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7/30/2019 Info Tech New

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Pravin Jain

Introduction to Computers

By Pravin


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Nearly 5,000 years ago the abacus emerged in China. The

abacus may be considered the first computer.This device allowed its users to make computations using asystem of sliding beads arranged on a rack.

History of Computing


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In 1642, Blaise Pascal invented a numerical wheel calculator

to help his father with his duties. The Pascaline, a brassrectangular box, used eight movable dials to add sums up toeight figures long.



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In 1671, Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz invented a computer

(Stepped Reckoner) that was built in 1694. It could add andmultiply



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In 1820 Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar, invented a

machine that could perform the four basic mathematicfunctions add, subtract, multiply and divide. It was calledarithometer.



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The real beginnings of computers began with an Englishmathematics professor, Charles Babbage.

Powered by steam engine.

The Analytical Engine consisted of over 50,000 components.

The basic design of included input devices in the form of perforated cards containing operating instructions and astore for memory of 1,000 numbers of up to 50 decimaldigits long.



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In 1889, an American inventor, Herman Hollerith, created a

machine that used cards to store data information which wasfed into a machine and compiled the results mechanically.

Hollerith brought his punch card reader into the businessworld, founding Tabulating Machine Company in 1896, later to become International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924.



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In 1933, Howard H. Aiken, a

Harvard engineer workingwith IBM, succeeded in

producing an all-electroniccalculator called MARK I.

The computer was createdfor the U.S. Navy. It wasabout 50 feet long andcontained about 500 miles of wiring and 750000 parts.



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Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) wasthe first general-purpose computer, developed by John P.Eckert and John W. Mauchly

It consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5million soldered joints, and consumed 160 kilowatts of

electrical power.



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In 1945, John Von

Neumann proposed thedesign of a computer witha memory to hold both astored program as well as

data.The key element to the Von

Neumann architecture wasthe CPU, which allowed allcomputer functions to becoordinated through asingle source.

In 1949 EDVAC



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Maurice Wilkes and team developed, the EDSAC (ElectronicDelay Storage Automatic Computer), which was closely

based on the EDVAC.

The clock speed of the EDSAC was 500 kHz; mostinstructions take about 1500 ms to execute.

Its I/O was on paper tape, and a set of constant registers was provided for booting.



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In 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer),

built by Remington Rand, became one of the firstcommercially available computers. It uses machine or binarylanguage.



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Year Computer/Device

Inventor Type Remark

~5000BC

Abacus Chinese - First known calculationdevice

1642 Pascaline Blaiz Pascal Mechanical

Can add numbers upto 8digits

1671 Stepped

Reckoner

Gottfried Wilhelm

Von Leibniz

Mechanica

l

Can add and multiply.

Working model availablein 1694

1820 Arithometer Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar

Mechanical

could perform the four basic mathematicfunctions add, subtract,multiply and divide

1821 DifferenceEngine

Charles Babbage(Father of Computers)

Mechanical

Introduced the conceptof stored program andmemory in computers

Summary-Hsitory of Computers


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Year Computer/Device Inventor Type Remark

1933 MARK-I Howard H. Aiken Electronic about 50 feet long andcontained about 500miles of wiring and750000 parts

1946 Electronic NumericalIntegrator andComputer (ENIAC)

John P. Eckert andJohn W. Mauchly

Electronic First general-purposecomputer, Contain about18000 vacuum tubes

1949 Electronic Discrete

Variable AutomaticComputer ( EDVAC)

Eckert , Mauchly

and John von Neumann.

Electronic Concept of CPU was

first used in thiscomputer.

1949 Electronic Delay

Storage AutomaticComputer

Maurice Wilkes Electronic I/O was based upon

paper tape

Summary-Hsitory of Computers


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Generations of Computers


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Technology was based on the vacuum

tubes.These were very expensive and very bulkyin size.

They generated very large amount of heatthus required very heavy air conditioners.

These were very slow, their computationtime were in milliseconds.

They were very expensive and consumegreat amount of electricity.

They were very sensitive and often proneto hardware failure.

First Generation : 1940-1956


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Transistor technology based computing devices.

Size was very small as compared to first generationcomputers and was portable.

More reliable than first generation computers.

They were also heat generating and required air conditioning but amount of heat was quit less ascompared to first generation computers.

Requirement of electricity was less than firstgeneration computers.

Less expensive and required very little space.

