indian vegetable food report

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Nutritional attributes of Indian vegetables L J Hedges & C E Lister June 2008

A report prepared for Horticulture New Zealand

Copy 1 of 15

New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited Private Bag 4704, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand.

Contents

1 Executive summary 1

2 Introduction 3

3 Indian marrow (Lagenaria siceraria) 4 3.1 Composition 4 3.2 Health attributes 4

3.2.1 Antioxidant activity 4

4 Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula) 6 4.1 Composition 6 4.2 Health attributes 6

4.2.1 Antioxidant activity 6

5 Bitter melon (Momordica charantia) 7 5.1 Composition 7

5.1.1 Core nutrients 7 5.1.2 Phytochemicals 7

5.2 Health attributes 8 5.2.1 Antioxidant activity 8 5.2.2 Anti-diabetic effects 8 5.2.3 Weight control 9 5.2.4 Anti-cancer effects 10 5.2.5 Anti-inflammatory activity 10 5.2.6 HIV treatment side effects 10

5.3 Adverse effects 10 5.4 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels 11

6 Tindori (Coccinia grandis) 12

7 Cow peas (Vigna unguiculata) 13 7.1 Composition 13

7.1.1 Core nutrients 13 7.1.2 Phytochemicals 13 7.1.3 Fibre 14 7.1.4 Saponins 14 7.1.5 Antinutritional factors 14

7.2 Health benefits 15 7.2.1 Antioxidant activity 15 7.2.2 Cardio-protective effects 15 7.2.3 Anti-cancer effects 15 7.2.4 Anti-diabetic effects 16

7.3 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels 17

8 Snake beans (Vigna unguiculata sesquipedalis) 18 8.1 Composition 18

8.1.1 Core nutrients 18 8.1.2 Phytochemicals 18

8.2 Health attributes 18 8.2.1 Antioxidant acitivy 18

© 2008 New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited

9 Indian beans (Lablab purpureus syn. Dolichos lablab) 19 9.1 Composition 19

9.1.1 Core nutrients 19 9.1.2 Phytochemicals 19 9.1.3 Antinutritional factors 19 9.1.4 Antioxidant activity 19 9.1.5 Diabetes 20 9.1.6 Cholesterol absorption 20

9.2 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels 20 9.2.1 Cooking 20

10 Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan syn. Cajanus indicus) 21 10.1 Composition 21

10.1.1 Core nutrients 21 10.1.2 Phytochemicals 21 10.1.3 Antinutritional factors 21

10.2 Health attributes 22 10.2.1 Antioxidant activity 22 10.2.2 Anti-diabetic effects 22

10.3 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels 22 10.3.1 Cultivar 22 10.3.2 Processing methods 22

11 Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii) 24 11.1 Composition 24

11.1.1 Phytochemicals 24 11.2 Antinutritional factors 24 11.3 Health attributes 25

11.3.1 Antioxidant activity 25 11.3.2 Anti-cancer 25 11.3.3 Anti-diabetic activity 26 11.3.4 Antiatherogenic 26 11.3.5 Anti inflammatory 26

12 Taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta) 27 12.1 Composition 27

12.1.1 Core nutrients 27 12.1.2 Phytochemicals 27 12.1.3 Antinutritional factors 27

12.2 Health attributes 28 12.2.1 Antioxidant activity 28

12.3 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels 28

13 Conclusion 29

14 References 30

Appendices 38 Appendix I Macro and micronutrient composition of some Indian vegetables 39 Appendix II Major functions of main micronutrients contained in Indian vegetables 47

Appendix III Phytochemical constituents and ethnobotanical uses of some Indian vegetables 49

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291 Page 1

1 Executive summary This report was prepared as part of a project for Horticulture New Zealand. It describes the results of a literature review on key Indian vegetables available in New Zealand. These vegetables are defined and listed as `Indian veg’ in Horticulture New Zealand’s manual and on this organisation’s website.

This is a group of vegetables from diverse families, varying in nutritive value, their constituent core nutrients and phytochemicals, and health effects. As is the case with many less common vegetables, relatively little research has been carried out on them so far. Often also, the research that is available relates to matters that apply more to an undernourished, subsistence-level population in which issues such as protein quality and antinutritional factors are more important, but have little significance for the New Zealand population.

Key findings for the more important Indian vegetables are:

1. Indian marrow (Lagenaria siceraria) − This does not appear to be a particularly nutritious vegetable, with unexceptional levels of both core nutrients and phytochemicals. Similarly, it appears to have only low antioxidant activity.

2. Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula) − Another curcubit, ribbed gourd also appears to have relatively low levels of nutrients. It has not been widely studied, but only low levels of antioxidant activity have been measured to date.

3. Bitter melon (Momordica charantia) − Bitter melon has received considerably more research attention than the previous two vegetables, possibly on account of its importance in ethnobotanical medicine. It contains surprisingly high levels of vitamin C, but its main importance lies in its anti-diabetic activity. The compounds charantin, vicine, and polypeptide-p are thought to be the major hypoglycaemic agents. Although results appear promising, most research to date has only involved animals. Other health effects that have been investigated include weight control effects, anti-cancer effects, anti-inflammatory activity. Some adverse effects have been observed, particularly in children.

4. Tindori (Coccinia grandis) − Very little information was found on this vegetable.

5. Cow peas (Vigna unguiculata) − As with many legumes, the most studied aspect of cow peas has been their protein content and antinutritional components, which may affect protein absorption. In New Zealand, consumption of adequate amounts of protein is not a problem for most of the population and the antinutritional compounds are largely destroyed with cooking or processing.

Besides protein, cow peas contain insoluble and soluble fibre, which are important for bowel and heart health respectively. They also contain saponins, which too are believed to aid cardiovascular health by limiting cholesterol absorption. Together, their protein, complex carbohydrate and fibre content make them low glycaemic foods and so they may be useful in the management of diabetes.

6. Snake beans (Vigna unguiculata sesquipedalis) − Snake beans are a variety of cow peas, but are eaten as a pod rather than the seed. Although they have not been widely studied, high levels of vitamin C and folate have been measured.


7. Indian beans (Lablab purpureus syn. Dolichos lablab) − Another legume, like cow peas, Indian beans have been studied for their beneficial effects upon cholesterol. Their low glycaemic response may also make them a useful diabetic food. These can have differently coloured seed coats and it has generally been found that the more coloured seed coats contain higher levels of phenolics and have superior antioxidant activity.

8. Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan syn. Cajanus indicus) − Like other legumes, pigeon peas are extremely nourishing with a high protein content, complex carbohydrates and both soluble and insoluble dietary fibre. They are also a good source of minerals, including iron, magnesium, phosphorous potassium, zinc, copper and manganese and the vitamins thiamine, folate, B-6 and niacin. They too are likely to be good foods for the management of diabetes.

9. Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii) − Rather than being consumed as a vegetable, curry leaves are used more as a herb, adding a citrus-like flavour to curries and other dishes. Thus, they are not consumed in large quantities, so this plant’s contribution to the diet stems from its `little and often’ pattern of consumption. Highly regarded in ayurvedic medicine, it has been shown to have strong antioxidant activity, at levels similar to other herbs like thyme and rosemary. Despite its history as an ethnic remedy, it has not been widely studied, but has shown promising in anti-cancer and anti-diabetes studies in laboratory and animal trials.

10. Taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta) − Taro leaves are an extremely nutritious vegetable containing moderate to excellent levels of a range of micronutrients, including vitamins C, A precursors, E and B6, folate, riboflavin, niacin, thiamine and minerals such as magnesium, manganese, potassium, calcium, copper and iron. In addition, it provides both soluble and insoluble fibre and is low in calories. Despite their nutrient density, taro leaves have received little research attention.

To summarise, the vegetables in this report are diverse in many respects. They include leafy vegetables, seeds, pods, unusual members of the gourd family and herbs. Belonging to many different families, they range from low to high energy and similarly from low to high nutrient density. Just as they differ in nutrient value, so too do they in terms of health attributes and this is often, though not always, also reflected in the amount of research that they have been the subject of. Some, such as the anti-diabetic properties of bitter gourd, appear promising from research to date but it remains to be seen whether this early promise will be replicated in larger, well designed human trials. Others vegetables, such as taro leaf, are still waiting for their full nutritional worth to be acknowledged. Even those, like some of the gourds, may not be as nutritionally beneficial as others in this report, but still play an important dietary role in terms of providing fibre, low calorie bulk and in culinary terms act as a base or foil for stronger tasting ingredients.


2 Introduction This report covers a diverse group of vegetables, some gourds, some legumes, including both the pod (snake beans) and seeds, a plant that is more akin to a herb than a vegetable (curry leaf), and one leafy green vegetable in the form of taro leaf. Equally varied as their physical characteristics are their nutritional profiles and their health benefits. Unfortunately, however, being foods from developing countries, less research is available than if they were foods commonly consumed by developed nations. And whilst there may be an abundance of ethnic remedies associated with them, in most cases there has not yet been sufficient interest amongst researchers to investigate and document their qualities. Much of the research originates from Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent and also Africa. In these areas, because food is less abundant and less varied, many of these vegetables are staples. Since the population is therefore reliant on them to meet their basic nutritional needs, issues such as protein quantity and quality become important, whereas in developed countries, where there are abundant and varied sources of protein, this is not usually an issue.

In the countries where they are widely grown and consumed, more parts of the plant may be used than in New Zealand and they may have wider ranging uses. This report, however, is largely confined to the forms of the plant available in New Zealand.

A number of factors combine to determine the levels of both core nutrients and other phytochemicals in a food. These include not only the variety/cultivar of the plant, but also their agronomy – soils, cultivation protocols (irrigation, pest control, use of fertiliser), degree of ripeness at harvest, and processing practices (harvesting, storage, method of processing). In addition, their nutrient composition can be affected by the form in which the food was analysed – raw, fresh, canned, boiled, frozen – as well as analytical techniques used and variations between the laboratories doing the analysis. Thus, rather than being taken as absolute, these values should be considered indicative.

Because many of these vegetables are grown in different parts of the globe there can be a plethora of common names. This has complicated the data search process and it is possible that omissions have occurred if the botanical nomenclature has not been used.


3 Indian marrow (Lagenaria siceraria) Alternative names: lauki, white gourd, bottle gourd, calabash gourd

One of the many common names for Indian marrow is bottle gourd, an appropriate name that not only describes the shape, but also one of the many uses of this vegetable. When used for eating, it is harvested young and has a pale green skin with white flesh, but it can also be allowed to mature and when harvested dried, treated, and sometimes decorated for use as a container or as a musical instrument. It is thought to have originated in Asia, but its diverse uses have seen it spread to many parts of the world, including Africa, the Americas and the Pacific. In New Zealand, however, it is only used as a vegetable.

3.1 Composition

There is very little information available specifically on Indian marrow, though it has been included in a few comparative studies. Low levels of carotenoids and beta-carotene were measured by Kandlakunta et al. (2008) in a recent study of some common and some unusual Indian foods of plant origin (Table 1). This probably reflects the light pigmentation of this vegetable’s pale green skin.

Table 1: Total carotenoids and beta carotene content of selected Indian plant foods (Kandlakunta et al. 2008).

Moisture content

(g/100 g)

Total carotenoids (µg/100 g fresh

weight)

Beta carotene (µg/100 g fresh

weight)

Indian marrow 96.3 186 50

Ribbed gourd 95.3 991 324

Bitter melon 92.3 967 84

Indian beans 86.2 1910 554

Pigeon peas 13.4 1190 124

Cucumber 96.4 48 0

Cabbage 91.8 226 26

Tomato 93.5 3090 59

Green beans 87.5 1650 239

Capsicum 92.4 719 157

3.2 Health attributes

No scientific studies were found pertaining specifically to the health benefits of this vegetable. However, along with a detailed list of chemicals determined in various parts of this plant, ethnobotanical uses for the plant are included in Appendix lll.

3.2.1 Antioxidant activity

Epidemiological studies have shown that large intakes of fruit and vegetables protect against a range of chronic diseases and problems associated with ageing. This is often attributed to a high intake of phytochemicals with antioxidant activity because this is thought to be the mechanism underpinning many of these protective effects. There are different types of antioxidant activity, including radical scavenging, metal reducing and lipid protective properties.


Antioxidants deactivate free radicals and other oxidants, rendering them harmless. Free radicals are highly unstable molecules, present in the body both from external sources (e.g. pollution, smoking, carcinogens in the environment) and internal sources, the result of normal physiological processes. If left uncontrolled, free radicals can damage cell components, interfering with major life processes. For example, they may damage DNA, leading to cancer, or oxidise fats in the blood, contributing to atherosclerosis and heart disease. Although the body produces its own antioxidants and has other defence mechanisms, antioxidants from the diet may also have an important role.

As measured by Yang et al. (2006) below, Indian marrow does not rank particularly highly in the assays used. Although other studies have been published on some of these vegetables (e.g. Pellegrini et al. (2003)), it is not possible to compare them directly because different extractions have taken place. It is very common for compositional differences to occur and these can result from a host of variables, including inter-laboratory differences and methods (see Introduction). However, notwithstanding the differences in absolute values, it is useful to make comparisons within a study.

Table 2: Antioxidant activity measured by Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC µmol Trolox equivalent/g) and superoxide scavenging activity (SOS µmol ascorbate equivalent/g) in methanol (TEACm and SOSm) and water (TEACw and SOSw) extracts in some Indian vegetables from Yang et al. (2006). (On dry weight basis.)

TEACm TEACw SOSm SOSw

Indian marrow 32 10 NS 73

Bitter melon 77 19 40 96

Snake bean 110 20 45 96

Indian beans (purple) 64 26 192 130

Indian beans (white) 113 69 NS 90

Tindori 15 8 NS 96

Taro leaves 51 25 NS NS

Spinach 206 102 NS 639

Tomato 80 75 656 305

Pak choi 157 46 NS 187

Cucumber 41 7 NS 51

Cabbage 32 16 NS NS NS, not significant for SOS (<21 µmol ascorbate equivalent/g).


4 Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula) Alternative names: turia, ridged gourd

Ribbed gourd is another member of the Cucurbitaceae or squash family. As suggested by its names, its skin has pronounced ridges, not unlike an okra. Like courgettes, they are grown to be eaten before maturity. Ribbed gourd appears to have been little studied and there is a scarcity of information available. However, ethnobotanical uses have been listed in Appendix lll.

4.1 Composition

Comprehensive information has not been found on the composition of these vegetables, though it is likely that they are similar to courgette or cucumber. They have a high water content of 95.3% and lowish levels of carotenoids (Kandlakunta et al. 2008), most of which are likely to be present in the skin.


The only information on the nutritional attributes of this vegetable relates to its inclusion in a study of antioxidant activity in various Asian vegetables.


According to Tarwadi & Agte (2005), ribbed gourd ranked poorly in both the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and ferrous iron chelating ability (FICA) assays for antioxidant activity. Similarly it showed the lowest antioxidant activity of the extracts of the 5 Asian vegetables investigated by Ansari et al. (2005) using the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazil radical (DPPH) assay. A cold water maceration over 7 days showed no activity at all and although antioxidant activity improved in an extraction that involved heating under reflux, it was lower than in the other 4 vegetables and the control. However, in a study evaluating the carotene content of a variety of Indian plant-based foods, Kandlakunta et al. (2008) noted that ribbed gourd was one of the better sources of beta-carotene and carotenoids in general (Table 1), containing approximately 0.3 and 1.0 mg/100 g respectively, although these levels are much lower than in carotenoid-rich vegetables such as carrot.


