceptual
understanding of sustainability and how its components, the three dimensions and their aspects,
are arranged.
The sustainability structure is, however, a human-made construct and is therefore not defined
by mathematical procedures. This does not mean that mathematical procedures should be
excluded, but rather incorporated in a manner which makes logical sense and adds to the
understanding of sustainability. It is well within reason to assume that aspects designed for a
general project may not be applicable to projects within a specific industry. Leaving project
reporting profit and travel out of the sustainability structure when assessing IT projects is
therefore logically plausible.
The procurement aspect being related more to the economic dimension than the environmental
dimension is also logically sound. The dimension with which an aspect is associated is not
necessarily static since an aspect can have links to other dimensions. The dimension that has
the greatest association with an aspect in a given context is the dimension to which that aspect
belongs. In a different context this association may change, resulting in a different
configuration. In this instance, even though the procurement was associated with the
environmental dimension initially, the results of the analysis suggest that it should belong to
the economic dimension. This association indicates that IT projects are concerned more with
the economic impact of procurement rather than the environmental impact.
The factor analysis reveals yet another interesting consideration and that is whether the
sustainability structure should contain one or more other levels. The original structure consists
of three levels as seen in figure 4.24. This structure does not take into consideration the
possibility of factors amongst the aspects and how they may affect the structure.
Figure 4.24: Original sustainability structure
Figure 4.25 illustrates the structure of sustainability after taking into account the results of the
factor analysis. With the addition of factors, another level becomes evident. The social and
environmental dimensions are composed of at least one factor, which in turn is composed of
several aspects, thus adding an additional level to the structure.
88 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Overall, sustainability is still composed of the three dimensions and this is supported by the
results of the overall factor analysis (table 4.15). The economic dimension is composed only
of aspects including the procurement aspect. Table 4.10 indicates that all aspects in the
economic dimension form one factor, thus indicating that the economic dimension is what is
measured by these aspects. The weakness of the procurement aspect factor loading value in
table 4.12 and the grouping of the procurement aspect in table 4.13, table 4.14 and table 4.15
indicate that it should be placed in the economic dimension. The project reporting aspect is not
included as the groupings in the factor analysis (table 4.13) do not make logical sense.
The environmental dimension is composed of two factors as indicated in table 4.12. The travel
aspect forms a factor by itself and the resource provisioning and reporting factor comprises the
other environmental aspects. This composition also adheres to the factor loadings shown in
table 4.15.
The social dimension is composed of three factors as indicated in table 4.11. Only the training,
education and organisational learning aspect forms a factor by itself. The other two factors,
human consideration and well-being, are composed of the remaining seven social aspects. This
composition also adheres to the factor loadings shown in table 4.15.
As mentioned above, the structure is not static as it is dependent on the aspects included, how
the aspects are associated with the dimension and finally what factors may exist. Figure 4.25
represents the overall sustainability structure for IT projects.
4.6 Conclusion
Data collection and preparation followed a meticulous and systematic process so as to not
introduce any bias or capturing error. The data was also coded to allow for ease of use within
the data analysis software used in this study.
The demographic and biographic details of the respondents were analysed and discussed in
order to determine if they had an impact on the sustainability results as well as to develop the
context from which these results originated. There was found to be no indication of the
demographic and biographic details having any discernible impact on the results. The age and
qualification aspects were of the greatest interest, as they seemed the most likely aspects to
have an impact. The results, however, reveal that the younger generations have just as little
regard for sustainability as the older generations. Qualification was suspected of having an
impact on the results because exposure to sustainability is more likely as employees study
further in their respective fields; however, this was not the case.
Asking the respondents to rank the various aspects of sustainability in terms of importance
revealed two interesting themes. The first of these is that the ‘current’ is considered to be
substantially more important than the ‘future’. This is a point of concern as it contradicts one
of the fundamental aims of sustainability, which is to be forward thinking. The second theme
is the ranking of the sustainability dimensions. The economic dimension being regarded as
more important than the other two corresponds with what was found in the literature. The
similar ranking of the social and environmental dimensions also corresponds with what was
89 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
found in the literature. These results show the perception of the respondents and give insight
into how sustainability is addressed.
The position of sustainability in the overall strategy of the organisation is compared with the
position of sustainability in projects. There is a clear disparity between these two with the
majority of respondents indicating that sustainability in the overall strategy of the organisation
is at the third and fourth levels, but sustainability in projects is only at the first or second levels.
A similar outcome can be seen when comparing sustainability reporting of the organisation
with that of projects. The conclusion drawn from these results is that sustainability is treated
as less important in IT projects than the organisation as a whole and that organisation level
sustainability aspects do not carry over to IT projects.
The assessment of each dimension shows in detail the non-commitment of IT projects to each
aspect as well as the respective dimensions overall. The results reveal that the economic
dimension, not surprisingly, is in a better position than the other dimensions, with the majority
of IT projects addressing sustainability at the third or fourth level for this dimension. The
reverse is found in the social and environmental dimensions, with the majority of IT projects
addressing sustainability at the first or second level. Such a detailed breakdown allows for areas
of poor performance to be identified and addressed, thus aiding in the commitment to
sustainability.