Computation time was in microseconds.

Second Generation : 1956-1963


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They were integrated circuit (IC) technology based

computing devices.Size was very small as compared to all previous generationcomputers.

They were portable and more reliable.They were less heat generating but required air conditioningsometimes.

Requirement of electricity was less.

Less expensive and required very little space.

Computation time was reduced to nanoseconds.

Third Generation - 1963-1971


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They are microprocessor based computing devices.

Size is very small.

They were portable and more reliable.

They generates negligible amount of heat and

hardly requires air conditioning.

Requirement of electricity is very less.

These are cheapest and required very little space.

Computation time was reduces to nanoseconds.

Graphical user interface based multiuser and multitaskingo eratin s stem were made available for various com uters.

Fourth Generation : 1971 toPresent

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Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial

intelligence, are still in development.The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helpingto make artificial intelligence a reality.

The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devicesthat respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization. It includes

Games playing: programming computers to play games such aschess and checkers.

Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions inreal-life situations.

Natural Language: programming computers to understand

Fifth Generation : (1990 andbeyond)

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Computer Assisted Control & Automation

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A control system is a device or set of devices to manage,

command, direct or regulate the behavior of other devices or system.

Types of Control System:

Manual Control System

Automated Control System

Control Systems

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Manual Control System is the system where human

intervention is mandatory to perform a task or to control

the logic.

For example, to close and open a lock on a gate,perhaps including logic so that it cannot be opened or

closed unless the key is in place.

Manual Control Systems

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An automatic sequential control system may trigger a

series of mechanical operations in the correct sequence

to perform a task. For example various electric and

pneumatic transducers may fold and glue a cardboard

box, fill it with product and then seal it in an automatic

packaging machine.

Automatic Control Systems

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Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies to

reduce the need for human work in the production of goods and services.

Automation is a step beyond mechanization, whereas mechanization

provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular

requirements of work, automation greatly decreases the need for human

sensory and mental requirements as well.

Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in

daily experience.

Automation

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Applications of Automations

Automated video surveillance

Automated highway systems

Automated manufacturing

Home automation

Industrial automation

Automation

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The main advantages of automation are:

Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard

physical or monotonous work.

Replacing humans in tasks done in dangerous

environments (i.e. fire, space, volcanoes,

nuclear facilities, underwater, etc.)

Performing tasks that are beyond human capabilities

of size, weight, speed, endurance, etc.

Economy improvement: Automation may improve in

economy of enterprises, society or most of

humanity.

Advantages of Automations

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The main disadvantages of automation are:

Unemployment rate increases due to machines

replacing humans and putting those humans out

of their jobs.

Technical Limitation: Sometimes technology is unable

to automate all the desired tasks.

Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system

may have limited level of intelligence, hence it is

most likely to commit error.

Disadvantages of Automations

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The main disadvantages of automation are:

Unpredictable development costs : The research

and development cost of automating a process may

exceed the cost saved by the automation itself.

High initial cost : The automation of a new product or

plant requires a huge initial investment in comparison

with the unit cost of the product.

Disadvantages of Automations

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Computer ControlledBiometric/RFID based AccessControl

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It refers to the technology through which the access/use

of any object can be controlled by certain means.

A lock on a car door is essentially a form of access

control. A PIN on an ATM system at a bank is another

means of access control.

Access Control should be so strong that it could not be

accessed unauthorized.

Access Control

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security? Authentication (password/crypto/etc.)

Who are you? Authorization (Acess control)

What are you allowed to do.

Focus is policy

Enforcement Mechanism

How its policy implemented/enforced

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Night Club Example Authentication

ID Check Access Control

Over 18 - allowed in

Over 21 - allowed to drinkOn VIP List - allowed to access VIP area

Enforcement Mechanism

Walls, Doors, Locks, Bouncers

Pravin JainNight Club Example: More


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Pravin JainNight Club Example: MoreInteresting Phenomena

Tickets

Name or anonymous?

Date

What if you want to leave and come back

Hand stamp or bracelet

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There are three factors of authenticating information:

Something the user knows, e.g. a password or PIN Something the user has, such as smart card

Something the user is, such as verified by biometric

measurement (fingerprints, retinal scan, irisrecognition, voice recognition, hand geometry, etc.)

Features of Access Control

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Biometrics Access Control RFID Access Control

Types of Access Control

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It consist of methods for uniquely recognizing humans

based upon one or more intrinsic physical or behavioral

traits.

In computer science, in particular, biometrics is used as a

form of identity access management and access control.

It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are

under surveillance.

Biometrics Access Control

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Physiological Mode

Behavioral Mode

Biometrics Access ControlModes

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Physiological Mode

Physiological are related to the shape of the body.

Example includes

Fingerprint

Face recognition

DNA

Palm print

Hand geometry

iris recognition

Retina, etc.


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Behavioral Mode

Behavioral are related to the behavior of a person.

Example includes

Voice

Signature Dynamics, etc.


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Finger Print Technology

Fingerprint identification is the oldest of all the biometrictechniques.

It is the combination of hardware and softwaretechnologies.

The hardware scans the live fingerprints and softwarematches it with the stored database.

The live fingerprint readers are based on optical,thermal, silicon or ultrasonic principles.

All the optical fingerprint readers comprise of the sourceof light, the light sensor and a special reflection surfacethat changes the reflection according to the pressure.Some of the readers are fitted out with the processingand memory chips as well.

Biometrics Techniques

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Iris Recognition

The iris is the colored ring of textured tissue thatsurrounds the pupil of the eye. Even twins have differentiris patterns and everyones left and right iris is different,too.

Research shows that the matching accuracy of irisidentification is greater than of the DNA testing.

Each iris is a unique structure featuring a complexpattern. This can be a combination of specificcharacteristics known as corona, crypts, filaments,

freckles, pits, furrows, striations and rings.


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Bi i T h i


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Retina Scan

Retina scan is based on the blood vessel pattern in theretina of the eye. Retina scan technology is older thanthe iris scan technology that also uses a part of the eye.The first retinal scanning systems were launched byEyeDentify in 1985.

Retina is not directly visible and so a coherent infraredlight source is necessary to illuminate the retina. Theinfrared energy is absorbed faster by blood vessels inthe retina than by the surrounding tissue. The image of

the retina blood vessel pattern is then analyzed for characteristic points within the pattern.


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Hand Geometry

Hand geometry is based on the fact that nearly everypersons hand is shaped differently and that the shape of a persons hand does not change after certain age. Handgeometry systems produce estimates of certainmeasurements of the hand such as the length and thewidth of fingers. Various methods are used to measurethe hand. These methods are most commonly basedeither on mechanical or optical principle.


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Signature Dynamics

The signature dynamics recognition is based on thedynamics of making the signature, rather than a directcomparison of the signature itself afterwards. Thedynamics is measured as a means of the pressure,direction, acceleration and the length of the strokes,number of strokes and their duration.

This technique treats the signature as a number of separate events, with each event consisting of the periodbetween the pen striking the writing surface and lifting off again. This approach is much more flexible. If themajority of the signature is accurate and only one eventis missing or added then this event can be easilyignored.


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Bi i T h i


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Facial Recognition

Facial recognition is the most natural means of biometricidentification. Any camera (with a sufficient resolution) can be used to

obtain the image of the face. Any scanned picture can beused as well. The better the image source (i.e. camera or scanner) the more accurate results we get. The facialrecognition systems usually use only the gray-scaleinformation.

Most of facial recognition systems require the user tostand a specific distance away from the camera and lookstraight at the camera. This ensures that the capturedimage of the face is within a specific size tolerance andkeeps the features (e.g., the eyes) in as similar positioneach time as possible.


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RFID A C l


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It is a technology that uses radio waves to transfer data

from an electronic tag, called RFID tag or label, attached

to an object, through a reader for the purpose of

identifying and tracking the object.

Some RFID tags can be read from several meters away

and beyond the line of sight of the reader.

The application of bulk reading enables an almost-

parallel reading of tags.

RFID Access Control

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Ad t f RFID


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Tag detection not requiring human intervention reduces employment

costs and eliminates human errors from data collection As no line-of-sight is required, tag placement is less constrained

RFID tags have a longer read range than, e. g., barcodes

Tags can have read/write memory capability, while barcodes do not

Tags are less sensitive to adverse conditions (dust, chemicals,

physical damage etc.)

Many tags can be read simultaneously

Automatic reading at several places reduces time lags andinaccuracies in an inventory

Advantages of RFID

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Li it ti f RFID


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High Cost

Data Collision

Faulty manufacturing of Tags

Possible virus attack

Limitations of RFID

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