5 Bitter melon (Momordica charantia) Alternative names: karela, fu quas, bitter melon, bitter gourd, balsam pear, bitter apple, bitter cucumber, African cucumber

A tropical plant, bitter melon is grown in India, south-east Asia, Africa and on a smaller scale in the Americas (Krawinkel & Keding 2006). Although various therapeutic qualities have been ascribed to it, it is most widely valued in traditional medicines as an anti-diabetic agent. Its importance in Ayurvedic medicine for diabetes as well as a host of other conditions has been documented from centuries ago and in different parts of the world. Although all parts of the plant have been used in herbal cures, and young shoots and leaves and flowers are consumed in some ethnic cuisines, this report is only concerned with the fruit.

As the name suggests, the fruit has an extremely bitter taste, which is due to the presence of a non-toxic alkaloid, momordicine. Before cooking the fruit is usually blanched or soaked in salt water to reduce bitterness (Krawinkel & Keding 2006).

5.1 Composition

5.1.1 Core nutrients

According to USDA data and using ANZFSA recommended dietary allowances (RDIs), these vegetables are surprisingly high in vitamin C (84 mg per 100 g fresh weight or 186% RDI), especially considering their very high water content at 94.03 g per 100 g (fresh weight). They are also good sources of folate (18% RDI) and copper (20−28% RDI). It should be noted, however, that levels of many nutrients vary, depending on where they were grown.

See Appendix I for full data from the USDA food composition database.

5.1.2 Phytochemicals

As with all plant foods, composition varies according to a number of variables, including variety. Measuring phenolic content in four Asian varieties, Horax et al. (2005) found variations of 27.7−53.37 mg chlorogenic acid equivalents (CAE)/g fresh weight (converted from dry matter according to USDA data). The main phenolic compounds were determined to be gallic acid, gentisic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin and epicatechin. A recent Thai study found relatively low levels of phenolics at 19.34 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g fresh weight (converted from dry matter according to USDA data). The major phenolic compounds identified in this study were gallic acid, followed by caffeic acid and catechin (Kubola & Siriamornpun 2008).

Kandlakunta et al. (2008) measured moderate levels of carotenoids in bitter melon (Table 1). However, total carotenoids in 38 accessions of bitter gourd measured by Dey et al. (2005) ranged from 0.205 to 3.2 mg/100 g fresh weight (1.6 mg/100 g average). Individual carotenoids listed in the USDA database per 100 g fresh weight are beta-carotene (190 mcg), alpha-carotene (185 mcg) and lutein/zeaxanthin (170 mcg), which are unexceptional compared with some other more strongly coloured vegetables like carrots or spinach.

The most researched health attribute of bitter melon has been its purported anti-diabetic activity. The compounds charantin, vicine, and polypeptide-p are thought to be the major hypoglycaemic agents according to a review by Krawinkel et al. (2006). In both animals and humans these compounds have been shown to increase glucose


uptake and glycogen synthesis in the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue, and improve glucose tolerance (Sloan-Kettering 2008). Polypeptide-p is an insulin-like protein, charantin is a mixture of two steroidal glycosides, namely, sitosteryl glucoside and stigmasteryl glucoside (Pitipanapong et al. 2007). Vicine is a glycosidic alkaloid, most notably found in broad beans (Vicia faba), and is linked to haemolytic anaemia or favism in people lacking the enzyme glucose-6-phospate-dehydrogenase. A favism-like syndrome adverse effect has been reported (Basch et al. 2003).



Antioxidant activity of bitter melon has been measured in a number of different studies. Using a less common method involving the oxidising of linoleic acid methyl in the presence of phenolic extracts as antioxidants, Horax et al. (2005) found that bitter melon extracts had moderate to good inhibition effects on oxidation in comparison to 92 edible and inedible plant materials evaluated by Kahkonen et al. (1999). According to Yang et al. (2007) (Table 2), bitter melon does not rate particularly highly. Lang & Ke (2006) similarly found unexceptional levels of antioxidant activity in bitter melons, placing them in a low antioxidant activity group according to the TEAC assay. However, Tarwardi & Agte (2005) rated antioxidant activity as measured by the TBARS assay as `good’ in comparison with 26 other Indian plant foods, including popular fruits and vegetables such as guava, spinach, yam, ginger and beetroot, and also less common ones like bael (Aegle marmelos) and kokum (Garcinia indica).

5.2.2 Anti-diabetic effects

Both traditional ayurvedic uses and most recent scientific interest regarding bitter melon has focused upon anti-diabetic activity. Research suggests that bitter melon’s anti-diabetic properties are the result of multiple mechanisms, including the capacity to regulate impaired carbohydrate digestion, glucose metabolism and utilisation, and the ability to stimulate insulin release. Further it has been found to possesses insulin-like activities and correct compromised antioxidant defence in diabetes (Yeh et al. 2003; Tiwari 2007).

Whilst there have been a large number of animal studies in this area there appear to have been few human studies. The majority of these were completed decades ago and were small in scale and lacked credibility in terms of study design. Positive effects on short-term blood glucose response and longer term glycaemic control were observed, however, and no adverse effects reported (Yeh et al. 2003). Whilst results appear to be promising there have not yet been any larger, double blind, randomised, placebo- controlled trials.

A more recent pilot study involving 60 male non insulin-dependent diabetics investigated the effect of daily supplementation of both raw (as an encapsulated powder) and cooked (in salty biscuits) forms. Over the 3-month course of the trial, fasting and postprandial glucose levels were significantly reduced and reductions in hypoglycaemic drug intake were possible. It was concluded that 2 g of the powdered mixture of traditional medicinal plants (containing jamun seeds and fenugreek seeds in addition to bitter melon seeds) in either raw or cooked form could lower blood glucose in diabetics (Kochhar & Nagi 2005). A review by Tiwari (2007) describes a Bangladeshi study of 100 non-insulin dependent diabetes patients whose serum and fasting glucose levels showed a significant reduction after consumption of an aqueous homogenised suspension of bitter melon.


Krawinkel & Keding (2006) cites three human studies using bitter melon. In one study of diabetic subjects, consumption of fresh bitter melon juice significantly reduced plasma glucose levels and improved response to an oral glucose load (Njoroge & van Luijk 2004). Another trial demonstrated that an aqueous extract had a cumulative and gradual blood sugar lowering effect on diabetic subjects, though a different study showed the effect to be rapid and transitory (Njoroge & van Luijk 2004). An early study showed bitter melon extract resulted in improved glucose homeostasis as well as the retardation of diabetic cataracts (Srivastava et al. 1988, cited in Krawinkel & Keding (2006). A powdered mixture of three medicinal plants including bitter gourd, jamun seeds and fenugreek seeds lowered blood glucose in a study group of 60 non insulin- dependent men, to the extent that a reduction in hypoglycaemic medication even was possible after the 3-month trial (Kochhar & Nagi 2005). Of course the extent to which the bitter gourd component was responsible is unknown.

In their review, Yeh et al. (2003) assessed the evidence supporting the anti-diabetic properties of bitter melon as Level-III C, meaning that whilst there was supporting evidence this had resulted from poorly controlled or uncontrolled trials that, therefore, lacked the credibility of better designed studies.

Besides the human studies there is a reasonably large body of research from animal trials. Chandra et al. (2007) found that consumption of extracts from a number of Indian herbal remedies, including bitter melon, significantly lowered blood sugar in diabetic rats as well as exerting an antioxidant effect in terms of inhibiting lipid peroxidation and reactivating the endogenous antioxidant enzymes, catalase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidise and superoxide dismutase. In a review of the anti-hyperglycaemic properties of bitter gourd. Krawinkel & Keding (2006) cited 17 animal studies, the majority of which showed anti-diabetic properties, including blood glucose lowering effects of various forms of bitter gourd, such as juice or powdered (e.g. Kar et al. 2000; Ahmed et al. 2001; Chaturvedi 2005; Sathishsekar & Subramanian 2005). The blood glucose and Hb-Aa-c lowering effects of juice were found to be better than those of dried fruit products (Basch et al. 2003, cited in Krawinkel & Keding 2006), but fresh fruit extracts and acetone extracts of fresh fruit powder were also effective (Singh et al. 1989 cited in Krawinkel & Keding 2006) . Besides lowering blood glucose, beneficial effects upon antioxidant status, triglyceride and low density lipoprotein status, glucose uptake in the jejunum and skeletal muscle cells, gastric transit time, serum insulin levels, the occurrence of polyuria, renal hypertrophy and diabetes-induced conditions in the kidneys and brain were observed (Krawinkel & Keding 2006). Protein (which is believed to be the bioactive fraction responsible for the anti-diabetic activity of bitter melon (see Section 5.2.2)) extracted from fruit pulp decreased plasma glucose in diabetic and normal rats (Yibchok-Anun et al. 2006). In one rat study, in contrast, a beneficial effect on hypoglycaemia after consumption of fresh juice as a single dose was not observed (Platel & Srinivasan 2004). In a rabbit study, ingestion of bitter melon juice reduced blood glucose in alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits within 1 hour, the effect lasting 4−6 hours. It had no effect upon normal rabbits, but increased blood sugar levels in animals with low blood sugar (Khan 1999).

5.2.3 Weight control

Besides other anti-diabetic effects, including lowering serum insulin and normalising glucose tolerance, animal studies have also investigated the prevention of obesity using bitter melon. In a study where rats were fed a high fat diet, with or without a bitter melon juice supplement, the rats consuming the supplement gained less weight and tended to have less visceral fat than rats on the same diet without the bitter melon juice.


Improved insulin resistance, lowered serum insulin and leptin but raised serum free fatty acid concentrations were also observed (Chen et al. 2003). A subsequent study explored this further and observed that chronic supplementation with the extract lowered energy efficiency, visceral fat mass, plasma glucose and hepatic triacylglycerol, but increased serum free fatty acids and plasma catecholamines (Chen & Li 2005). Seeking to understand this better, Chan et al. (2005) investigated the effect of bitter melon juice on mitochondrial lipid oxidative enzymes as well as on the expression of uncoupling proteins. The authors concluded that the reduction of adiposity in the supplemented rats was likely to result from lower metabolic efficiency, a consequence of increased lipid oxidation and mitochondrial uncoupling. A similar lipid-lowering effect of a bitter melon supplement in hamsters was noted by Senanayake et al. (2004).

5.2.4 Anti-cancer effects

A study investigating the effects of a number of traditional medicines or supplements with postulated anti-cancer effects examined the antiproliferative effects of bitter melon extract on various cancer lines. Although bitter melon extract was effective against the PC-3M prostate cancer cell line, it was less effective than other extracts against LCNaP prostate cancer cells and BG-9 normal skin fibroblasts (Rao et al. 2004). An earlier report similarly investigated anti-proliferative effects of a number of vegetables, including eggplant, green pepper, cabbage, Garland chrysanthemum, kidney beans, cucumber and Welsh onion, and found bitter melon to be the most effective in terms of growth-inhibition and apoptosis-inducing effects on HL60 human leukaemia cells. The bitter melon extract also inhibited growth and induced apoptosis in B16 mouse melanoma 4A5 cells, but inhibited the growth of BALBc/3T3 mouse fibroblast cells only to a small extent (Kobori 2003).

In a study with a slightly different focus, De et al. (2003) investigated the DNA-protective effect of fresh bitter gourd juice, tomato juice, quercetin and alpha tocopherol from carcinogen-induced damage. Although both juices were effective in protecting against DNA damage they were less so than quercetin or alpha-tocopherol.

5.2.5 Anti-inflammatory activity

Because inflammation is now thought to be involved in the initiation of a number of health issues, including cancer, the anti-inflammatory activity of a food or chemical is of increasing research interest. In a cell-based and animal study, Manabe et al. (2003) found that bitter melon induced both intestinal and systemic anti-inflammatory responses.

5.2.6 HIV treatment side effects

A cell-based study into alternative dietary strategies for decreasing hyperlipidaemia in HIV patients showed beneficial effects of bitter melon juice in decreasing HIV-1 protease inhibitor-treated human hepatoma cells (Nerurkar et al. 2006).

5.3 Adverse effects

Adverse effects of eating bitter gourd and drinking bitter melon tea have been observed in children, including hypoglycaemic coma and convulsion (Heiser 1979; Raman & Lau 1996 cited in Krawinkel & Keding 2006), though unfortunately information on the quantities involved is not available. Headaches have been observed after eating bitter


melon seeds, and favism symptoms and reduced fertility in mice have also been reported (Krawinkel & Keding 2006; Tiwari 2007). Pregnant women are also advised against consuming bitter melon because of a risk of inducing miscarriage (Sloan-Kettering 2008).

Bitter melon capsules or tablets are now available commercially internationally and are promoted for their anti-diabetic properties, but Diabetes UK has warned against their use on the grounds that their effect in conjunction with other anti-diabetic agents is as yet unknown and other bioactive compounds may be present whose effect is unknown (Krawinkel & Keding 2006).

5.4 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels

A few studies have investigated various factors that could affect the health benefits delivered by bitter melon. These include:

differences in cultivar. Vitamin C in 38 accessions of bitter melon measured by Dey et al. (2005) varied from 60.20 to 122.07 mg/100 g (average 82.14 mg per 100 g) on a fresh weight basis. Four varieties of bitter melon (India green, India white, China green and China white) were analysed for total phenolics, phenolic acid constituents, and antioxidant activities of their methanolic extracts. In this study there was no statistically significant difference in the antioxidant activities of the extracts among varieties or between drying methods (oven or freeze dried) (Horax et al. 2005). Total phenolic contents varied both within cultivars and between cultivars: India green 4.64−6.84, India white, 6.03−8.94, China green 5.39−7.81 and China white 6.07−8.90 mg CAE (chlorogenic acid equivalents)/g. Thus, the `white’ cultivars appeared to be richer in phenolics than the `green’;

part of plant. Phenolic contents of bitter melon seed, inner tissues, and flesh ranged from 4.67 to 8.02, 4.64 to 8.94 and 5.36 to 8.90 mg CAE/g, respectively, with the flesh (the tissue beneath the skin as opposed to that surrounding the seeds i.e. ’inner tissues’) containing the highest levels (Horax et al. 2005);

degree of maturity at harvest. One variety of bitter melon was shown to contain higher levels of vitamin C when the fruit was harvested at an early stage (8 days after fruit set) rather than late (12 days after fruit set (Pal et al. 2005)).


6 Tindori (Coccinia grandis) Alternative names: Coccinia indica, Coccinia cordifolia, tindora, ivy gourd

Very little information is available on this vegetable and most studies focus on the leaves rather than fruits, which are purported to have anti-diabetic properties. It is not found on either the New Zealand or USDA food composition database.

However, according to Yang et al. (2006) it has only low antioxidant activity (Table 2). The water extract showed similar superoxide scavenging capacity as the other vegetables in this report, but other values were very low.

One study showed a protective effect of tindori extracts against induced liver damage in rats according to a range of parameters, including pentobarbitone sleeping time and biochemical parameters like serum alanine transaminase, aspirate transiminase, serum allkalin phosphate, serum acid, phosphate, serum bilirubin, serum cholesterol and serum triglycerides (Rao et al. 2005).


7 Cow peas (Vigna unguiculata) Alternative names: black-eyed pea, chori

Cow peas are an extremely valuable crop in many poorer areas of the tropics, but like many pulses are less well known here. There are four subspecies of Vigna unguiculata, which include black-eyed peas (Vigna unguiculata unguiculata), and snake beans (Vigna ungiuculata sesquipedalis). Snake beans, because they are consumed in this country for their pods rather than seeds, are dealt with separately below.

The vast majority of research to do with these vegetables relates either to protein quality or to the presence of antinutritional factors. Both are important when legumes are a staple and thus a primary source of nourishment or when used as animal fodder. In New Zealand these factors are less important. As in most developed countries, diets generally have more than adequate amounts of protein as well as a range of essential amino acids. Although legumes such as cow peas lack the essential sulphur-containing amino acids, these deficiencies are counteracted by the consumption of other sources of protein, such as meat, dairy and cereals. Antinutritional factors are also less important as most are destroyed in processing before consumption. Interestingly, more recent research is discovering that some compounds, such as saponins, which previously considered solely antinutritional, were may actually also have a nutritionally beneficial role, particularly in terms of protecting against heart disease. Also, many plant-based foods, including legumes, cereals and some vegetables such as spinach, contain antinutritional components but these are generally counterbalanced by health-enhancing compounds (Siddhuraju & Becker 2007).

Most research on legumes has focused on soy, and although some findings are likely to be relevant, it is difficult to ascertain the extent of this until this legume has received more research attention.

7.1 Composition


It has been difficult to find comprehensive information on the composition of cow peas. However, it is known that they are a good source of protein, complex carbohydrates and fibre (Phillips et al. 2003; Amjad et al. 2006; Olivera-Castillo et al. 2007) and like other legumes are likely also to provide vitamins such as folate, thiamine and riboflavin (Phillips et al. 2003) and minerals potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, calcium, copper, iron and zinc (Amjad et al. 2006). In keeping with other legumes, the amount of vitamin C measured by Oboh (2007) was negligible at 0.5−0.9 mg/100 g.


There has similarly been relatively little research on the phytochemical content of cow peas. However, Wu et al. (2004) have established that they contain levels of phenolic compounds that are moderately high in terms of other vegetables (6.47 mg GAE/g), though toward the lower end of the scale in comparison with other dry pulses. Tannins (particularly in the seed coat), and phenolic acids (protocatechuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, 2,4-dimethoxybenzoic, cinnamic, gallic, vanillic, p-hydroxybenzoic and protocatechuic) have also been identified (Cai et al. 2003; Duenas et al. 2005; Siddhuraju & Becker 2007). Myricetin and quercetin glycosides flavonols were also reported by Duenas et al. (2005).


7.1.3 Fibre

Cow peas also contain both soluble and insoluble fibre (Kahlon & Shao 2004; Martín-Cabrejas et al. 2008). Insoluble fibre, or roughage, is believed to be important in maintaining bowel health. Although it is insoluble in water, it has water-attracting properties, which help assist stool bulking and reduce the transit time through the gut. It is thus important in preventing constipation and conditions like diverticulitis and bowel cancer.

Soluble fibre is not as readily identifiable as fibre as is insoluble fibre. It includes compounds like gums, pectins, inulin and the oligosaccharides (compounds containing 3−10 sugar molecules) that are present in many legumes. Soluble fibre is also thought to help with bowel health, particularly in protecting against bowel cancer. Because these compounds cannot be digested, they pass to the colon where they are fermented by colonic bacteria. During the fermentation process, short chain fatty acids (SCFA) are produced together with gases. The latter are responsible for the flatulence that frequently arises from consumption of foods containing these compounds. SFAs are thought to have various beneficial effects, providing protection against various diseases of the colon, including cancer, and lowering colonic pH, so preventing the transformation of primary bile acids to co-carcinogenic secondary bile acids. In addition, soluble fibre appears to benefit the cardiovascular system by lowering cholesterol and blood pressure. Because it swells in the gut, it also delays stomach emptying. This has a positive effect upon glycaemic response, which is important for diabetes management as well as for weight control, as it gives a feeling of satiety.

7.1.4 Saponins

Saponins are also present in legumes and in the past were considered to be antinutritional, but more recently have been found to have positive health benefits as well. They were observed in cow peas by Sinha et al. (2005), with levels differing considerably according to variety.

Saponins are a diverse group of biologically active glycosides, widely distributed in the plant kingdom (Curl et al. 1985). They are divided into three main groups, triterpenoids, basic terpenes and steroid saponins (Lister 2003). Structurally they comprise a carbohydrate portion attached to an aglycone base as above. Named for their ability to form stable, soap-like solutions with water, they often have a bitter or astringent taste.

Saponins are heat sensitive and water soluble (Shi et al. 2004), so short cooking times with minimal water enables maximum retention of these compounds. Although some saponins have also been shown to have antinutritive effects, including haemolytic, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and cytotoxic activity (Sparg et al. 2004), there appears to be no evidence of any harmful effects of cow pea saponins in humans.

7.1.5 Antinutritional factors

A great deal of research into legumes relates to the compounds they commonly contain, which can have negative effects on human or animal health. These include trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, phytates, oligosaccharides and saponins, which can compromise protein and mineral absorption and cause flatulence and indigestion. Trypsin inhibitors were observed in cow peas by Sinha et al. (2005), with levels varying according to variety.


Oxalates, which too can compromise the absorption of important minerals such as calcium and iron, have also been found in cow peas (Faboya & Aku 1996). At 2.0−2.9%, the phytate content of cow peas in a Nigerian study was considered to be high (Oboh 2007).

7.2 Health benefits

Legumes have been long valued for their macro and micro nutrient content, particularly their high levels of protein and complex carbohydrate content. More recently, other compounds such as fibre, flavonoids (particularly the anthocyanins in coloured seeds and isoflavones in soy) and saponins have received scientific interest.


In a comprehensive study of the antioxidant activity of a multitude of foods, Wu et al. (2004) measured total antioxidant capacity of cow peas at 43.43 µmol trolox equivalent (TE)/g (dried bean) according to the ORAC assay. Although this was high in comparison with other vegetables in the study, this is partly accounted for by the fact that compounds are more concentrated in dry material than in fresh. A more meaningful comparison is thus with other legumes, which were also dried and collectively measured to be in the range of 24−149 µmol TE/g, with cow peas towards the lower end. This study measured the activity of the hydrophilic fraction separately from the lipophilic fraction, with the lipophilic accounting for the greater amount (37.07 µmol TE/g) compared with hydrophilic (6.36 µmol TE/g).

A Nigerian study of five varieties of cow peas, two of pigeon peas and one of African yam bean found very low levels of reducing power and free radical scavenging ability for all legumes except African yam beans (23.6%), brown cowpeas (29.9%), and brown pigeon peas (54.5%), which all had a relatively high free radical scavenging ability, using the DPPH assay. The phenolic content of cow peas (which often accounts for much of the antioxidant activity) was determined to be 0.3−1.0 mg/g, (dry weight) tannic acid equivalents. Nzaramba et al. (2005) found that the seeds with the most highly pigmented seed coats (the location of the highest concentrations of phenolics) had the usually highest levels of antioxidant activity. However, Siddhuraju & Becker (2007) found that superoxide ion scavenging varied with variety, not necessarily depending on seed coat colour.

7.2.2 Cardio-protective effects

Epidemiological studies have linked frequent consumption of legumes with a lower incidence of heart disease. One factor in this may be the lowering of cholesterol through the binding of bile acids. Bile acids are synthesised in the liver from cholesterol. However, if they are bound to other food components, such as fibre, they are more readily excreted, thus requiring further synthesis from circulation cholesterol and removing it from the blood. An in vitro study comparing the bile-acid binding capacity of four legumes showed that whilst chick peas were particularly effective, both cow peas and lima beans were effective also, and more so than soy (Kahlon & Shao 2004).

7.2.3 Anti-cancer effects

As already mentioned, cow peas contain good amounts of both soluble and insoluble fibre. Fibre is believed to have a range of beneficial effects, including anti-cancer, cardioprotective and anti-diabetic properties.


Insoluble fibre

For many years, the term `fibre’ referred to only to what is now known as insoluble fibre or, colloquially, roughage. Although it is insoluble in water, it has water-attracting properties that assist stool bulking and reduce the transit time through the gut. It is thus important in preventing constipation and conditions like diverticulitis and bowel cancer.

Soluble fibre

Soluble fibre is not as readily identifiable as fibre as is insoluble fibre. It includes compounds like gums, pectins, inulin and the oligosaccharides (compounds containing 3−10 sugar molecules) that are present in many legumes. Because these compounds cannot be digested, they pass to the colon where they are fermented by colonic bacteria. During the fermentation process, short chain fatty acids (SCFA) are produced together with gases. The latter are responsible for the flatulence that frequently arises from the consumption of foods containing these compounds. SCFAs are thought to have several beneficial effects, including providing energy for colonic mucosa, protection against various diseases of the colon, including cancer, and lowering colonic pH, so preventing the transformation of primary bile acids to co-carcinogenic secondary bile acids. Some soluble fibre, particularly that which is viscous, also inhibits cholesterol absorption and reduces blood glucose response (Ekvall et al. 2006).

The viscous kinds of fibre, such as pectins, some gums, mucilages and β-glucans, form gels in water and it is this property that explains why some fibres have been shown to slow stomach emptying, delay absorption of some nutrients and reduce cholesterol. Although there have been several trials using dried legumes, which have shown beneficial effects upon cholesterol (Anderson & Major 2002), there appears to be little material relating specifically to cow peas. In addition to fibre, several of the other compounds present in legumes may also assist in this hypocholesterolaemic effect, including, in order of importance, vegetable protein, oligosaccharides, isoflavones, phospholipids and fatty acids and saponins (Anderson & Major 2002). Besides lowering cholesterol, consumption of pulses may also reduce risk for cardiovascular disease by lowering blood pressure (Anderson & Major 2002).

Although no human studies were found relating to anti-cancer effects of cow peas, one animal study examined their effect on bowel cancer. A protective effect of consuming cow peas was shown with fewer incidences of aberrant crypt foci (preneoplastic markers) in the colon of treated rats in comparison with that of controls (Boateng et al. 2007).


Legumes in general have been shown to have low glycaemic index and thus be good foods for people suffering from diabetes. A small human trial (n=10) over 8 weeks, involving mildly insulin-resistant adults showed a significant plasma glucose-lowering effect attributable to a daily intake of ½ cup of cow peas (Hutchins et al. 2006). A subsequent study examined the effects of ½ and 1 cup cow peas on glycaemic response to a high glycaemic index meal and found that consumption of cow peas reduced glycaemic response (Hutchins et al. 2007). In contrast, although using normoglycaemic adults, Winham et al. (2007) observed no significant effect of consumption of ½ or 1 cup amounts of cow peas upon glycaemic response.


7.3 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels Variety. Variations in protein quality, proximate composition and sensory

attributes in assorted breeding lines of cow pea were found by Giami (2005b). As already mentioned, Nzaramba et al. (2005) found different levels of antioxidant activity in varieties with differently coloured seed coats, finding that black and red seed coats showed higher antioxidant activity than cream-coated seeds. Similarly, four popular West African cow pea cultivars with different seed coat colours were also found to have wide variations in viscosity and tannin content when made into a paste for processing-properties that increased with seed coat colour intensity (Plahar et al. 1997). Significant differences according to variety were observed in saponin content and trypsin inhibitor activity in five varieties of cow peas by Sinha et al. (2005).

Processing/cooking. Cooking was found to have both desirable and undesirable effects. Cooking (open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient Eco Cooker (non-isothermal heating process) reduced folic acid (Nisha et al. 2005) and thiamine (pressure cooking) (Khatoon & Prakash 2004). Roasting improved digestibility (Plahar et al. 1997), as did pressure cooking (Khatoon & Prakash 2004; Sinha et al. 2005). Pressure cooking reduced typsin inhibitors and saponins more than open pan cooking (Sinha et al. 2005). Dehulling removed tannins and cooking lowered the levels of trypsin inhibitors (Egounlety & Aworh 2003). Boiling was shown to be more effective than steaming for reducing the levels of antinutrients and improving the protein quality of the seeds, as shown by the higher values for weight gain, protein-efficiency ratio, net protein ratio and true digestibility of the boiled samples (Giami 2005a).

Germination. It was shown that flour made from seeds that had been allowed to germinate over 24 hours had significantly reduced antinutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors and haemaglutin as well as the oligosaccharide, stachyose, which causes flatulence (Uwaegbute et al. 2000).

Soaking. Soaking of five varieties of dry seeds for 18 hours resulted in 34 and 23% reductions in the saponin content and trypsin inhibitor activity respectively. Amounts removed were higher with longer periods of soaking (Sinha et al. 2005).

Maturity. The activity of trypsin inhibitory compounds in immature seeds was markedly lower than that in mature cow pea seeds (Lima et al. 2004).


8 Snake beans (Vigna unguiculata sesquipedalis) Alternative names: yard long bean, Chinese bean, long podded cow pea

As evident from their botanical name, snake beans are the same species as cow peas, but a different subspecies, and are generally eaten as an immature pod. Although only distantly related to the common bean, it is used in similar ways, rather than for its seeds. There are two varieties, a light green and dark green (Wikipedia 2008). They are usually harvested when 30−50 cm long.

8.1 Composition


These vegetables do not appear in the main food composition databases, but limited information was found in a relatively old paper. High levels of vitamin C were measured by Wills et al. (1984) and a more recent paper also found significant amounts of total folate at 130 µg/100 g (fresh weight basis) in Fiji-grown vegetables (Devi et al. 2008). Also present at low, but useful levels were thiamin, niacin, magnesium, potassium and iron. Snake beans also contained some fibre and were low in calories (Wills et al. 1984).


Little information has been found on phytochemicals present in these vegetables. Wills et al. (1984) found a moderate amount of β-carotene at 450 µg/100 g fresh weight and low levels of α-carotene (25 µg) and cryptoxanthin (35 µg). It is likely, though not certain until verified by formal analysis, that snake beans contain similar compounds to those found in green beans, which include good amounts of lutein and zeaxanthin, chlorophyll and the flavonoids quercetin and kaempferol.


There is a dearth of information on this subject. However, insofar as it is likely that they contain similar compounds to those in green beans, they may contain lutein and zeaxanthin, which are thought to be important, particularly for eye health.


Yang et al. (2006) measured only modest levels of antioxidant activity compared with other plants in the study, but snake beans was one of the better Indian vegetables.


9 Indian beans (Lablab purpureus syn. Dolichos lablab) Alternative names: papadi, hyacinth bean

This vegetable can be used rather like green peas − podded if seeds are immature, or as a pod, like snow peas. Whilst their botanical name suggests they are purple, and there are varieties with fragrant purple flowers, striking purple seed pods and dark seeds, some cultivars are white-flowered with pale green pods. A number of internet sources state that the pods and seeds are poisonous if eaten raw (particularly the purple variety) and recommend prolonged boiling and changing the water several times before consumption.

9.1 Composition


When they are dry, beans are concentrated sources of nutrients. Because they do not contain much water, the energy they provide is higher than in most other vegetables. However, along with the energy are high levels of many nutrients, particularly minerals magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, potassium and phosphorous and the B vitamin, thiamin (USDA 2007). On the basis that a serving size of dry beans is likely to be around ¼ cup or 50 g, the amount of nutrients they deliver is high. In addition, beans provide energy in a particularly sustaining form, being mostly complex carbohydrates or protein. This is important in terms of satiety and in maintaining a consistent blood glucose level.

See Appendix I for full data from the UDSA food composition database.


Kandlakunta et al. (2008) found moderate levels of carotenoids in Indian beans (Table 1), though whether these were the purple or white cultivar is not known. It is also not clear whether the analysis took place on the whole pods or just the seeds.


Seeds of three Asian legumes, including Indian bean, were found to contain relatively high levels of phytate phosphorus, an antinutritional compound, which compromises mineral absorption. Among the legumes investigated, Indian bean also had the highest trypsin inhibitor activity (preventing the metabolism of protein), ranging from 14 to 27 units/mg sample for four accessions (Laurena et al. 1994). As mentioned earlier, however, soaking and adequate cooking markedly reduces levels of these health attributes.


Yang et al. (2006) measured antioxidant activity in two varieties of Indian bean. Whilst the purple variety showed reasonable activity according to the SOS assay, it was relatively low according to the TEAC assay. The reverse was true for the white cultivar. Although they were higher than most of the other vegetables in this report, they were either close to or below the overall means. The exception was the methanolic extract of the white cultivar, using the TEAC assay, which was nearly double that of the mean (Table 2 in Yang et al. 2006).


9.1.5 Diabetes

A study investigating the anti-diabetic effects of Indian beans showed a low glycaemic response both in vitro and in vivo. Their low post prandial glucose response and slow starch digestibility suggest that they could be ideal foods for diabetics (Fatima & Kapoor 2006).

9.1.6 Cholesterol absorption

Chau & Cheng (1999) investigated the effects of insoluble dietary fibre prepared from three common legumes, including Indian beans, on cholesterol absorption in hamsters. Compared to the control (cellulose) diet, all three diets significantly lowered the levels of serum LDL cholesterol as well as liver cholesterol. Only the Indian bean fibre diet led to a higher level of HDL cholesterol relative to the control. An earlier study had examined the effect of protein concentrates on lowering cholesterol in hamsters. Compared with the casein control, the protein concentrates of all three legumes lowered levels of triglyceride and total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the blood serum as well as liver total lipids and cholesterol contents (Chau et al. 1998)

Flour made from germinated seeds was shown to moderate the hypercholesterolemic effects of a high cholesterol diet to some extent in a rat model. The authors postulated that this was the result of the high fibre levels combined with high levels of vitamin C as a result of the germinating process (Vadde et al. 2007).


9.2.1 Cooking

Indian beans and seven other legumes were analysed for nutrient composition after cooking under pressure or in a microwave oven. Cooking methods did not affect the nutrient composition of legumes, although thiamin was lower in cooked samples compared with the raw controls. Cooking also altered the dietary fibre content of some legumes. Both starch and protein digestibilities of pressure-cooked samples were higher than of microwaved samples (Khatoon & Prakash 2004).


10 Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan syn. Cajanus indicus) Alternative names: toover, red gram

Pigeon peas are a widely cultivated crop in tropical and semi tropical regions of the world. As foods, they are used fresh and dried and are powdered into flour, but the plant is also useful as animal fodder. The plant can grow to the size of a small tree, be annual or perennial, and is very drought resistant.

Most published research relates again to issues around protein, digestibility and antinutritional factors.

10.1 Composition


Like other legumes, pigeon peas are extremely nourishing. Besides their high protein content, they also contain excellent levels of a range of minerals, including iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, copper and manganese. They are also a good source of thiamine, folate, vitamin B-6 and niacin. In addition, they supply complex carbohydrates and both soluble and insoluble dietary fibre.

Although it is not stated, judging by the water content, the information available on FOODFiles appears to refer to mature dried peas, rather than fresh.

See Appendix I for full data from the New Zealand FOODFiles database.


No information has been found specifically on the phytochemicals present in pigeon peas, but it is likely that they will be somewhat similar to other legumes. Brown pigeon peas were shown by Oboh (2007) to have the highest levels of phenolics (1.2 mg/g tannic acid equivalent) out of five varieties of cow peas, African yam peas and two varieties of pigeon peas. Phenolics in white pigeon peas were significantly lower at 0.4 mg/g tannic acid equivalents. Singh (1993) noted that 80−90% of polyphenols were present in the seed coat. This has also been observed with other legumes, with the colour pigments in the skins of the seed accounting for a large proportion of the phenolic compounds.

It is difficult to compare these values from this Nigerian study with beans measured in other studies because phenolics are generally measured in gallic acid equivalents.

Moderate levels of carotenoids were measured by Kandlakunta et al. (2008) (see Table 1).


Saponins were identified in a range of Nigerian staples, including pigeon peas, as well as phytic acids and tannins, which were also present in fairly low quantities (Osagie et al. 1996). A more recent study of a range of Indian legumes found tannins, oxalates, phytates, α-amylase, trypsin inhibitors and haemaglutin activities at moderate levels compared with the other legumes in the study (Salunke et al. 2006).




There was little difference in the reducing power of brown and white pigeon peas. However, brown pigeon peas had the highest radical scavenging power of the legumes in the study, and although this was similar to some other commonly consumed leafy vegetables, it was lower than activity in vegetables such as broccoli and capsicum and generally lower than in fruits (Oboh 2007).


Legumes generally have a low glycaemic index, meaning that their carbohydrates are slowly and steadily absorbed. In a Phillipino study of various legumes, the glycaemic index of pigeon peas compared with bread was low at 30.99 but not as low as that of chick peas (13.87) or black beans (27.91), but lower than that of mung beans (44.38) (Panlasigui et al. 1995). This is particularly important for diabetics, but is also useful for the general population as energy is released in a slow and sustained manner, with superior satiety.


By far the greatest amount of research relates to issues to do with antinutritional factors, either measuring these or investigating ways in which to reduce them. The cooking method most commonly recommended for legumes here is for soaking followed by cooking, usually boiling, and it is interesting to see these processing approaches reflected in the published research.

10.3.1 Cultivar

Varietal differences in composition have been observed according to a raft of macro and micronutrient variables (particularly protein and mineral content) and as well as antinutrient levels and types (Canniatti-Brazaca et al. 1996; Raghuvanshi et al. 1996; Rani et al. 1996; Onimawo & Asugo 2004; Fasoyiro et al. 2005; Godoy et al. 2005; Srivastava & Srivastava 2006).

10.3.2 Processing methods

The effects of different processing methods on antinutrients or their effects in terms of nutritive value or digestibility were the subject of a large number of studies in this area. Methods investigated included:

Germination. Germination significantly altered the nutrient composition of the seed, causing marked increase in calorific value. Crude protein, soluble carbohydrate, cellular and organic cellular contents, cellulose, lignin, non-nutritive matter, total oxalate and phytic acid contents of the seed decreased with germination, whereas the reverse was the case for fat, crude fibre, total ash, soluble ash, acid-insoluble ash, cell wall carbohydrate, hemicellulose, iron, manganese, calcium, magnesium, copper, phosphorus, food energy, digestible energy, tannins, total phenolics and trypsin inhibitory activity (Oloyo 2004). Ominaw (2004) similarly noted a decrease in crude protein content but in contrast observed a decrease in fat from 6.75 to 5.25%, and fibre from 7.3 to 7.0%. Germination decreased antinutritional phytic acid in pigeon peas by over 60%, but had the disadvantage of decreasing total dietary fibre (Chitra et al. 1996).


Fermentation. Fermentation brought about a major reduction of alpha-galactosides (82%), phytic acid (48%), and trypsin inhibitor activity (39%) and an increase in fat and total soluble available carbohydrates, a slight decrease of protein, dietary fibre, calcium, vitamin B-2, vitamin E, and total antioxidant capacity, and a decrease of soluble dietary fibre, sodium, potassium, magnesium and zinc contents. No changes were observed in the levels of starch and tannins (Torres et al. 2006). Chitra et al. (1996) similarly noted a large reduction in phytic acid with fermentation, but also the undesirable loss of fibre.

Cooking. Several studies showed that cooking, especially when preceded by soaking, substantially lowered levels of antinutritional factors (Mulimani & Paramjyothi 1994; Rani et al. 1996; Oloyo 2002; Fasoyiro et al. 2005; Parihar & Upadhyay 2006). It reduced cooking time but also mineral content (Fasoyiro et al. 2005). Losses of mineral content were higher in boiled samples than autoclaved (Parihar & Upadhyay 2006) though little difference in mineral content after different types of processing (germination, fermentation, autoclaving and roasting) was observed by Chitra et al. (1996).


11 Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii) Rather than tasting of curry, these leaves are used in curries and in fact are described as having a citrus-like smell and taste. Besides being used as an important flavouring in Asian cuisines, curry leaf has also been an important folk medicine in China and other Asian countries for centuries. Its uses are reported to be diverse and include analgesic, astringent, antidysenteric, antioxidant, febrifuge, hypolipidemic, and hypoglycaemic effects as well as to improve vision, treat night-blindness, and regulate fertility (Palaniswamy et al. 2003). As with other herbs, large quantities of curry leaves are not generally consumed in one meal, so they are likely to make their dietary contribution on a small but regular basis. In addition, often the leaves are removed before the food is eaten, in which case only compounds that have been extracted during the cooking process would be ingested. However, the whole leaf is obviously part of the meal when it has been ground or crushed before use. Many sources comment that it is best to leave the leaves on the stalks until use, as they rapidly lose flavour when removed. Similarly fresh leaves are more pungent than old or dried leaves.

Most research relates to antioxidant activity.

11.1 Composition

No information on curry leaves has been found on the the FOODFiles or USDA food composition databases.


According to Palaniswamy et al. (2003), fresh curry leaves contained 9.744 µg of lutein, 0. 212 µg of alpha-tocopherol, and 0.183 µg of beta-carotene per gram fresh weight. The value for beta-carotene is low compared with the other Indian vegetables measured by Kandlkunta et al. (2008) (see Table 1) as was the value for lutein compared with data on other vegetables in the USDA database.

The levels of phenolics measured by (Ningappa et al. 2008) ranged from 18 to 168 mg GAE/g extract, depending on the solvent/s used in the extraction process. The highest values were obtained using an ethyl alcohol:water (1:1) combination. Although it is difficult to generalise, given different extraction methods, these results suggest that curry leaves contain high levels of phenolics, similar to other high phenolic herbs like thyme and rosemary as measured by Ninfali et al. (2005) and Wu (2004).

Various studies have identified carbazole compounds as the major antioxidants in curry leaves (Nakatani 2000; Tachibana et al. 2001; Nakatani 2003; Rao et al. 2007). Carbazole is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound, consisting of a central five-membered nitrogen-containing ring fused on either side to a benzene ring. As with other antioxidants, its radical scavenging activity is related to its ability to donate hydrogen ions, either from hydroxyl groups or the N-H bond (Rao et al. 2007).

11.2 Antinutritional factors

Although curry leaves have been found to contain insoluble oxalates (Radek & Savage 2008), it is unlikely that they pose a significant health risk since they are cooked and consumed in relatively low quantities.




Ningapppa et al. (2008) found that an ethyl alchol:water extract of curry leaves was particularly effective over a range of assays demonstrating different kinds of antioxidant activity. Besides inhibiting lipid peroxidation, radical scavenging, and protecting DNA from radical damage, it was also a reducing agent and demonstrated ferrous ion chelating activity. In the DPPH radical scavenging activity assay this extract was also superior to other antioxidants, including vitamin C, alpha-tocopherol, butylated hydroxytouene (BHA), curcumin and beta-carotene. Another study demonstrated the antioxidant activity of three proteins isolated from curry leaves. The most potent inhibited lipoxygenase activity, effectively prevented diene, triene and tetraene lipid formation, and scavenged about 85% of hydroxyl and DPPH radicals at a significantly lower (150-fold) concentration than the synthetic antioxidant BHA and antioxidant vitamin E alpha-tocopherol (Ningappa & Srinivas 2008). Oleoresin of curry leaves was evaluated for its antioxidant activity using the beta-carotene-linoleic acid assay along with other extracts obtained using different solvents, namely methanol, water and volatile oil. The oleoresin showed maximum activity of 83.2% at 100 ppm though the synthetic antioxidant, butylated hydroxy anisole, exhibited 90.2% activity at the same concentration. The methanol and water extracts showed activities of 16.7 and 11.3%, respectively, at the same concentration and the volatile oil had negligible activity. Compounds isolated from the oleoresin were tested for antioxidant activity, with the two with the highest levels of antioxidant activity being identified as mahanimbine and koenigine. Koenigine also showed a high degree of radical-scavenging activity (Rao et al. 2007).

Although high levels of total phenolics were measured by Wong et al. (2006) who ranked curry leaves third out of 25 edible tropical plants. In this study, unusually, this did not correlate with high antioxidant activity either by the DDPH or FRAP assays where curry leaves ranked 10th and 12th respectively.

11.3.2 Anti-cancer

An animal model was used by Dasgupta et al. (2003) to study a range of cancer preventive properties of an aqueous curry leaf extract in mice. There was a significant increase in endogenous antioxidant activity and reduced levels of lipid peroxidation and lactate dehydrogenase. The anticarcinogenic potential of curry leaf was evaluated using induced forestomach skin papillomagenesis and chemopreventive response was measured by tumour burden and by the percentage of tumour-bearing animals. Both dose levels of curry leaf extract showed a significant reduction in tumour burden and incidence.

Another animal study also investigated the antioxidant potential of curry leaves in rats. A 50% reduction was seen in the occurrence of carcinogen-induced micronuclei and a 30% reduction in the activity of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, an index of the precancerous changes in tissues, when the rats were fed a curry leaf-supplemented diet (Khanum et al. 2000).


11.3.3 Anti-diabetic activity

The protective effects of curry leaf extract against diabetes markers, including beta-cell damage and antioxidant defence system parameters, were also investigated in a rat study. In the diabetic rats altered levels of glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin, insulin, TBARS, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants had been measured, but these returned to near control levels after treatment with the curry leaf extract. The extract also appeared to have a protective effect upon pancreatic beta cells (Arulselvan & Subramanian 2007). A similar rat study investigating anti-diabetic effects of some traditional Indian herbs also found curry leaf extract to be effective against a range of diabetes markers. These included a significant decrease in the levels of blood glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin and urea, with an increase in glycogen, haemoglobin and protein. Treatment also resulted in an increase in levels of insulin and C-peptide and improved glucose tolerance. A normalising effect on carbohydrate-metabolising enzymes, such as hexokinase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and glycogen synthase, was also observed (Narendhirakannan et al. 2006).

11.3.4 Antiatherogenic

A combination of curry leaf and mustard seeds incorporated into a high cholesterol diet of experimental rats resulted in markedly lower levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, low density lipoproteins and very low density lipoprotein fractions (Khan et al. 1998). An earlier study had also shown a protective effect of curry leaves on markers of radical-induced oxidative stress, resulting from a high fat diet, with lower levels of hydroperoxides, conjugated dienes and free fatty acids in the livers and hearts of supplemented rats in comparison with the rats receiving only the high fat diet. Increased endogenous antioxidant activity was also observed in the supplemented rats (Khan et al. 1997).

11.3.5 Anti inflammatory

Three carbazole alkaloids, mahanimbine, murrayanol, and mahanine were isolated and identified from a curry leaf extract and investigated for bioactive properties. All compounds showed topoisomerase I and II inhibitory activity as well as antimicrobial and antimosquito properties. Murrayanol also displayed anti-inflammatory activity and mahanine antioxidant activity (Ramsewak et al. 1999).


12 Taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta) Besides being used in Indian cooking, taro leaves are widely used in Pacific Island cuisine. Not unlike spinach in taste, taro leaves are extremely nutritious, containing an extensive range of micronutrients at high levels. Also like spinach, taro leaves contain antinutritive oxalates, which can compromise the absorption of some minerals or lead to kidney stones or gout. However, oxalates are destroyed, or their effects mitigated, by most forms of cooking. Unless taro leaves are eaten very frequently this should not be a major problem in New Zealand.

12.1 Composition

Despite the fact that taro leaves have been found to be exceptionally rich in micronutrients, it appears that their phytochemical composition has received very little research attention.


Taro leaves are an extremely nutritious vegetable providing moderate to excellent levels of a range of micronutrients, including vitamins C, A, E and B6, folate, riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, magnesium, manganese, potassium, calcium, copper and iron. In addition, it provides both soluble and insoluble fibre and is low in calories (Athar et al. 2004).

See Appendix I for full data from the New Zealand FOODFiles database.


High levels of beta-carotene are also present in taro leaf (3410 µg per 100 g fresh weight), similar to those in other high beta-carotene green leafy vegetables such as spinach and silver beet, though not as high as some orange vegetables such as carrots (Athar et al. 2004). This would provide a large proportion of the RDI for vitamin A. Although it has not yet been verified by formal research, reasonable levels of phenolics would be expected in taro leaves.


Besides the antinutritive protease inhibitors found in legumes, there are other protective compounds found in plants such as oxalates, which are present in taro leaves as well as many other foods such as spinach, rhubarb and tea (Noonan & Savage 1999; Oscarsson & Savage 2007). In plant tissues these compounds are present as end-products of metabolism, but in humans they compromise nutrient absorption (especially of minerals such as calcium, magnesium and iron) as well as contributing to the formation of kidney stones and gout. Oxalates in New Zealand taro leaves varied from 443 mg/100 g fresh weight in older leaves to 589 mg/100 g fresh weight in young taro leaves according to Oscarrson & Savage (2007). However, because a large proportion (74%) of total oxalate content is water soluble, the total level is likely to fall with moist cooking methods such as boiling as the oxalates leach out into the cooking liquid. Baking taro leaves reduced oxalate levels to 59%, though this amount would nonetheless put this vegetable in the category of a high oxalate food (Oscarsson & Savage 2007). Baking with milk further reduced oxalate levels to 21.4% total oxalates.




Despite the very high levels of antioxidant vitamin C, which besides its many other functions in the body is also an antioxidant, and high levels of beta-carotene, Yang et al. (2006) measured only low levels of antioxidant activity in taro leaves. This is somewhat puzzling.

12.3 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels Inter-cultivar differences in terms of the micronutrient composition of taro leaves

were investigated in an Indian taro collection; wide genotypic variability was found in moisture (62.15−66.45%), protein (20.65−26.25%), ash (9.85−13.95%), crude fat (2.01−4.16%), crude fibre (20.54−26.15%), carbohydrates (34.17−43.36%), starch (15.64−20.61%), total chlorophyll (1.53−1.91 mg/g), total carotenoids (1.20−1.95 mg/100 g) and ascorbic acid content (26.35−36.08 mg/100 g) (Awasthi & Singh 2000).


13 Conclusion The vegetables in this report are diverse in many respects. They include leafy vegetables, seeds, pods, unusual members of the gourd family and herbs. Belonging to many different families, they range from low to high energy and similarly from low to high nutrient density. Just as they differ in nutrient value, so too do they in terms of health attributes and this is often, though not always, reflected also in the amount of research that they have received. Some, such as the anti-diabetic properties of bitter gourd, appear promising from research to date but it remains to be seen whether this early promise will be replicated in larger, well designed human trials. Other vegetables, such as taro leaf, still await their full nutritional worth to be acknowledged. Even those, like some of the gourds, may not be as nutritionally beneficial as others in this report, but may still play an important dietary role in terms of providing fibre, low calorie bulk and in culinary terms act as a base or foil for stronger tasting ingredients.


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Appendices


Appendix I Macro and micronutrient composition of some Indian vegetables

Table 1. Macro and micronutrient data on pigeon peas and taro leaves (FoodFiles 2004)

Values given per 100 g Peas,Red pigeon,raw Taro,leaves,raw

Water g 10 83

Energy kcal 304 29

Protein g 20 4.8

Total fat g 2 0.8

Carbohydrate, available g 51.4 0.7

Dietary fibre (Englyst, 1988) g 4.9 9

Ash g 3.47 1.8

Sodium mg 29 3

Phosphorus mg 300 60

Potassium mg 1100 843

Calcium mg 100 216

Iron mg 5 2.7

Beta-carotene equivalents µg 30 3410

Total vitamin A equivalents µg 5 569

Thiamin mg 0.5 0.15

Riboflavin mg 0.15 0.39

Niacin mg 2.3 2.3

Vitamin C mg T 90

Cholesterol mg 0 0

Total saturated fatty acids g 0.456 0.185

Total monounsaturated fatty acids g 0.016 0.077

Total polyunsaturated fatty acids g 1.13 0.378

Dry matter g 90 17

Total nitrogen g 3.2 0.82

Glucose g 0.1 0.2

Fructose g 0.2 0.25

Sucrose g 1.3 0.2

Lactose g 0 0

Maltose g 0 0

Total available sugars g 1.6 0.65

Starch g 49.8 0.05

Alcohol g 0 0

Total niacin equivalents mg 3.9 3

Soluble non-starch polysaccharides g 1.3 3

Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides g 3.6 6

Energy kJ 1260 122

Magnesium mg 130 192


Manganese µg 1800 1800

Copper mg 1.25 0.32

Zinc mg 2.78 0.9

Selenium µg 0.9 T

Retinol µg 0 0

Potential niacin from tryptophan mg 1.6 0.7

Vitamin B6 mg 0.285 0.5

Folate, total µg 100 126

Vitamin B12 µg 0 0

Vitamin D µg 0 0

Vitamin E mg 2.27 2.3

T=trace

Bitter melon Momordica charantia (balsam-pear, bitter gourd), pods, raw

Refuse: 17% (Tough stems and leaves) NDB No: 11024 (Nutrient values and weights are for edible portion)

Nutrient Units Value per

100 g

Numberof Data Points

Std Error

Proximates

Water g 94.03 2 0

Energy kcal 17 0 0

Energy kj 71 0 0

Protein g 1.00 2 0

Total lipid (fat) g 0.17 2 0

Ash g 1.10 0 0

Carbohydrate, by difference g 3.70 0 0

Fiber, total dietary g 2.8 0 0

Minerals

Calcium, Ca mg 19 1 0

Iron, Fe mg 0.43 2 0

Magnesium, Mg mg 17 1 0

Phosphorus, P mg 31 2 0

Potassium, K mg 296 1 0

Sodium, Na mg 5 1 0

Zinc, Zn mg 0.80 0 0


Copper, Cu mg 0.034 0 0

Manganese, Mn mg 0.089 0 0

Selenium, Se mcg 0.2 0 0

Vitamins

Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid mg 84.0 1 0

Thiamin mg 0.040 1 0

Riboflavin mg 0.040 1 0

Niacin mg 0.400 1 0

Pantothenic acid mg 0.212 0 0

Vitamin B-6 mg 0.043 0 0

Folate, total mcg 72 0 0

Folic acid mcg 0 0 0

Folate, food mcg 72 0 0

Folate, DFE mcg_DFE 72 0 0

Vitamin B-12 mcg 0.00 0 0

Vitamin A, IU IU 471 0 0

Vitamin A, RAE mcg_RAE 24 0 0

Retinol mcg 0 0 0

Lipids

Cholesterol mg 0 0 0

Other

Carotene, beta mcg 190 10 0

Carotene, alpha mcg 185 10 0

Lutein + zeaxanthin mcg 170 10 0

USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20 (2007)


Indian beans Dolilchos lablab, syn Lablab purpureus, Dolichos purpureus (hyacinth beans), mature seeds, raw

Refuse: 0% NDB No: 16067 (Nutrient values and weights are for edible portion).

Nutrient Units Value per100 g

Number of Data Points

Std Error

Proximates

Water g 9.38 4 1.358

Energy kcal 344 0 0

Energy kj 1439 0 0

Protein g 23.90 4 0.492

Total lipid (fat) g 1.69 4 0.524

Ash g 4.29 4 0.381


Minerals

Calcium, Ca mg 130 4 29.541

Iron, Fe mg 5.10 0 0

Magnesium, Mg mg 283 3 115.834

Phosphorus, P mg 372 4 63.721

Potassium, K mg 1235 3 150.848

Sodium, Na mg 21 3 2.663

Zinc, Zn mg 9.30 1 0

Copper, Cu mg 1.335 2 0

Manganese, Mn mg 1.573 0 0


Vitamins


Thiamin mg 1.130 1 0

Riboflavin mg 0.136 6 0.023

Niacin mg 1.610 2 0

Pantothenic acid mg 1.237 0 0

Vitamin B-6 mg 0.155 0 0

Folate, total mcg 23 0 0



Folate, food mcg 23 0 0



Vitamin A, IU IU 0 0 0

Vitamin A, RAE mcg_RAE 0 0 0

Retinol mcg 0 0 0

Lipids

Fatty acids, total saturated g 0.288 0 0

18:1 undifferentiated g 0.076 0 0



Amino acids

Tryptophan g 0.199 5 0

Threonine g 0.925 4 0

Isoleucine g 1.143 4 0

Leucine g 2.026 4 0

Lysine g 1.632 5 0

Methionine g 0.191 4 0

Cystine g 0.279 3 0

Phenylalanine g 1.204 4 0

Tyrosine g 0.853 3 0

Valine g 1.239 4 0

Arginine g 1.755 4 0

Histidine g 0.684 4 0

Alanine g 1.067 3 0

Aspartic acid g 2.821 3 0

Glutamic acid g 3.880 3 0

Glycine g 1.028 3 0

Proline g 1.162 3 0

Serine g 1.315 3 0



Pigeon peas Cajanus cajan syn Cajanus indicus (red gram), mature seeds, raw

Refuse: 0% NDB No: 16101 (Nutrient values and weights are for edible portion)

Nutrient Units Value per100 g

Numberof DataPoints

Std Error

Proximates

Water g 10.59 28 0.38

Energy kcal 343 0 0

Energy kj 1435 0 0

Protein g 21.70 41 0.315

Total lipid (fat) g 1.49 23 0.105

Ash g 3.45 28 0.053


Fiber, total dietary g 15.0 0 0

Minerals

Calcium, Ca mg 130 18 7.724

Iron, Fe mg 5.23 30 0.367

Magnesium, Mg mg 183 14 17.121

Phosphorus, P mg 367 18 30.43

Potassium, K mg 1392 9 23.534

Sodium, Na mg 17 4 1.407

Zinc, Zn mg 2.76 9 0.26

Copper, Cu mg 1.057 9 0.036

Manganese, Mn mg 1.791 9 0.138


Vitamins


Thiamin mg 0.643 11 0.06

Riboflavin mg 0.187 12 0.015

Niacin mg 2.965 12 0.363

Pantothenic acid mg 1.266 8 0.057

Vitamin B-6 mg 0.283 12 0.041

Folate, total mcg 456 8 15.181



Folate, food mcg 456 8 15.181



Vitamin A, IU IU 28 8 2.344

Vitamin A, RAE mcg_RAE 1 8 0.117

Retinol mcg 0 0 0

Lipids

Fatty acids, total saturated g 0.330 0 0

16:0 g 0.307 0 0

18:0 g 0.024 0 0

Fatty acids, total monounsaturated g 0.012 0 0


Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated g 0.814 0 0




Amino acids

Tryptophan g 0.212 14 0

Threonine g 0.767 28 0

Isoleucine g 0.785 28 0

Leucine g 1.549 28 0

Lysine g 1.521 28 0

Methionine g 0.243 26 0

Cystine g 0.250 19 0

Phenylalanine g 1.858 19 0

Tyrosine g 0.538 26 0

Valine g 0.937 28 0

Arginine g 1.299 26 0

Histidine g 0.774 26 0

Alanine g 0.972 24 0

Aspartic acid g 2.146 24 0

Glutamic acid g 5.031 24 0

Glycine g 0.802 24 0


Proline g 0.955 23 0

Serine g 1.028 24 0



Appendix II Major functions of main micronutrients contained in Indian vegetables

Main micronutrients in legumes and their physiological functions (Adapted from (Medscape 2004; BUPA 2006).

Name Major function

Vitamin A Retinol (animal origin) Some carotenoids (plant origin, converted to retinol in the body)

Important for normal vision and eye health Involved in gene expression, embryonic development and growth and health of new cells Assists in immune function May protect against cancers and atherosclerosis

Vitamin C Ascorbic acid

Necessary for healthy connective tissues – tendons, ligaments, cartilage, wound healing and healthy teeth Assists in iron absorption A protective antioxidant - may protect against some cancers Involved in hormone and neurotransmitter synthesis

Vitamin E alpha-tocopherols and tocotrienols

Non-specific chain-breaking antioxidant Reduces peroxidation of fatty acids May protect against atherosclerosis

Thiamin vitamin B1

Coenzyme in the metabolism of carbohydrates and branched-chain amino acids Needed for nerve transmission Involved in formation of blood cells

Riboflavin vitamin B2

Important for skin and eye health Coenzyme in numerous cellular redox reactions involved in energy metabolism, especially from fat and protein

Niacin vitamin B3 Nicotinic acid, nicotinamide

Coenzyme or cosubstrate in many biological reduction and oxidation reactions required for energy metabolism and fat synthesis and breakdown Reduces LDL cholesterol and increases HDL cholesterol

Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine

Coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, haemoglobin synthesis. Involved in neuronal excitation Reduces blood homocysteine levels Prevents megaloblastic anaemia

Folate Generic term for large group of compounds including folic acid and pterylpolyglutamates

Coenzyme in DNA synthesis and amino acid synthesis. Important for preventing neural tube defects Key role in preventing stroke and heart disease, including reducing blood homocysteine levels with vitamin B12 May protect against colonic and rectal cancer


Name Major function

Calcium Structural component of bones and teeth Role in cellular processes, muscle contraction, blood clotting, enzyme activation, nerve function

Copper Aids in utilization of iron stores, lipid, collagen, pigment Role in neurotransmitters synthesis

Iron Component of haemoglobin and myoglobin in blood, needed for oxygen transport Role in cellular function and respiration

Magnesium Component of bones Role in enzyme, nerve, heart functions, and protein synthesis

Manganese Aids in brain function, collagen formation, bone structure, growth, urea synthesis, glucose and lipid metabolism and CNS functioning

Potassium Major ion of intracellular fluid Maintains water, electrolyte and pH balances Role in cell membrane transfer and nerve impulse transmission

Phosphorus Structural component of bone, teeth, cell membranes, phospholipids, nucleic acids, nucleotide enzymes, cellular energy metabolism pH regulation Major ion of intracellular fluid and constituent of many essential compounds in body and processes

Zinc Major role in immune system Required for numerous enzymes involved in growth and repair Involved in, sexual maturation Role in taste, smell functions


Appendix III Phytochemical constituents and ethnobotanical uses of some Indian vegetables

Note: There are not data for chemicals and ethnobotanical uses for all vegetables. Material downloaded Wed Jul 16 19:30:05 EDT 2008 http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/duke/ethnobot.pl

Chemicals in: Lagenaria siceraria (MOLINA) STANDLEY. (Cucurbitaceae) -- Calabash Gourd, White-Flowered Gourd 22-DEOXOCUCURBITACIN-D Plant: DUKE1992A

ARGININE Fruit 140 - 3,140 ppm DUKE1992A

ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 101 - 2,265 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 50 - 330 ppm DUKE1992A

ASH Fruit 4,300 - 96,400 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 44,300 ppm; DUKE1992A

BETA-CAROTENE Fruit: DUKE1992A

BETA-GLYCOSIDASE Fruit: DUKE1992A

CALCIUM Fruit 200 - 5,830 ppm DUKE1992A

CALCIUM-OXIDE Seed 1,100 ppm; DUKE1992A

CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 29,000 - 760,000 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 83,000 ppm; DUKE1992A

CHOLINE Fruit 640 - 16,020 ppm DUKE1992A

CUCURBITACIN-B Fruit: DUKE1992A

CUCURBITACIN-D Fruit: DUKE1992A

CUCURBITACIN-G Fruit: DUKE1992A

CUCURBITACIN-H Fruit: DUKE1992A

CUCURBITACINS Fruit 130 ppm; DUKE1992A

FAT Fruit 200 - 4,485 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 450,000 - 525,400 ppm DUKE1992A

FIBER Fruit 5,600 - 12,550 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 15,800 ppm; DUKE1992A

FOLACIN Fruit 0.059 - 1.3 ppm DUKE1992A

FUFURAL Fruit 1,740 - 43,512 ppm DUKE1992A

GIBBERELLIN-A50 Plant: DUKE1992A

GIBBERELLIN-A52 Plant: DUKE1992A

HISTIDINE Fruit 40 - 900 ppm DUKE1992A

IODINE Fruit 0.005 - 1.12 ppm DUKE1992A

IRON Fruit 2 - 45 ppm DUKE1992A

ISOLEUCINE Fruit 330 - 7,400 ppm DUKE1992A

KILOCALORIES Fruit 140 - 3,140 /kg DUKE1992A

LEUCINE Fruit 360 - 8,070 ppm DUKE1992A

LINOLEIC-ACID Fruit 90 - 2,465 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 288,000 - 336,250 ppm DUKE1992A

LYSINE Fruit 210 - 4,700 ppm DUKE1992A

MAGNESIUM Fruit 110 - 2,465 ppm DUKE1992A

METHIONINE Fruit 40 - 900 ppm DUKE1992A

NIACIN Fruit 3.2 - 72 ppm DUKE1992A


OLEIC-ACID Fruit 40 - 1,435 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 81,900 - 95,625 ppm DUKE1992A

PALMITIC-ACID Fruit 10 - 225 ppm DUKE1992A

PECTIN Fruit 8,400 - 210,000 ppm DUKE1992A

PHENYLALANINE Fruit 150 - 3,365 ppm DUKE1992A

PHOSPHORUS Fruit 130 - 2,915 ppm DUKE1992A

PHOSPHORUS-OXIDE Seed 24,600 ppm; DUKE1992A

PHYTOSTEROLS Leaf 1,300 ppm; DUKE1992A

POTASSIUM Fruit 860 - 33,635 ppm DUKE1992A

PROTEIN Fruit 2,000 - 139,000 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 307,200 ppm; DUKE1992A

RIBOFLAVIN Fruit 0.2 - 4.9 ppm DUKE1992A

SAPONIN Seed: DUKE1992A

SODIUM Fruit 20 - 450 ppm DUKE1992A

STEARIC-ACID Fruit: DUKE1992A

THIAMIN Fruit 0.3 - 6.5 ppm DUKE1992A

THREONINE Fruit 180 - 4,035 ppm DUKE1992A

TRYPTOPHAN Fruit 30 - 675 ppm DUKE1992A

URONIC-ANHYDRIDE Fruit 4,900 - 122,800 ppm DUKE1992A

VALINE Fruit 270 - 6,055 ppm DUKE1992A

VIT-B-6 Fruit 0.4 - 9 ppm DUKE1992A

WATER Fruit 955,400 - 963,000 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 24,700 ppm; DUKE1992A

ZINC Fruit 7 - 157 ppm DUKE1992A

ppm = parts per million tr = trace

Ethnobotanical uses

Lagenaria siceraria (CUCURBITACEAE)

Ache(Head) Al-Rawi, Woi.Syria; Ache(Tooth) Bliss; Adenopathy Eb24: 250; Alexiteric Woi.Syria; Alopecia Woi.Syria; Anasarca Eb24: 250; Antidote Bliss; Asthma Liogier; Bilious Steinmetz; Boil Bliss; Burn Eb24: 250; Cancer Hartwell; Convulsion Eb24: 250; Cough Al-Rawi, Liogier; Depurative Brutus; Diuretic Bliss, Keys, Liogier, Steinmetz; Dropsy Eb24: 250, Liogier, Woi.Syria; Emetic Bliss, Steinmetz, Woi.Syria; Fever Steinmetz; Gum Bliss; Hoarseness Liogier; Hydropsy Brutus; Insanity Eb25: 250; Laxative Eb25: 250; Leucoderma Eb25: 250; Litholytic Steinmetz; Lithontriptic Bliss; Pectoral Woi.Syria; Pimple Woi.Syria; Purgative Bliss, Liogier, Steinmetz, Woi.Syria; Refrigerant Al-Rawi, Bliss; Rheumatism Woi.Syria; Scrofula Eb24: 250; Sore Eb24: 250; Splenitis Eb24: 250; Tetanus Eb24: 250; Tumor Hartwell; Wound Eb24:

Ethnobotanical uses

Luffa acutangula ROXB. (CUCURBITACEAE)

Amenorrhea Burkill,1966; Diuretic Burkill,1966; Parturition Burkill,1966; Purgative Burkill,1966; Uremia Burkill,1966

Adenopathy Eb24: 257; Amenorrhea Woi.6; Anodyne Eb24: 257; Asthma Woi.6; Conjunctivitis Al-Rawi, Woi.6; Convulsion Eb24: 257; Demulcent Woi.6; Diuretic Liogier, Woi.6; Dropsy Liogier; Emetic Al-Rawi, Duke,1972, Liogier; Expectorant Woi.6;


Jaundice Woi.6; Laxative Woi.6; Leprosy Al-Rawi, Duke,1972, Woi.6; Madness Eb24: 257; Meibomian Secretion Al-Rawi; Piles Al-Rawi, Duke,1972, Woi.6; Purgative Al-Rawi, Brutus, Duke,1972, Liogier, Woi.6; Scabies Eb24: 257; Scrofula Eb24: 257; Skin Woi.6; Snuff Woi.6; Sore Eb24: 257, Liogier; Sore(Veterinary) Woi.6; Spasm Eb24: 257; Splenitis Al-Rawi, Duke,1972, Woi.6; Splenomegaly Woi.6; Syphilis Eb24: 257; Tetanus Eb24: 257; Tonic Liogier; Uremia Woi.6


Chemicals in: Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae) -- Bitter Melon, Sorosi 5-ALPHA-STIGMASTA-7,22,25-TRIEN-3-BETA-OL Plant: JSG

5-ALPHA-STIGMASTA-7,25-DIEN-3-BETA-OL Plant: JSG

5-HYDROXYTRYPTAMINE Fruit: MPI

ALKALOIDS Fruit 380 ppm; IFP 1

ALPHA-ELAEOSTEARIC-ACID Seed 4,670 - 231,632 ppm WOI

ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 570 - 36,447 ppm CRC Leaf 1,700 - 12,412 ppm CRC

ASCORBIGEN Fruit: WOI

ASH Fruit 4,000 - 142,000 ppm CRC IFP Leaf 21,000 - 149,000 ppm CRC

BETA-CAROTENE Fruit 18 ppm; CRC Leaf 51 - 330 ppm CRC

BETA-SITOSTEROL Fruit: IFP

BETA-SITOSTEROL-D-GLUCOSIDE Fruit: IFP

CALCIUM Fruit 130 - 4,333 ppm CRC Leaf 2,640 - 18,701 ppm CRC

CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 47,000 - 763,000 ppm CRC Leaf 70,000 - 618,000 ppm CRC

CHARANTIN Fruit 1,500 ppm; IFP

CHOLESTEROL Fruit: MPI

CITRULLINE Fruit: IFP

COPPER Fruit 30 ppm; MPI

CRYPTOXANTHIN Fruit: IFP

DIOSGENIN Tissue Culture: MPI

ELASTEROL Plant: JSG

FAT Leaf 4,000 - 39,000 ppm CRC Seed 2,000 - 496,000 ppm CRC

FIBER Fruit 10,000 - 257,800 ppm CRC IFP Leaf 5,000 - 104,000 ppm CRC

FLAVOCHROME Fruit: IFP

FLUORIDE Fruit 0.2 - 0.5 ppm MPI

FLUORINE Fruit 4.8 ppm; MPI

GABA Fruit: IFP

GALACTURONIC-ACID Fruit: MPI

IODINE Fruit 0.41 ppm; MPI

IRON Fruit 2 - 560 ppm CRC Leaf 50 - 357 ppm CRC

KILOCALORIES Fruit 190 - 3,290 /kg CRC

LANOSTEROL Fruit: MPI

LEAD Fruit 5 ppm; MPI

LINOLEIC-ACID Seed 770 - 38,192 ppm WOI

LUTEIN Fruit: IFP

LYCOPENE Fruit: IFP

MAGNESIUM Fruit 195 - 3,800 ppm MPI

MANGANESE Fruit 10 ppm; MPI

MOMORDICIN Fruit: IFP


MOMORDICOSIDE-A Seed: CCO

MOMORDICOSIDE-B Seed: CCO

MOMORDICOSIDE-C Seed: CCO

MOMORDICOSIDE-D Seed: CCO

MOMORDICOSIDE-E Seed: CCO

MOMORDICOSIDE-F-1 Fruit: IFP

MOMORDICOSIDE-F-2 Fruit: IFP

MOMORDICOSIDE-G Fruit: IFP

MOMORDICOSIDE-I Fruit: IFP

MOMORDICOSIDE-K Seed: CCO

MOMORDICOSIDE-L Seed: CCO

MUTACHROME Fruit: IFP

NIACIN Fruit 3 - 50 ppm CRC Leaf 15 - 103 ppm CRC

NICKEL Fruit 10 ppm; MPI

NITROGEN Fruit 33,800 ppm; MPI

OLEIC-ACID Seed 1,580 - 77,376 ppm WOI

OXALATE Fruit 185 - 1,444 ppm MPI

OXALIC-ACID Fruit 5 ppm; WBB

PECTIN Fruit: IFP

PEROXIDASE Fruit: IFP

PHOSPHORUS Fruit 320 - 8,333 ppm CRC Leaf 540 - 33,467 ppm CRC

PHYTOFLUENE Seed: IFP 1

PIPECOLIC-ACID Fruit: IFP

POLYPEPTIDE-P Fruit: CCO

POTASSIUM Fruit 2,700 - 45,000 ppm CRC Leaf 5,100 - 33,117 ppm CRC

PROTEIN Fruit 9,000 - 181,000 ppm CRC IFP Leaf 51,000 - 371,000 ppm CRC

RIBOFLAVIN Fruit 0.4 - 9 ppm CRC Leaf 4.6 - 31 ppm CRC

RUBIXANTHIN Fruit: IFP

SODIUM Fruit 20 - 333 ppm CRC Leaf 190 - 1,234 ppm CRC

STEARIC-ACID Seed 29,800 - 147,800 ppm WOI

STIGMASTA-5,25-DIEN-3-BETA-OL Plant: JSG

STIGMASTEROL Fruit: MPI

SUGARS Fruit 35,000 - 45,000 ppm IFP

THIAMIN Fruit 0.2 - 12 ppm CRC Leaf 1.3 - 8 ppm CRC

TITANIUM Fruit 100 ppm; MPI

UREASE Seed: WOI

VICINE Seed: CCO

WATER Fruit 795,000 - 934,000 ppm CRC IFP Leaf 801,000 - 846,000 ppm WOI


ZEAXANTHIN Fruit: IFP 1

ZEINOXANTHIN Fruit: IFP 1


Ethnobotanical uses

Momordica charantia (CUCURBITACEAE)

Abdomen Burkill,1966; Ache(Head) Burkill,1966; Ache(Stomach) Burkill,1966; Asthma Burkill,1966; Burn Burkill,1966; Dermatosis Burkill,1966; Diarrhea Burkill,1966; Parturition Burkill,1966; Scald Burkill,1966; Sprue Burkill,1966; Vermifuge Burkill,1966

Abdomen Eb21: 62; Abortifacient Eb21: 57, Eb21: 62, Woi.6; Ache(Ear) Eb21: 62; Ache(Head) Eb21: 62; Antibiotic* Eb21: 62; Apertif Eb21: 62; Aphrodisiac Ayensu, Bliss, Eb21: 62, Martinez; Asthma Eb21: 62; Astringent Eb21: 60; Bilious Eb21: 62; Bite(Snake) Eb21: 60; Bladder Eb21: 60; Boil Eb21: 60; Burn Eb21: 60, Martinez; Cancer Ayensu; Cancer(Breast) Hartwell; Canicide Eb21: 62; Carminative Woi.6; Catarrh Eb21: 60; Chilblain Eb21: 60; Cold Gupta, Lewis; Colic Ayensu, Uphof, Woi.6; Colitis Eb21: 60; Cough Eb21: 60; Depurative Standley,1931; Dermatosis Liogier; Diabetes* Eb21: 62, Eb30: 140, Wong; Diabetes Mellitis Woi.6; Digestive Eb21: 62; Dysentery Ayensu, Eb21: 60, Eb30: 140, Wong; Dysmenorrhea Eb21: 60; Dyspepsia Al-Rawi; Eczema Eb25: 420; Emetic Eb21: 62; Emmenagogue Gupta; Eruption Eb21: 60; Eye(Veterinary) Eb21: 62; Fatality Eb21: 62; Fever Ayensu, Eb24: 361, Eb30: 140, Woi.6, Wong; Gonorrhea Ayensu; Gout Eb21: 60, Woi.6; Halitosis Bliss, Eb21: 62; Hepatitis Eb21: 60, Woi.6; Hyperglycemia* Eb21: 60, Eb30: 140; Hypertension Eb30: 140, Wong; Insecticide Gupta; Itch Eb21: 60; Jaundice Al-Rawi, Eb21: 62; Kidney Eb21: 62; Lactogogue Eb21: 62; Laxative Ayensu, Brutus; Leprosy Al-Rawi, Ayensu, Duke,19, Eb21: 60, Eb21: 62, Eb28: 12; Liver Al-Rawi; Malaria Duke,1972, Eb21: 60, Eb21: 61, Eb30: 140, Liogier, Wong; Malignancy Eb21: 62, Hartwell; Medicinel Pittier; Melancholy Al-Rawi; Night-Blindness Eb21: 62; Piles Al-Rawi, Eb21: 60; Poison* Lewis, Duke,1972, Eb21: 62; Psoriasis Eb21: 62; Purgative Eb21: 60, Eb21: 62, Martinez; Refrigerant Al-Rawi, Bliss, Woi.6; Renitis Liogier; Rheumatism Eb21: 60, Eb30: 140, Woi.6, Wong; Roundworms Ayensu; Scabies Martinez; Skin Eb21: 62, Liogier; Soap Duke,1972; Sore Ayensu, Eb21: 62, Eb28: 12, Martinez; Spleen Al-Rawi; Splenitis Eb21: 60, Woi.6; Stomachic Woi.6; Stone Eb21: 62; Styptic Eb21: 62; Swelling Ayensu; Thrush Eb21: 60; Tonic Woi.6; Tumor Hartwell; Urethritis Ayensu, Eb21: 60; Vermifuge* Woi.6, Al-Rawi, Eb21: 60, Eb30: 140, Martinez, Uphof, Woi.6, Wong; Wound Eb21: 60; Yaws Ayensu


Chemicals in: Lablab purpureus (L.) SWEET (Fabaceae) -- Bonavist Bean, Hyacinth Bean, Lablab Bean 2'-HYDROXYGENISTEIN Hypocotyl 36 ppm; JLI

3-O-GLUCOPYRANOSYLGIBBERELLIN-A4 Plant: DUKE1992A

ALANINE Seed 420 - 11,775 ppm DUKE1992A

ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID Seed 70 - 577 ppm DUKE1992A

ARGININE Seed 880 - 19,365 ppm DUKE1992A

ARSENIC Seed 0.02 ppm; DUKE1992A

ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 7.7 - 63.6 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,063 ppm; DUKE1992A

ASH Fruit 10,000 - 56,818 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 6,400 - 52,762 ppm DUKE1992A

ASPARTIC-ACID Seed 2,560 - 31,130 ppm DUKE1992A

BETA-CAROTENE Seed 0.66 - 5.44 ppm DUKE1992A

CALCIUM Fruit 500 - 2,841 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 500 - 4,122 ppm DUKE1992A

CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 100,000 - 568,182 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 91,900 - 757,628 ppm DUKE1992A

COPPER Seed 9 - 16 ppm DUKE1992A

CYSTINE Seed 460 - 3,792 ppm DUKE1992A

FAT Fruit 1,000 - 5,682 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 2,000 - 16,488 ppm DUKE1992A

FIBER Fruit 20,000 - 113,636 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 13,000 - 107,172 ppm DUKE1992A

GLUTAMIC-ACID Seed 1,720 - 42,815 ppm DUKE1992A

GLYCINE Seed 10,280 - 11,345 ppm DUKE1992A

HEMAGGLUTININE-A Seed: DUKE1992A

HEMAGGLUTININE-B Seed: DUKE1992A

HISTIDINE Seed 1,090 - 8,986 ppm DUKE1992A

IRON Fruit 16.7 - 94.9 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 7.4 - 61 ppm DUKE1992A

ISOLEUCINE Seed 2,180 - 17,972 ppm DUKE1992A

KILOCALORIES Seed 194 - 3,795 /kg DUKE1992A

LAURIC-ACID Seed: DUKE1992A

LEUCINE Seed 1,450 - 22,355 ppm DUKE1992A

LINOLEIC-ACID Seed 10 - 82 ppm DUKE1992A

LYSINE Seed 190 - 18,000 ppm DUKE1992A

MAGNESIUM Seed 400 - 5,505 ppm DUKE1992A

MANGANESE Seed 39 ppm; DUKE1992A

METHIONINE Seed 140 - 2,105 ppm DUKE1992A

MYRISTIC-ACID Plant 30 - 247 ppm DUKE1992A

NIACIN Fruit 8 - 45 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 5.2 - 42.87 ppm DUKE1992A

OLEIC-ACID Seed 950 - 7,832 ppm DUKE1992A

PALMITIC-ACID Seed 560 - 4,617 ppm DUKE1992A

PALMITOLEIC-ACID Seed 10 - 82 ppm DUKE1992A

PANTOTHENIC-ACID Plant: DUKE1992A


PHENYLALANINE Seed 380 - 13,285 ppm DUKE1992A

PHOSPHORUS Fruit 600 - 3,409 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 490 - 4,800 ppm DUKE1992A

POTASSIUM Seed 2,520 - 20,775 ppm DUKE1992A

PROLINE Seed 1,070 - 12,822 ppm DUKE1992A

PROTEIN Fruit 45,000 - 255,682 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 21,000 - 173,125 ppm DUKE1992A

RIBOFLAVIN Seed 0.92 - 7.58 ppm DUKE1992A

SERINE Seed 13,150 - 14,510 ppm DUKE1992A

SODIUM Seed 20 - 260 ppm DUKE1992A

STEARIC-ACID Seed 90 - 742 ppm DUKE1992A

THIAMIN Seed 0.77 - 12 ppm DUKE1992A

THREONINE Seed 1,430 - 11,789 ppm DUKE1992A

TRYPTOPHAN Seed 880 - 7,255 ppm DUKE1992A

TYROSINASE Seed: DUKE1992A

TYROSINE Seed 1,550 - 12,788 ppm DUKE1992A

VALINE Seed 1,430 - 13,670 ppm DUKE1992A

WATER Fruit 824,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 878,000 ppm; DUKE1992A

ZINC Seed 75 - 93 ppm DUKE1992A


Ethnobotanical uses

Lablab purpureus (FABACEAE)

Ache(Ear) Eb24: 252; Antidote(Fish poison) Bliss; Antidote(Plant poisons) Bliss; Antivinous Bliss; Blindness Eb24: 252; Carminative Bliss; Cholera Bliss; Diarrhea Bliss; Epilepsy Eb24:; Fever Bliss; Leucorrhea Bliss; Megalospleny Eb24: 252; Menorrhagia Bliss; Poison* Lewis; Poultice Bliss; Preventitive(Gray-Hair) Bliss; Sunstroke Bliss; Swelling Eb24: 252; Thirst Bliss; Throat Eb24: 252; Tonic Bliss; Tumor Hartwell


Chemicals in: Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis (L.) VERDC. (Fabaceae) -- Asparagus Bean, Pea Bean, Yardlong Bean ALANINE Seed 11,090 - 12,111 ppm DUKE1992A

ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID Fruit 700 - 5,761 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 2,580 - 2,817 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 440 - 4,305 ppm DUKE1992A

ALUMINUM Seed 6 - 840 ppm DUKE1992A

AMYLOSE Seed 108,420 - 111,200 ppm DUKE1992A

ANTIMONY Seed 0.031 ppm; DUKE1992A

ARACHIDIC-ACID Seed 86 ppm; DUKE1992A

ARGININE Fruit 1,960 - 16,131 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 16,850 - 18,401 ppm DUKE1992A

ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 56 - 2,633 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 16 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 360 - 3,523 ppm DUKE1992A

ASH Fruit 6,000 - 49,383 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 39,270 - 45,132 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 10,500 - 102,740 ppm DUKE1992A


BARIUM Seed 1 - 60 ppm DUKE1992A

BEHENIC-ACID Seed 380 ppm; DUKE1992A

BETA-AMYLASE Seed: DUKE1992A

BETA-CAROTENE Fruit 1.5 - 72 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 0.3 ppm; DUKE1992A Shoot 0.7 - 6.9 ppm DUKE1992A

BORON Seed 3 - 60 ppm DUKE1992A

CALCIUM Fruit 500 - 4,115 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,255 - 1,643 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 630 - 6,164 ppm DUKE1992A

CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 83,500 - 687,243 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 619,000 - 676,095 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 48,200 - 471,624 ppm DUKE1992A

CERIUM Seed 0.1 ppm; DUKE1992A

CESIUM Seed 0.005 - 0.174 ppm DUKE1992A

CHLORINE Seed 100 ppm; DUKE1992A

CHOLINE Seed 2,020 ppm; DUKE1992A

CHROMIUM Seed 3.6 ppm; DUKE1992A

COBALT Seed 1.2 ppm; DUKE1992A


CYSTINE Fruit 420 - 3,457 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 2,690 - 2,938 ppm DUKE1992A

ERUCIC-ACID Fruit 130 - 1,070 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 120 - 753 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 80 - 783 ppm DUKE1992A

EUROPIUM Seed 0.002 ppm; DUKE1992A

FAT Fruit 4,000 - 32,922 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 13,100 - 14,306 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 2,500 - 24,462 ppm DUKE1992A

FIBER Seed 47,700 - 52,090 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 13,000 - 127,202 ppm DUKE1992A

FOLACIN Fruit 8.9 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 6.5 - 7.2 ppm DUKE1992A

GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATASE Seed: DUKE1992A

GLUTAMIC-ACID Seed 43,190 ppm; DUKE1992A


GLYCEROPHOSPHATASE Leaf: DUKE1992A

GLYCINE Seed 8,550 ppm; DUKE1992A

HISTIDINE Fruit 900 - 7,407 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 7,550 - 8,245 ppm DUKE1992A

IRON Fruit 1 - 69 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 86 - 94 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 19 - 188 ppm DUKE1992A

ISOLEUCINE Fruit 1,500 - 12,346 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 9,890 - 10,800 ppm DUKE1992A

KILOCALORIES Fruit 470 - 3,868 /kg DUKE1992A Seed 3,470 - 3,789 /kg DUKE1992A Shoot 290 - 2,837 /kg DUKE1992A

LEAD Seed 0.4 - 8.4 ppm DUKE1992A

LEUCINE Fruit 2,000 - 16,461 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 18,640 - 20,356 ppm DUKE1992A

LIGNOCERIC-ACID Seed 104 ppm; DUKE1992A

LINOLEIC-ACID Fruit 960 - 7,901 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,080 - 3,364 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 600 - 5,871 ppm DUKE1992A

LINOLENIC-ACID Seed 1,168 ppm; DUKE1992A

LYSINE Fruit 1,840 - 15,144 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 16,460 - 17,975 ppm DUKE1992A

MAGNESIUM Fruit 374 - 4,160 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,141 - 3,952 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 430 - 4,207 ppm DUKE1992A

MANGANESE Seed 16 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A

MERCURY Seed 0.58 ppm; DUKE1992A

METHIONINE Fruit 400 - 3,292 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,460 - 3,779 ppm DUKE1992A

MOLYBDENUM Seed 8 ppm; DUKE1992A

MUFA Fruit 360 - 2,963 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,140 - 1,245 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 220 - 2,153 ppm DUKE1992A

MYRISTIC-ACID Fruit 10 - 82 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 10 - 11 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 10 - 98 ppm DUKE1992A

NIACIN Fruit 1 - 59 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 21 - 24 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 11.2 - 110 ppm DUKE1992A

NICKEL Seed 6 ppm; DUKE1992A

OLEIC-ACID Fruit 210 - 1,728 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,140 - 1,245 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 130 - 1,272 ppm DUKE1992A

PALMITIC-ACID Fruit 840 - 6,913 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,180 - 3,473 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 530 - 5,185 ppm DUKE1992A

PALMITOLEIC-ACID Fruit 10 - 82 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 20 - 60 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 10 - 98 ppm DUKE1992A

PANTOTHENIC-ACID Seed 15 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A

PHENYL-PHOSPHATASE Leaf: DUKE1992A

PHENYLALANINE Fruit 1,540 - 12,675 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 14,210 - 15,518 ppm DUKE1992A

PHOSPHORUS Fruit 590 - 4,856 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 5,342 - 6,375 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 90 - 881 ppm DUKE1992A

PHOSPHORYLASE Seed: DUKE1992A

PHYTIC-ACID Seed 5,100 - 10,270 ppm DUKE1992A


POTASSIUM Fruit 2,101 - 22,212 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 11,570 - 12,635 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 4,550 - 44,520 ppm DUKE1992A

PROLINE Seed 14,050 ppm; DUKE1992A

PROTEIN Fruit 28,000 - 230,453 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 238,800 - 270,598 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 41,000 - 401,174 ppm DUKE1992A

PUFA Fruit 1,690 - 13,909 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 5,650 - 6,170 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 1,060 - 10,372 ppm DUKE1992A

PYROPHOSPHATASE Leaf: DUKE1992A

RAFFINOSE Seed 4,000 ppm; DUKE1992A

RIBOFLAVIN Fruit 1.1 - 9 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 2.3 - 2.6 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 1.8 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A

RUBIDIUM Seed 13 - 39 ppm DUKE1992A

SCANDIUM Seed 0.001 - 0.005 ppm DUKE1992A

SELENIUM Seed 0.014 - 0.14 ppm DUKE1992A

SERINE Seed 12,030 ppm; DUKE1992A

SFA Fruit 1,050 - 8,642 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,390 - 3,702 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 660 - 6,458 ppm DUKE1992A

SILVER Seed 0.027 ppm; DUKE1992A

SODIUM Fruit 39 - 333 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 170 - 186 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 70 - 685 ppm DUKE1992A

STACHYOSE Seed 20,000 ppm; DUKE1992A

STARCH Seed 390,000 - 400,000 ppm DUKE1992A

STEARIC-ACID Fruit 130 - 1,070 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 200 - 218 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 80 - 783 ppm DUKE1992A

STIGMASTEROL Seed 250 ppm; DUKE1992A

STRONTIUM Seed 2 - 60 ppm DUKE1992A

SUCCINOXIDASE Sprout Seedling: DUKE1992A

SUCROSE Seed 15,000 ppm; DUKE1992A

THIAMIN Fruit 0.8 - 10 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 9 - 10 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 3.5 - 35 ppm DUKE1992A

THREONINE Fruit 1,040 - 8,560 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 9,260 - 10,112 ppm DUKE1992A

TIN Seed 0.743 ppm; DUKE1992A

TITANIUM Seed 0.2 - 84 ppm DUKE1992A

TRYPTOPHAN Fruit 320 - 2,634 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,000 - 3,276 ppm DUKE1992A

TYROSINE Fruit 1,150 - 9,465 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 7,860 - 8,584 ppm DUKE1992A

VALINE Fruit 1,620 - 13,333 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 11,600 - 12,688 ppm DUKE1992A

VANADIUM Seed 0.21 - 2.4 ppm DUKE1992A

VERBASCOSE Seed 31,000 ppm; DUKE1992A

VIGNAFURAN Plant: DUKE1992A

VIT-B-6 Seed 3.7 - 4 ppm DUKE1992A

WATER Fruit 872,000 - 884,560 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 890,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 83,120 - 85,480 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 897,800 ppm; DUKE1992A


YTTRIUM Seed 0.21 - 2.4 ppm DUKE1992A


ZIRCONIUM Seed 0.8 - 2.4 ppm DUKE1992A


Ethnobotanical uses

Vigna unguiculata (FABACEAE)

Adenopathy Eb24: 252; Anus Eb24: 252; Astringent Woi.3; Bilious Woi.Syria; Breath Bliss; Burn Eb24: 252; Cyanogenetic Woi.Syria; Diarrhea Bliss; Diuretic Woi.3; Dysentery Eb24: 252; Dysuria Eb24: 252; Fistula Eb24: 252; Jaundice Woi.Syria; Kidney Bliss; Leprosy Eb24: 252; Liver Woi.Syria; Measles Eb24: 252; Nausea Bliss; Neuralgia Eb24: 252; Nutritive Brutus; Pleurisy Eb24: 252; Pneumonia Eb24: 252; Polyuria Bliss; Prolapse Eb24: 252; Rinderpest Eb24: 252; Smallpox Eb24: 252; Sore Eb24: 252; Stomach Bliss; Thirst Bliss; Tonic Woi.3; Tumor Eb24: 252


Chemicals in: Cajanus cajan (L.) HUTH (Fabaceae) -- Pigeonpea 2'-0'METHYLCAJANONE Root: GMJ

2'-HYDROXYGENISTEIN Plant: JLI

5,7,2'-TRIHYDROXYISOFLAVONE Root: GMJ

ALANINE Seed 8,170 - 10,870 ppm DUKE1992A

ALPHA-AMYRIN Root: GMJ

ARGININE Seed 11,280 - 14,530 ppm DUKE1992A

ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 320 - 1,601 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,279 ppm; DUKE1992A

ASH Fruit 13,000 - 51,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 185,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Plant 58,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 14,000 - 46,000 ppm DUKE1992A


BETA-AMRYIN Root: GMJ

BETA-CAROTENE Fruit 0.4 - 4 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 0.84 - 4.6 ppm DUKE1992A

BETA-SITOSTEROL Leaf: GMJ

CAJAFLAVANONE Root: GMJ

CAJAISOFLAVONE Root: GMJ

CAJANIN Seed: DUKE1992A

CAJANONE Plant: DUKE1992A

CAJAQUINONE Root: GMJ

CALCIUM Fruit 350 - 2,022 ppm DUKE1992A Plant 8,900 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 290 - 1,540 ppm DUKE1992A

CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 217,000 - 747,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 636,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Plant 668,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 213,000 - 714,000 ppm DUKE1992A

CONCAJANIN Seed: DUKE1992A


CYSTINE Seed 1,880 - 2,800 ppm DUKE1992A

FAT Fruit 6,000 - 20,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 69,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Plant 60,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 6,000 - 55,354 ppm DUKE1992A

FERREIRIN Plant: DUKE1992A

FIBER Fruit 3,500 - 352,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 183,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Plant 308,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 21,380 - 108,000 ppm DUKE1992A

GENISTEIN Root: GMJ JLI

GLUTAMIC-ACID Seed 40,790 - 56,270 ppm DUKE1992A

GLYCINE Seed 6,860 - 8,970 ppm DUKE1992A

HISTIDINE Seed 7,090 - 8,655 ppm DUKE1992A

IRON Fruit 17 - 56 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 13 - 62 ppm DUKE1992A

ISOGENISTEIN-7-0-GLUCOSIDE Root Bark: JLI

ISOLEUCINE Seed 6,990 - 8,780 ppm DUKE1992A

KILOCALORIES Fruit 1,140 - 3,860 /kg DUKE1992A Seed 1,170 - 3,974 /kg DUKE1992A

LEUCINE Seed 13,110 - 17,325 ppm DUKE1992A

LINOLEIC-ACID Seed 7,780 - 24,472 ppm DUKE1992A


LINOLENIC-ACID Seed 350 - 1,114 ppm DUKE1992A

LUPEOL Root: GMJ

LYSINE Seed 13,750 - 17,010 ppm DUKE1992A

MANGANESE Seed 17 - 21 ppm DUKE1992A

METHIONINE Seed 1,860 - 2,720 ppm DUKE1992A

MUFA Seed 120 - 135 ppm DUKE1992A

NIACIN Fruit 18 - 75 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 22 - 77 ppm DUKE1992A

OLEIC-ACID Seed 120 - 381 ppm DUKE1992A

PALMITIC-ACID Seed 3,070 - 9,642 ppm DUKE1992A

PANTOTHENIC-ACID Seed 6.8 - 20 ppm DUKE1992A

PHENYLALANINE Seed 16,020 - 20,780 ppm DUKE1992A

PHOSPHORUS Fruit 1,240 - 4,888 ppm DUKE1992A Plant 2,400 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 1,270 - 4,500 ppm DUKE1992A

POTASSIUM Fruit 6,220 - 17,472 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 5,250 - 18,103 ppm DUKE1992A

PROLINE Seed 9,550 - 11,830 ppm DUKE1992A

PROTEIN Fruit 70,000 - 244,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 110,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Plant 214,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 72,000 - 262,972 ppm DUKE1992A

PUFA Seed 8,140 - 9,100 ppm DUKE1992A

RIBOFLAVIN Fruit 1.6 - 6.9 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1.7 - 8 ppm DUKE1992A

SERINE Seed 9,780 - 11,500 ppm DUKE1992A

SFA Seed 3,300 - 3,690 ppm DUKE1992A

SODIUM Seed 156 - 205 ppm DUKE1992A

STEARIC-ACID Seed 240 - 733 ppm DUKE1992A

STIGMASTEROL Leaf: GMJ

THIAMIN Fruit 3.4 - 12.4 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 4 - 13 ppm DUKE1992A

THREONINE Seed 7,190 - 8,580 ppm DUKE1992A

TRYPTOPHAN Seed 1,580 - 2,370 ppm DUKE1992A

TYROSINE Seed 4,510 - 6,015 ppm DUKE1992A

VALINE Seed 9,130 - 10,480 ppm DUKE1992A

VIT-B-6 Seed 3 - 4 ppm DUKE1992A

WATER Fruit 644,000 - 694,000 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 99,000 - 695,000 ppm DUKE1992A




Ethnobotanical uses

Cajanus cajan (L.)HUTH (FABACEAE)

Cough Burkill,1966; Dermatosis Burkill,1966; Diarrhea Burkill,1966; Earache Burkill,1966; Enteritis Burkill,1966; Sore Burkill,1966

Abdomen Eb22: 98; Antidote* Eb30: 126, Wong, Bliss, Eb30: 126, Wong; Antidote(Fish) Eb29: 317; Antidote(Manihot) Liogier; Astringent Standley; Bite(Bat) Duke,1972, Eb24: 355; Bronchitis Eb22: 98; Ciguatera Eb29: 317; Cold Eb22: 98; Colic Eb24: 247; Convulsion Eb24: 247; Cough Eb22: 98; Detersive Standley; Diarrhea Eb22: 98; Diuretic Standley; Dysentery Standley; Expectorant Bliss; Flu Eb30: 126, Wong; Gargle Liogier; Jaundice Liogier; Laxative Standley; Leprosy Eb24: 247; Pectoral Liogier; Sedative Bliss; Soporific Woi.2; Sore Altschul; Sore(Throat) Liogier; Stroke Eb30: 126, Wong; Swelling Altschul; Tumor Hartwell; Tumor(Abdomen) Hartwell; Urticaria Liogier; Vermifuge Bliss; Vertigo Eb22: 98; Vulnerary Bliss, Brutus, Liogier, Standley; Witchcraft Eb30: 126, Wong

Murraya koenigii (RUTACEAE)

Ethnobotanical uses

Anodyne Woi.6; Bruise Woi.6; Carminative Woi.6; Diarrhea Woi.6; Dysentery Woi.6; Eruption Woi.6; Kidney Woi.6; Nausea Woi.6; Stomachic Woi.6; Tonic Uphof, Woi.6


Chemicals in: Colocasia esculenta (L.) SCHOTT (Araceae) -- Taro ALANINE Root 730 - 2,485 ppm DUKE1992A

ALUMINUM Leaf 18 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 3.9 ppm; DUKE1992A

AMYLOPECTIN Root 176,400 - 188,640 ppm DUKE1992A

AMYLOSE Root 68,600 - 73,360 ppm DUKE1992A

ARABINOSE Root 3,200 - 8,560 ppm DUKE1992A

ARGININE Leaf 2,200 - 15,340 ppm DUKE1992A Root 1,030 - 3,510 ppm DUKE1992A

ASCORBIC-ACID Leaf 69 - 3,625 ppm DUKE1992A Root 325 ppm; DUKE1992A

ASH Leaf 13,000 - 155,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 8,000 - 63,000 ppm DUKE1992A

ASPARTIC-ACID Root 1,920 - 6,540 ppm DUKE1992A

BETA-CAROTENE Leaf 18 - 298 ppm DUKE1992A Root 0.8 ppm; DUKE1992A

BORON Leaf 3.6 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 0.9 - 7 ppm DUKE1992A

CALCIUM Leaf 260 - 17,400 ppm DUKE1992A Root 130 - 3,780 ppm DUKE1992A

CALCIUM-OXALATE Leaf 4,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 430 ppm; DUKE1992A

CARBOHYDRATES Leaf 48,000 - 640,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 200,000 - 885,000 ppm DUKE1992A

CAROTENOIDS Leaf 5 - 7.3 ppm DUKE1992A Root 0.07 - 0.2 ppm DUKE1992A

COPPER Leaf 1.5 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 1.6 - 8 ppm DUKE1992A

CYSTINE Leaf 640 - 4,465 ppm DUKE1992A Root 320 - 1,090 ppm DUKE1992A

FAT Leaf 6,000 - 107,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 1,000 - 16,000 ppm DUKE1992A

FIBER Leaf 12,000 - 150,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 6,100 - 37,000 ppm DUKE1992A

GALACTOSE Root 35,200 - 94,100 ppm DUKE1992A

GLUTAMIC-ACID Root 1,740 - 5,925 ppm DUKE1992A

GLYCINE Root 740 - 2,520 ppm DUKE1992A

HEMICELLULOSE Root: DUKE1992A

HISTIDINE Leaf 1,140 - 7,950 ppm DUKE1992A Root 340 - 1,160 ppm DUKE1992A

HOMOGENTISIC-ACID Rhizome: DUKE1992A

IRON Leaf 6 - 200 ppm DUKE1992A Root 4 - 200 ppm DUKE1992A

ISOLEUCINE Leaf 2,600 - 18,130 ppm DUKE1992A Root 540 - 1,840 ppm DUKE1992A

KILOCALORIES Leaf 310 - 3,280 /kg DUKE1992A Root 920 - 3,820 /kg DUKE1992A

LEUCINE Leaf 3,920 - 27,335 ppm DUKE1992A Root 1,110 - 3,780 ppm DUKE1992A

LINOLEIC-ACID Leaf 2,140 - 14,925 ppm DUKE1992A Root 580 - 1,975 ppm DUKE1992A

LINOLENIC-ACID Leaf 930 - 6,485 ppm DUKE1992A Root 250 - 850 ppm DUKE1992A

LYSINE Leaf 2,460 - 17,155 ppm DUKE1992A Root 670 - 2,280 ppm DUKE1992A

MAGNESIUM Leaf 200 - 3,140 ppm DUKE1992A Root 200 - 1,350 ppm DUKE1992A

MANGANESE Leaf 45 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 1.3 - 7.6 ppm DUKE1992A

METHIONINE Leaf 790 - 5,510 ppm DUKE1992A Root 200 - 680 ppm DUKE1992A

MUCILAGE Root 40,000 - 10,700 ppm DUKE1992A

MUFA Leaf 600 - 4,185 ppm DUKE1992A Root 160 - 454 ppm DUKE1992A


NIACIN Leaf 8 - 105 ppm DUKE1992A Root 4 - 40 ppm DUKE1992A

OLEIC-ACID Leaf 600 - 4,185 ppm DUKE1992A Root 160 - 545 ppm DUKE1992A

OXALATE Leaf 4,260 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 650 ppm; DUKE1992A

OXALIC-ACID Root 1,334 ppm; DUKE1992A

PALMITIC-ACID Leaf 1,310 - 9,135 ppm DUKE1992A Root 350 - 1,190 ppm DUKE1992A

PHENYLALANINE Leaf 1,950 - 13,600 ppm DUKE1992A Root 820 - 2,795 ppm DUKE1992A

PHOSPHORUS Leaf 490 - 5,800 ppm DUKE1992A Root 460 - 5,204 ppm DUKE1992A

PHYTOSTEROLS Root 190 - 650 ppm DUKE1992A

POTASSIUM Leaf 4,370 - 51,774 ppm DUKE1992A Root 3,230 - 21,760 ppm DUKE1992A

PROLINE Root 600 - 2,045 ppm DUKE1992A

PROTEIN Leaf 24,000 - 347,280 ppm DUKE1992A Root 10,000 - 112,000 ppm DUKE1992A

PUFA Leaf 3,070 - 21,410 ppm DUKE1992A Root 830 - 2,825 ppm DUKE1992A

RIBOFLAVIN Leaf 3 - 35 ppm DUKE1992A Root 0.2 - 1.6 ppm DUKE1992A

SAPONIN Root: DUKE1992A

SAPOTOXIN Root: DUKE1992A

SERINE Root 920 - 3,135 ppm DUKE1992A

SFA Leaf 1,510 - 10,530 ppm DUKE1992A Root 410 - 1,400 ppm DUKE1992A

SODIUM Leaf 20 - 484 ppm DUKE1992A Root 7 - 480 ppm DUKE1992A

STARCH Leaf 700 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 245,000 - 262,000 ppm DUKE1992A

STEARIC-ACID Plant 200 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 60 - 205 ppm DUKE1992A

SUGAR Leaf 9,200 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 10,000 - 11,000 ppm DUKE1992A

SULFUR Leaf 240 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 85 - 565 ppm DUKE1992A

THIAMIN Leaf 1.3 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A Root 0.3 - 5 ppm DUKE1992A

THREONINE Leaf 1,670 - 11,645 ppm DUKE1992A Root 690 - 2,350 ppm DUKE1992A

TRYPTOPHAN Leaf 480 - 3,345 ppm DUKE1992A Root 230 - 785 ppm DUKE1992A

TYROSINE Leaf 1,780 - 12,415 ppm DUKE1992A Root 550 - 1,875 ppm DUKE1992A

URONIC-ACID Root 800 - 2,140 ppm DUKE1992A

VALINE Leaf 2,560 - 17,850 ppm DUKE1992A Root 820 - 2,790 ppm DUKE1992A

WATER Leaf 810,000 - 900,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 660,530 - 754,000 ppm DUKE1992A

ZINC Leaf 6.6 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 5 - 66 ppm DUKE1992A



Ethnobotanical uses

Colocasia esculenta (ARACEAE)

Abortifacient Eb23: 105; Ache(Ear) Duke,1972; Alopecia Duke,1972; Anodyne Eb23: 105; Antidote Bliss, Duke,1972; Astringent Woi.2; Athlete's-Foot Wong; Bite(Bug) Bliss; Boil Eb28: 4; Cancer(Nose) Hartwell; Carminative Bliss; Cyanogenetic Eb23: 105, Eb30: 400; Dyspepsia Bliss, Eb23: 105; Intoxicant Eb23: 105; Laxative Eb25: 248; Morphea Eb23: 105; Mycosis(Veterinary) Eb23: 105; Parturition Bliss; Pediculicide Bliss; