Presented by

Basma Elsayed Abd Fattah Submitted by

Prof. Badran Hassan

How do knowledge, cognitive strategies, and knowledge about the use of cognitive strategies get into our heads in the first place?

And once this content gets there, what happens to it? How does it get organized and sorted? Where exactly is the information stored? How is it retrieved? All these questions have to do with how the mind

works—the processes involved in good thinking.

Basic Teachings

Definition of information processing

Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of Memory.

Educational Implications of Information Processing

Theory.

“The mind as computer” (How?)

Based on a model of memory and storage

The brain contains certain structures that

process information much like a computer

The human mind has three kinds of memories

or “stores”

Human information processing is an approach to the study of human thought and behavior developed, beginning in the 1950s as an alternative to the behavioral approaches that were popular at that time.

o The central tenet of the information-processing approach is that the human can be characterized as an information-processing system, which encodes input, operates on that information, stores and retrieves it from memory, and produces output in terms of actions

Information processing model:

A model of learning that examines how we learn

using the “mind as computer” metaphor.

The “Information-processing Model” represents

what happens when information flows through

various internal structures which are supposed to

exist inside the learner.

1. Both use electrical signals to send messages.2. Both transmit information.3. Both have a memory that can grow.4. Both can adapt and learn.5. Both have evolved over time.6. Both need energy.7. Both can be damaged.8. Both can change and be modified.9. Both can do math and other logical tasks.10. Both brains and computers are studied by scientists.

The BrainThe Computer

The brain uses chemicals to transmit information

The computer uses electricity

Brains search memories using cues. Computers access information in memory by polling a memory address

Memories in the brain grow by stronger synaptic connections.

Computer memory grows by adding computer chips

The brain does some multitasking using the autonomic nervous system. For example, the brain controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure at the same time it performs a mental task.

The computer can do many complex tasks at the same time ("multitasking") that are difficult for the brain. For example, try counting backwards and multiplying 2 numbers at the same time

The brain needs nutrients like oxygen and sugar for power.

The computer needs electricity to keep working

The brain is a self-organizing systemComputers are designed, built and are of fixed architecture,

The BrainThe Computer

There are no new or used parts for the brain.It is easier to fix a computer - just get new

parts

There are many diseases that affect the brain. The brain has "built-in back up systems" in some cases.

A computer can get a "virus"

The brain is always changing and being modified. There is no "off" for the brain - even when an animal is sleeping, its brain is still active and working.

The computer only changes when new hardware and software are added or something is saved in memory.There is an "off" for a computer. When the power to a computer is turned off, signals are not transmitted

The brain is better at interpreting the outside world and coming up with new ideas. The brain is capable of imagination

The computer is faster at doing logical things and computations.

Atkinson- Shiffrin Model of Memory

Multi Store Model of Human Memory• In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a model

of human memory which posited two distinct memory stores: short-term

memory, and long-term memory.

• Later a third memory store (actually the first in sequence) was added: sensory memory.

R. Atkinson and R. Shiffrin (1968) proposed that our memories are not just stored in one place but actually memory consists of several ‘stores’.

Memory is made up of a series of parts, working together as a process.

Sensory Memory

Long-term Memory

Short-term Memory

Information loss through decay

Information loss through

decay/displacement

Information loss through

decay/interference

Rehearsal

Incoming Information

AttentionRetrieval

Transfer

Information enters the human information processing system via a variety of

channels associated with the different senses.

There is a sensory memory for vision, called iconic memory

There is a sensory

memory for vision,

called iconic

memory

One for audition (hearing), called echoic memory.

• And one for touch- haptic memory

Short Term Memory

Information that is attended to arrive in another temporary store called short-term or working memory.

Some properties of STM:

• Capacity: 7 +/- 2 "chunks" of information

• Duration: About 18-20 seconds (average).

• Processing: Auditory encoding

(visuals are transferred into sounds)

• The low capacity of STM was first noted by George Miller in a famous paper entitled The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two.

• Miller concluded that about seven (plus or minus two) "chunks" of information could reside in STM simultaneously.