The aspects within each dimension were tested for correlations to better understand the
relationship between them. Several significant correlations were found, indicating that these
aspects are not isolated from each other. The cause of the relationships is unknown, but may
be explained by the way they are addressed, that is to say, the policies which affect one aspect
also affect another. Such knowledge is crucial to organisations in attempting to better address
sustainability within their projects.
In addition to examining each dimension individually, the dimensions were compared overall.
Unsurprisingly and conforming to what was found in the literature, the economic dimension is
addressed to a better extent than the social and environmental dimensions. The dimensions
themselves are tested for correlations and reveal a significant correlation between the social
and environmental dimensions. The implications are that the social and environmental
dimensions are treated as one and not seen as separate areas to be considered. This may be a
potential reason why these dimensions are not addressed to the same extent as the economic
dimension, as effort may be diluted across them.
Overall, the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability is clearly lacking. The extent
to which sustainability is addressed in organisations appears not to carry over into IT projects.
The extent to which IT projects commit to sustainability is poor and is a reflection of the IT
project managers’ commitment to sustainability. It is recognised that project managers are not
sufficiently equipped to contribute to sustainable development within an organisation and these
results support that view (Silvius et al., 2012). This leads to the recommendation that
development of IT project managers should include the facet of sustainability.
90 Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion
Factor analysis reveals two important aspects for consideration. The first is how the aspects are
grouped by dimension. The results of the factor analysis found that, for the majority, the aspects
belonged to their respective dimensions as set out in the survey. It was only the procurement
aspect that was relocated to a different dimension. This development indicates that the position
of aspects may not be static, but rather is dependent on which dimension has the strongest ties
in the given context. In light of this, a more flexible model structure should be considered. The
second aspect is the factors identified within each dimension. The current perception of the
sustainability structure has three levels, but does not take into account the existence of factors.
The consideration of factors within the dimensions of sustainability lead to the conclusion that
a fourth level should be considered in the SPM3 model.
The next chapter concludes this dissertation and provides an overview of the chapters
presented, the outcome of this research and the potential for future research.
91 Chapter 5 – Conclusion
Chapter 5 - Conclusion
5.1 Introduction
The research in this dissertation was conducted with the objective of assessing the commitment
of IT project managers to sustainability. The state of research currently carried out in this regard
is considered to be interpretive (Silvius et al., 2012; Silvius & Nedeski, 2014) and conceptual
(Martens & De Carvalho, 2014). What this implies is that these studies consider how
sustainability could be interpreted within the context of project management rather than the
prescriptive approach of how it should be interpreted. As research in the field of project
management sustainability is emerging, researchers must rely on concepts. Martens and De
Carvalho (2014) state that empirical studies are required to understand how the concepts of
sustainability can be implemented within project management. Current research has been
conducted on the theoretical aspects of this field but leaves a void where the practical
implementation aspects are concerned. This dissertation aims to help fill this void and serve as
a stepping stone for future research.
In spite of the inclusion of sustainability into projects and the growing interest in the field of
sustainability and project management, the various project management standards do not deal
with the sustainability agenda to any significant extent (Eid, 2009). According to Gareis et al.
(2013), as well as Silvius and Schipper (2014a), the system boundaries of project management
should be expanded to include sustainability. This conclusion was derived by following the
notion that integrating sustainability into projects should not be limited only to the project
management processes. All factors involved in a project such as the supply chain and resulting
products and/or services should also be considered. If the project management scope needs to
be expanded to include sustainability, then the standards for project management, in addition
to addressing sustainability, will need to include the new knowledge area of sustainability.
Prior to this dissertation the state of sustainability in project management and IT project
management specifically was unknown. Without a better understanding of the state of
sustainability in project management, any attempt to address sustainability in this context
would be misguided. By assessing the maturity stage of IT projects with regard to
sustainability, the commitment of IT project managers towards sustainability can be
determined. The aim of this chapter is to determine the answer to the research question: to what
extent are IT project managers committed to sustainability?
In order to answer this research question the following goals were formulated, as outlined in
chapter 1:
1. Assess the notion of sustainability within projects, more specifically IT projects,
through the critical evaluation of the literature pertaining to this topic.
2. Examine and discuss the concept of research in order to discern an appropriate research
method for this study.
92 Chapter 5 – Conclusion
3. Analyse, interpret and discuss the data collected for the purpose of assessing the
commitment of IT project managers to sustainability.
The aim of this chapter is to determine whether the research goals were achieved and ultimately
what the answer to the research question is.
This chapter is structured as follows: section 5.2 provides an overview of each chapter. In
section 5.3 the research question and goals are revisited. The limitations of the study are
identified in section 5.4 and the potential for future research is discussed in section 5.5. The
contribution of this study is described in section 5.6.
5.2 Overview
This section provides an overview of the chapters in this dissertation by reviewing what each
chapter covered and what was learnt from each chapter.