• Information in STM can be held in STM via a

method called maintenance rehearsal- that is,

repeating the information silently or aloud so that it

is recalled immediately when needed.

: Three Major Concepts For Getting Information Into STM

First, pay attention to a stimulus if it has an interesting feature.

Second, pay attention if the stimulus activates a known pattern.

(Call to mind relevant prior learning)

Third, Point out important information

Two Major Concepts For Retaining Information In STM

Organization And Repetition.

(How?)Repetition must be done after forgetting

begins. Researchers advise that the learner should not

repeat immediately the content (or skill), but wait a few minutes and then repeat.

Specific examples of organization

Long Term Memory

Some properties of LTM:

• Capacity: Virtually unlimited

• Duration: Up to a lifetime

• Processing: Information is organized according to

meaning and is associatively linked.

• Encoding: semantic, visual and auditory

How we get information into LTM

Cont…

LTM and the Retrieval Process

How quickly and reliably we recall information depends on:

1.Activation: How long since we last used the information? ( summaries, taking lecture notes & outlines)

2. Strength: How well we have practiced it?3. organization, elaboration and rehearsal.

Why we Forget?

1. Making multiple connections with existing knowledge –

The more connections there are, the easier it will be to remember and retrieve the information at well.

2. Learning information to mastery -- The more we are able to master a piece of

information, the easier it is to recall it at well and the faster it becomes automatized.

Factors Affecting Retrieval

3. Using information frequently -- the more we use or do something, the better we get at it. Practice is always beneficial to learning and mastery of skills & knowledge. Frequent use eventually leads to automaticity. (Practice makes Perfect)

4. Having a relevant retrieval cue -- whatever we use to help us retrieve information must be relevant or we will have difficulty in retrieving.

Cont…

What are the implications for your study habits?

Strategies to Improve Reading Comprehension

• . The goal : Train learners not how to say words but how to get meaning out of them.

• Comprehension monitoring is a term applied to a host of strategies learners can use to derive meaning from what they read. Specific examples of comprehension strategies include:

• SQ3R(Robinson, 1946); • PQ4R (Thomas & Robinson, 1972 )

PQ4R Method

SQ3R

These comprehension strategies have in common the following skills:

1. Setting goals for reading: Learners learn to ask themselves “What do I have to do?” and “Why am I reading this story?”

2. Focusing attention: Learners learn to prompt themselves with questions such as “What am I supposed to do as I read?”

CONT…

3. Self-reinforcement: Learners learn to say to themselves “Great, I understand this. Keep up the good work,” or “This strategy really works.”

4. Coping with problems: When they encounter difficulties, learners learn to say to themselves “I don’t understand this. I should go back and read it again,” or “That’s a simple mistake. I can correct that.”

when you’re studying for an exam, you might refer to previous exam papers to find out what sort of questions have been asked in the past.

• This helps you to identify what information you will need to know.

• It also indicates what you will be asked to do with the memorised information.

Using the information processing approach in the classroom

PrincipleExamples1. Gain the students' attention.

Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin. Move around the room and use voice inflections

2.Bring to mind relevant prior learning.

Review previous day's lesson. Have a discussion about previously covered content.

3. Point out important information

Provide handouts. · Write on the board or use transparencies

4. Present information in an organized manner

Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills. Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.

PrincipleExamples

5.Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists.

Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method· Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list. ·

6.Provide for repetition of

learning.

· State important principles several times in different ways during

presentation of information (STM). Have items on each day's lesson from

previous lesson (LTM). Schedule periodic reviews of

previously learned concepts and skills (LTM).

7.Show students how to categorize (chunk) related information.

Present information in categories. Teach inductive reasoning

Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K Spence & J Spence (Eds.). The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.

http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6 http://www.google.com.eg/url?q=http://study.com/academy/le

sson/what-is-information-processing-definition-stages.html&sa=U&ei=Mq4dVZXLEYzyUOyogJAJ&ved=0CDAQFjAF&usg=AFQjCNHtF-Z2f76MPb4wLi8WNDW1F6mxvw