5.2.1 Chapter 2: literature review
The purpose of the literature review chapter was to assess the notion of sustainability within IT
projects through the critical evaluation of the literature pertaining to this topic. The literature
review built the context in which this research was conducted as well as allowing the researcher
to utilise research already conducted in the field so as to not reinvent the wheel. This chapter
provided an understanding of what sustainability is, what projects are, how sustainability and
projects are related, how sustainability in projects can be measured and, lastly, what
sustainability means in IT.
Sustainability is the concept that future and current needs can be met by ensuring that in all
activities a balance is achieved between the economic, social and environmental aspects. The
projects of organisations are included as an activity and are therefore not exempt from
sustainability consideration. However, a balance between the three dimensions is not regarded
as the norm, with the economic dimension taking priority while the social and environmental
dimensions are sidelined.
Projects are uniquely positioned to include sustainability as they are the vehicles through which
organisations deliver change and can thus be used to ensure sustainability through the
deliverable as well as the manner in which it is delivered. This wholly inclusive approach is
known as the life cycle approach. IT projects are no exception; however, how sustainability is
addressed may differ as IT projects are inherently different from other projects such as those
in construction. Sustainability in projects is measureable through the use of the SPM3 model
which indicates the maturity stages of aspects of the project with regard to sustainability.
5.2.2 Chapter 3: research methodology
The purpose of the research methodology chapter was to examine and discuss the concept of
research in order to identify an appropriate research method that could be employed in this
study. Following a controlled and systematic process leads to better research (Kerlinger & Lee,
2000:14). A scientific approach is followed as it allows for controlled and systematic research
to be conducted, but it requires an understanding of the scientific approach. In this chapter the
93 Chapter 5 – Conclusion
research methodology followed, the sample and sampling technique used, the approach to be
followed when analysing data and the use of models in this study were explained.
The research paradigm followed set the tone for how the research was conducted. The positivist
paradigm was the most appropriate paradigm given the research question and data used to
answer it. In line with the chosen paradigm and a previous study by Silvius et al., (2013)
concerning the maturity model used, the quantitative methodology was followed as the aim
was to measure utilising numbers. Of the variety of design frames available to the researcher,
the survey was selected as it was the most appropriate given the focus of the study, the
practicality of a survey and its alignment with the quantitative methodology. The sample for
the study was based on a number of factors, including the statistical analysis to be conducted,
accuracy of results required and the homogeneity of the population. A sample size larger than
250 was considered as sufficient for this dissertation. The data analysis itself had to follow the
appropriate steps and in this study was performed according to the data analysis framework
depicted in figure 3.2. The SPM3 model was used to assess the maturity stage of IT projects
with regard to sustainability and ultimately how committed IT project managers are to
sustainability.
5.2.3 Chapter 4: data analysis and description
The purpose of the data analysis and discussion chapter was to analyse, interpret and discuss
the data collected for the purpose of assessing the commitment of IT project managers to
sustainability. The questions posed in research require evidence in order to answer them. This
evidence is drawn from data, but requires analysis before useful information is obtained.
Information does not in itself provide answers to research questions, as interpretation of the
information is necessary. This chapter dealt with the preparation of the data, the analysis and
discussion of the data, the use of the SPM3 model and the structure of sustainability in IT
projects.
Data preparation is an uneventful process, yet necessary to ensure the reliability and validity
of the data used. Meticulous capturing and cleaning of the data must be undertaken. The
analysis of the data was broken up into six parts:
1. Statistical tests were performed to confirm the reliability and validity of the data.
2. The second part dealt with the biographic and demographic profile of the respondents.
The increasing representation of females within the IT domain is recognised as a
possible trend with three benchmarks spanning eight years.
3. The third part concerned the perceived importance of the aspects of the sustainability
definition. The results reflect what was found in the literature and that is that the
economic dimension and meeting current needs are the most important aspects.
4. The fourth part examined the overall composition of projects and reporting with regard
to sustainability. On average, over 40% of IT projects were at the first level in respect
of sustainability. Over half of the IT projects only reported on sustainability at the first
level.
94 Chapter 5 – Conclusion
5. The fifth section dealt with each dimension individually and the dimensions were
compared. The economic dimension yielded the best results with a weighted average
of about 2.4 out of 4. The social and environmental dimensions both had noticeably
lower weighted averages of 2.02 and 1.98, respectively. These results reflect what was
found in the literature. The somewhat low dimension averages resulted in the low
overall average for sustainability in IT projects of only 2.15. The maturity of IT projects
with regard to sustainability was displayed according to the SPM3 model (figure 4.23).
The mean of each aspect and the variance about the mean were used since multiple
projects were accounted for. The model clearly shows that the majority of sustainability
aspects were at about the second level. Only the aspects from the economic dimension
leaned towards the third level. Assessing variability within each aspect reveals that the
economic dimension was addressed with more consistency than the social and
environmental dimensions. This, coupled with the higher averages in the economic
dimension, indicates that the economic dimension was recognised by IT project
managers as the most important dimension.
6. Lastly, the structure of sustainability was discussed based on the results of factor
analysis. The initial structure used for the sustainability aspects was based on the
generic questionnaire developed by Silvius et al. (2012). This structure conformed to
the three-dimension structure found in the literature (figure 4.24), but was more
concerned with the placement of the sustainability aspects. The results of the factor
analysis indicate that the procurement aspect was more closely linked to the economic
dimension, and project reporting profit did not fit into the structure in a way that was
logical. The travel aspect had somewhat equal ties to each dimension. The results of the
factor analysis also suggest the existence of factors within the dimensions which add a
new level to the sustainability structure. This change in structure introduces the notion
that the structure of sustainability is not static and may vary depending on the project
type. The structure for sustainability in IT projects is illustrated in figure 4.25.
5.3 Research goals and question
The research goals, whether they were achieved and the outcome of the research question will
now be discussed.
1. The first goal was to assess the notion of sustainability within projects, more
specifically IT projects, through the critical evaluation of the literature pertaining to this
topic. Through the analysis of relevant literature, this goal has been achieved, as
reflected in chapters 1 and 2. Acting in a manner that is sustainable is not only part of
how the project is undertaken, but also relates to the deliverable and how it is delivered.
This approach is known as the life cycle approach. Regardless of the project type, be it
construction, manufacturing or IT, sustainability should be integrated into the project.
The literature proves the importance of including sustainability in project management.
In chapter 2 means by which sustainability in projects can be measured were also
discussed, which was crucial for assessing the commitment of IT project managers to
sustainability.
95 Chapter 5 – Conclusion
2. The second goal was to examine and discuss the concept of research in order to discern
an appropriate research method for this study. This goal was achieved through the
analysis and comparison of possible methodologies and designs pertinent to conducting
research as discussed in chapter 3. The research paradigm followed was the positivist
paradigm which lends itself to the quantitative methodology. A previous study,
specifically relating to the maturity model used in this study, followed the quantitative
methodology. Additionally, the quantitative methodology investigates the ‘how’, which
is directly related to the research question. For these reasons the quantitative
methodology was adopted. The survey design frame was chosen as it is practical and
conforms to the quantitative methodology. A sample size of greater than 250 was
required for this research and the survey design frame was therefore the practical
choice. A data analysis framework was decided on to ensure that the appropriate steps
were taken when handling the data. Finally, the SPM3 model was selected to assess the
level to which sustainability is included in IT projects.
3. The third goal was to analyse, interpret and discuss the data collected for the purpose
of assessing the commitment of IT project managers to sustainability. This goal was
achieved through the use of various statistical techniques and the SPM3 model as
discussed in chapter 4. The model allows for detailed assessment of each aspect in the
dimensions as well as an overall assessment of the dimensions and ultimately
sustainability as a whole. Other statistical techniques are used to reveal relationships
between the variables as well as aid in the interpretation of the data with regard to the
model. By assessing the extent to which sustainability is addressed in IT projects, the
commitment of IT project managers to sustainability could be determined.
The answer to the research question is that IT project managers are not committed to
sustainability. It is perplexing that an action taken to ensure sustainability is not sustainable in
its own right. Even though chapter 2 presents evidence showing how important sustainability
in project management is and that there needs to be a balance between the dimensions, the
results of this research do not reflect this sentiment. The averages of the economic (2.46), social
(2.02) and environmental (1.98) dimensions show that the dimensions are not even close to
being equally addressed. The results also show that the overall sustainability average is only
2.15. The higher results of the economic dimension are in line with what was found in the
literature as well as the perceived importance of the aspects of sustainability; however, they
are still less than ideal. There are no aspects that average at level 3 or higher. The majority of
aspects average around level 2, showing that not all aspects of sustainability in IT project
management are committed to.
In order to address sustainability, projects need to be broken down into the various
sustainability aspects. Only by doing this can the extent to which sustainability is addressed in
projects be seen as demonstrated by the SPM3 model (Silvius & Schipper, 2015). Once the
state of sustainability in projects is known, informed decisions can be made to better address
sustainability. Simply being aware of the importance of sustainability in project management
96 Chapter 5 – Conclusion
or applying the SPM3 model requires knowledge about sustainability, making it imperative
that this field of research gain greater exposure.
5.4 Limitations
Even though time and effort go into planning research, there are inherent limitations that are
either unknown at the start of the research or revealed while it is being conducted.
1. The first limitation is that the sample used was of the South African population, thus
validating this research in the South African context. While IT projects are not limited
to a single country, the perspective obtained is only that of IT projects in South Africa.
The perspective in other countries may differ from that in South Africa due to differing
cultures and economic standing. Data collection was unfortunately limited to South
Africa as the opportunity to collect data from other regions was not available.
2. The second limitation is that this research does not extend to project management in
general. The data analysed is of IT projects, so projects of a different type may yield
different results.
3. The third limitation is that the quantitative research methodology was used. While this
methodology allows for analysis of many variables (breadth), it does not lead to great
detail (depth). As such, this research focused on covering many variables in order to
answer the research question. If a qualitative methodology had been used, then the
analysis of data would have been more in depth as richness of data is then focused on.
This could have led to a finer, more detailed understanding of sustainability in project
management.
4. The fourth limitation is that the questionnaire used was generic and not tailored to a
specific project type or geographic region. It was based on the questionnaire developed
by Silvius et al. (2012) and requires further research in order to be refined for use in
specific project types or geographic regions. Silvius and Schipper (2015) do note that
for individual projects the questionnaire can be tailored. This is especially true if the
assessment is conducted by someone who is familiar with the project. In this study
multiple projects formed part of the assessment, so tailoring the questionnaire was not
possible.
5. The fifth limitation is the perceived importance of the aspects that constitute the
sustainability definition. The respondents were asked to rank the aspects in order of
importance. While this provided useful information, it did not reveal the margin by
which aspects differ with regard to importance. If this particular question were changed
or another question were included that asked the respondents to distribute 10 or 15
points among the 5 aspects, for example, an idea of the extent to which the levels of
importance differ could be obtained.
6. The sixth limitation is regarding the relationship between the sustainability aspects.
While each aspect is addressed in order to determine at what level it is catered for, the
relationship between aspects was not investigated apart from identifying that there is a
relationship between some of them. The relationship is deduced through significant
correlations, but what the relationship is or what is causing it remains unknown.
97 Chapter 5 – Conclusion
5.5 Future research
The results presented in this study as well as the limitations encountered open up considerations
for future research.
The first consideration is comparing the results of this study to others done on different project
types as well as in different geographic regions. Conducting this study on different projects
will allow for a comparison of different project types with regard to sustainability. Conducting
this study in different geographic regions will reveal whether the commitment to sustainability
differs in projects conducted in different regions. Undertaking both of these initiatives would
contribute to acquiring a global assessment of how committed project managers are to
sustainability.
The second consideration is using the results of this study as a benchmark to compare
individual IT projects conducted in South Africa or to compare South African IT projects with
those of other geographic regions.
The third consideration is to use a tailored questionnaire. Only one project or a group of similar
projects could be assessed using a single tailored questionnaire; the results could be more
detailed and inclusive of the aspects in the projects. Tailoring the questionnaire may not need
to be done to such an extent and even adjusting it to focus more on specific project types and
geographic regions may lead to more accurate results. Another modification could be made
and that is to the question which addressed the perception of the importance of the aspects of
the sustainability definition. Changing this question or adding another could be used to measure
the margin by which the level of importance differs.
The fourth consideration is to investigate the relationship between the sustainability aspects.
Several positive correlations were found between them, indicating that there is a relationship.
The extent of this relationship is unknown but may play a role in how sustainability in these
aspects is addressed. These aspects may form a group or be affected by the same policies, which
is important information to know when attempting to better address sustainability.
The fifth consideration is closely related to the fourth and that is to perform an in-depth analysis
of each sustainability aspect. Underlying or external factors may be present that affect the
sustainability performance in an aspect. This study highlights BBBEE as one of these potential
factors, yet others may exist. Analysing these sustainability aspects in depth may reveal
additional aspects or subaspects that should also be considered when examining how
sustainability is addressed in projects.
The sixth consideration is to explore the importance of sustainability in government and civil
society. Due to the scope of this research, only the organisational pillar of society was
considered. The holistic nature of sustainability dictates that all three pillars should be
examined. Special consideration should be given as to how the government and civil society
pillars are addressed as they differ from one another and from the organisational pillar.
98 Chapter 5 – Conclusion
5.6 Contribution
Research is conducted in order to solve a research problem or answer a research question. This,
however, is not the full extent of the research impact as it contributes to the humanities body
of knowledge as well as serving as the basis for decision making and future research.
This is an initial empirical study which aims to promote awareness in the sustainability and
project management fields and lead to further studies. In a modest way this study helps fill the
void of research in this area as well as serve as a stepping stone for future research. The results
of this study indicate that sustainability is poorly catered for in IT projects and should be at the
foreground of issues in this field. While this research reveals the state of sustainability in IT
projects in South Africa, the hope is that research on other project types and geographic regions
will be conducted. In doing so, a global view of sustainability and project management will be
acquired.
This research shows that the SPM3 model can be used in specific project types, in this case IT
projects. Furthermore, this research indicates that the SPM3 model can be used for multiple
projects at the same time. The focus then shifts from illustrating how a single project addresses
sustainability to assessing an average. Assessing multiple projects allows for additional
statistical techniques such as averages, correlations and variance to be applied to gain insight
into the population.
Using this model also provides an actionable basis from which sustainability can be addressed.
By assessing sustainability performance in such detail, areas of weakness can be identified and
measures put in place to rectify these areas.
The results in this study also serve as a benchmark against which other IT projects and future
research can be compared. Using this study as a benchmark opens up the possibility for
comparing individual IT projects, the extent to which sustainability is addressed in other
geographic regions and the change in the extent to which sustainability is addressed over time.
5.7 Final word
Research is the process of telling a story in which knowledge is created and shared. This story
has a beginning (the research problem and background), a middle (planning how the research
will take place, gathering the data and analysing it) and an end (interpreting the results and
deciding if the research problem was solved). This story is not written in isolation and becomes
the stepping stone for other research, just as other research was the stepping stone for this study.
As such, the research done must be rigorous so as not to compromise the community of trust.
In order to write this story, the researcher must be able to manage time and resources and stay
focused on the objective. There are no shortcuts to telling this story. Through the process,
problems or limitations may be encountered – this does not dictate that the research is lacking,
but rather forms considerations for future research.
99 References
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114 Appendix A: questionnaire
Appendix A: Questionnaire
SECTION I: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
1. BIOGRAPHICAL (Please indicate by making an X in the relevant row. This is an optional question.)
1.1 Gender Prefer not to say Female: Male:
1.2 Age Group Prefer not to say Younger than 20 20 – 29
30 – 39 40 – 49 50 - 59
60 or older
1.3 Highest
Qualification
2. POSITION / ROLE / JOB TITLE (Please indicate by making an X in the relevant row)
2.1 Assistant Project Manager
2.2 Project Coordinator
2.3 Project Manager
2.4 Senior Project Manager
2.5 Project Leader / Project Team Leader
2.6 Programme Manager
2.7 Portfolio Manager
2.8 Project Implementation Manager
2.9 IT Manager
2.10 Business Analyst
2.11 Project Management Consultant
2.12 Other (Please specify)
3. IN WHICH DOMAIN IS YOUR POSITION? (Please indicate by making an X in the relevant row)
3.1 General Management
3.2 Commercial Management
3.3 Financial Management
3.4 IT Management
3.5 Project, Programme or Portfolio Management
3.6 Business Development
3.7 Consulting
3.8 Training or Education
3.9 Other
SECTION II: PROJECT INFORMATION
4. WHAT TYPE OF PROJECT IS BEING ASSESSED? (Please indicate by making an X in the relevant
row)
4.1 Building and Construction Public Infrastructure
4.2 Building and Construction Real Estate
4.3 Building and Construction Development
115 Appendix A: questionnaire
4.4 Organisational Change
4.5 Information Technology
4.6 Research Development
4.7 Other
5. IN WHAT INDUSTRY SECTOR DOES THE PROJECT TAKE PLACE? (Please indicate by making an
X in the relevant row)
5.1 Agriculture
5.2 Industry
5.3 Energy
5.4 Building and Construction
5.5 Healthcare
5.6 Wholesale and Retail
5.7 Logistic Services
5.8 Financial Services
5.9 Facility and Real Estate Services
5.10 Legal Services
5.11 HR Services
5.12 ICT and Communication Services
5.13 Consulting
5.14 Public Administration
5.15 Education and Training
5.16 Other
6. IS THE PROJECT INTERNATIONAL? (Please indicate by making an X in the relevant row)
6.1 No
6.2 Yes, the result of the project has international consequences
6.3 Yes, the resources working on the project are based internationally
6.4 Yes, the suppliers in the project are based internationally
7. IN WHICH GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS WILL THE PROJECT HAVE AN IMPACT?
(MULTIPLE ANSWERS ALLOWED)
7.1 Europe
7.2 North America
7.3 Central and/or South America
7.4 Asia
7.5 Africa
7.6 Australia
8. WHAT IS THE APPROXIMATE BUDGET OF THE PROJECT? (Please indicate by making an X in
the relevant row)
8.1 <R1 million
8.2 Between R1 and R10 million
8.3 Between R10 and R100 million
116 Appendix A: questionnaire
8.4 > R100 million
9. HOW MANY BUSINESS PARTNERS (SUPPLIERS, SUBCONTRACTORS) WILL PARTICIPATE
IN THIS PROJECT? (Please indicate by making an X in the relevant row)
9.1 0
9.2 1-5
9.3 6-15
9.4 16-50
9.5 >50
Section III: the organisational context of the project
10. Please rank the aspects of sustainability from most important to leas important. (1 being the
most important and 5 being the least)
10.1 Meeting current needs
10.2 The environmental dimension
10.3 Allowing for future generations to meet their needs
10.4 The economic dimension
10.5 The social dimension
11. What is the highest level at which sustainability is positioned in the strategy of the
organisation that commissions the project? (Level 4 being the highest. Please indicate by making an X in
the relevant row)
11.1 The strategy of the organisation only includes statements or ambitions
regarding sustainability to comply with laws and regulations.
11.2 The strategy of the organisation includes statements or ambitions regarding
sustainability but only to the extent where the interests of different stakeholders
of the project are not compromised.
11.3 The strategy of the organisation includes statements or ambitions that the
project explicitly contribute to sustainability.
11.4 The strategy of the organisation includes statements or ambitions that making a
contribution to sustainability is one of the drivers behind the project and is
included in the justification of the project.
12. What does the organisation that commissions the project have by way of sustainability
reporting? (Please indicate by making an X in the relevant row)
12.1 The organisation reports what is required by law with regards to sustainability.
12.2 The organisation reports on their contribution as a part or section of the regular
company reports (e.g. the Annual Report)
12.3 The organisation reports on their contribution as a separate periodic
sustainability report in a self-developed format
12.4 The organisation reports on their contribution as a separate periodic
sustainability report in a format that is based on the sustainability reporting
guidelines of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI).
117 Appendix A: questionnaire
Section IV: Questions regarding the assessment of sustainability aspects in the project
For all following questions please choose the highest level that applies. The possible answers for each
question start from the lowest level and progress to the highest.
Economic perspective
13. Direct (Financial) Benefits: Which types of benefits are recognised in the business case of the
project?
13.1 Benefits are implicitly recognised through compliance with laws and
(company) regulations.
13.2 Benefits are recognised in terms of cost savings or reduced use of resources.
13.3 Benefits are recognised in terms of extra revenues from improved businesses
processes and or new business models for existing products and services.
13.4 Benefits are recognised in terms of extra revenues from improved products or
services.
14. Managerial Flexibility and Optionality: To what extent does the project allow for future
decision making and real options?
14.1 This aspect is considered implicitly, in compliance with laws and (company)
regulations. No specific policies are applied in the project.
14.2 This aspect is considered explicitly, but reactively, and with the intention to not
compromise the interests of different stakeholders of the project.
14.3 This aspect is explicitly considered as one of the areas that the project
contributes to.
14.4 Making a contribution to this aspect is one of the drivers behind the project and
included in the justification of the project.
15. Project Reporting: Which items are reflected in the project’s (progress) reports?
15.1 The project (progress) reports show items such as activities commenced,
activities completed, budget spent, budget still required, total budget, issues
and risks, all in terms of ‘plan’ and ‘actual’.
15.2 The project (progress) reports also show lessons learned and improvements in
the project.
15.3 The project (progress) reports also show suggestions to (radically) change the
way the project is being designed and delivered.
15.4 The project (progress) reports also show changes (e.g. market conditions) that
may have an effect on the value and business case of the project’s result.
16. Investment Evaluation: Which evaluation methods are used in the selection of projects?
16.1 Projects are evaluated and selected predominantly based on the pay-back
period of the investment.
16.2 Projects are evaluated and selected predominantly based on the return on
investment or net present value of the investment.
16.3 Projects are evaluated and selected predominantly based on their long term
strategic value, in combination with their short/medium term returns.
16.4 Projects are evaluated and selected predominantly based on a balanced set of
quantitative and qualitative criteria that reflect both long term and short term
perspectives and also economic, social and environmental aspects.
Environment Perspective
118 Appendix A: questionnaire
17. Procurement: Based on which criteria are suppliers for the project selected?
17.1 Suppliers for the project are selected based on laws and (company) regulations
only.
17.2 Suppliers for the project are selected based on cost and location (minimizing
transport) where the interests of different stakeholders of the project are not
compromised.
17.3 Suppliers for the project are selected based on their own use of natural
resources and policies to enhance environmental sustainability.
17.4 Suppliers for the project are selected based on how their know-how and
partnership helps deliver the project in a more sustainable way, and or helps
our products and services to aid sustainability.
18. Materials: Based on which criteria are materials for the project selected?
18.1 Materials for the project are selected based on technical and functional
requirements and their costs.
18.2 Materials for the project are also selected based on the waste they cause in and
for the project.
18.3 Materials for the project are also selected based on the energy consumption
and/or pollution incorporated in the materials because of their production
process.
18.4 Materials for the project are also selected based on their reuse capabilities and
value.
19. Energy: Does the project have any specific policies regarding its energy consumption?
19.1 Next to general policies on energy consumption within the organisation, the
project does not have specific policies and the energy consumption.
19.2 There are policies in the project to promote the smart use of energy and where
possible, energy saving equipment is used.
19.3 Where possible, energy consumption is actively kept to a minimum and the
necessary energy used is acquired as ‘green’ energy.
19.4 Minimizing energy consumption in one of the parameters in the design of the
project deliverables and results.
20. Water: Does the project have any specific policies regarding its water consumption and
pollution?
20.1 Next to general company policies on water consumption and pollution within
the organisation, the project does not have specific policies.
20.2 There are policies in the project to promote the smart use of water and where
possible, water saving equipment is used.
20.3 Water consumption is actively kept to a minimum and where possible, the
project recycles its water and/or purifies it.
20.4 Minimizing water consumption and pollution is one of the parameters in the
design of the project deliverables and results. The project result actively
minimizes water consumption and pollution and the necessary water used is
recycled and/or purified before disposal.
21. Waste: In which way does the project try to minimize its waste?
21.1 This aspect is considered implicitly, in compliance with laws and (company)
regulations. No specific policies are applied in the project.
21.2 This aspect is considered explicitly, but reactively, and with the intention to not
compromise the interests of different stakeholders of the project.
119 Appendix A: questionnaire
21.3 This aspect is explicitly considered as one of the areas that the project
contributes to.
21.4 Making a contribution to this aspect is one of the drivers behind the project and
included in the justification of the project.
22. Travel: To what extent does the project apply travel policies that consider environmental
aspects?
22.1 Travelling in the project is based on necessity for the project’s activities and
deliverables. Means of travel are selected on costs and time.
22.2 Travelling in the project is based on necessity for the project’s activities and
deliverables, but means of travel are selected considering environmental
aspects.
22.3 Travel in the project is based on necessity and minimized by actively
promoting and facilitating the use of alternatives for travelling (e.g. video
conferencing).
22.4 The project deliverables and results are designed to minimize travelling.
23. Project Reporting: Does the project’s (progress) reports reflect indicators of environmental
sustainability?
23.1 The project (progress) reports on what is required for compliance with laws
and (company) regulations.
23.2 The project (progress) reports reflect indicators of environmental sustainability
with respect to resources (physical) used.
23.3 The project (progress) reports reflect indicators of environmental sustainability
with respect to the project deliverables or results.
23.4 The project (progress) reports reflect indicators of environmental sustainability
with respect to the use and disposal or the project deliverables and results.
Social Perspective
24. Labour Practices and Decent Work: To what extent does the project apply policies or standards
for labour practices and decent work?
24.1 The project complies with applicable standards and regulations on labour
practices or decent work.
24.2 The project also requires its suppliers and partners to practise good labour
practices and decent work.
24.3 The project’s deliverable and result is designed to improve labour practices and
decent work in the organisation that commissioned the project.
24.4 The project’s deliverables and results are designed to improve labour practices
and decent work in the community in which the result is used or aimed at.
25. Health and Safety: To what extent does the project apply policies or standards for health and
safety?
25.1 The project complies with applicable standards and regulations regarding
health and safety.
25.2 The project also requires its suppliers and partners to enforce good health and
safety practices.
25.3 The project’s deliverables and results are designed to improve health and safety
conditions in the organisation that commissioned the project.
120 Appendix A: questionnaire
25.4 The project’s deliverables and results are designed to improve health and safety
conditions in the community which the result is used or aimed at.
26. Training, Education and Organisational Learning: To what extent does the project include
training, education and development of stakeholders?
26.1 The project includes activities for appropriate training and education of end
users as part of the project’s deliverables.
26.2 The project includes activities for training and education of team members for
improved individual and team performance in the project.
26.3 The project includes activities for training and education of team members and
partners for improved individual and team performance after the project has
finished.
26.4 The project includes activities for developing the relevant competences of all
stakeholders involved.
27. Diversity and Equal Opportunity: To what extent does the project apply policies or standards
for diversity and equal opportunity which reflect the society it operates in?
27.1 The project complies with applicable standards and regulations on equal
opportunity in terms of gender, race, religion, etc.
27.2 The project also requires its suppliers and partners to follow diversity practices
and provide equal opportunity in terms of gender, race, religion, etc.
27.3 The project’s deliverables and results are designed to improve diversity and
equal opportunity in the organisation which commissioned the project
27.4 The project’s deliverable and result are designed to improve diversity and equal
opportunity in the community in which the result is used or aimed at.
28. Human Rights: To what extent does the project apply policies or standards for respecting and
improving human rights like non-discrimination, freedom of association and no child labour?
28.1 This aspect is considered implicitly, in compliance with laws and (company)
regulations. No specific policies are applied in the project.
28.2 This aspect is considered explicitly, but reactively, and with the intention to not
compromise the interests of different stakeholders of the project.
28.3 This aspect is explicitly considered as one of the areas that the project
contributes to.
28.4 Making a contribution to this aspect is one of the drivers behind the project and
included in the justification of the project.
29. Society and Customers: To what extent does the project follow a socially responsible approach
towards the society it operates in?
29.1 For the general acceptance of the project and its results, the project recognised
social responsibility towards the external stakeholders in the society it operates
in.
29.2 The project also requires its suppliers and partners to take on social
responsibility towards the external stakeholders in the society they operate in.
29.3 The project’s deliverable and result are designed in a way that translates its
social responsibility towards the external stakeholders in the society it operates
in.
29.4 The project’s deliverable and result are designed in a way that translates its
social responsibility towards the total society.
30. Bribery and Anti-Competitive Behaviour: To what extent does the project reject bribery and
anti-competitive behaviour?
121 Appendix A: questionnaire
30.1 The project rejects bribery and anti-competitive behaviour and holds
responsible team members accountable.
30.2 The project also requires its suppliers and partners to reject bribery and anti-
competitive behaviour.
30.3 The project actively (re) designs its project deliverable and results in a way that
bribery and anti-competitive behaviour is prevented in the organisation which
commissioned the project.
30.4 The project actively (re) designs its project deliverable results in a way that
bribery and anti-competitive behaviour is prevented in the community in which
the result is used or aimed at
31. Project Reporting: Does the project’s (progress) reports reflect indicators of social
sustainability?
31.1 The project (progress) reports what is required for compliance with laws and
(company) regulations.
31.2 The project (progress) reports reflect indicators or social sustainability with
respect to resources (physical) used.
31.3 The project (progress) reports reflect indicators of social sustainability with
respect to the project deliverables or results.
31.4 The project (progress) reports reflect indicators of social sustainability with
respect to the use and disposal of the project deliverables or results.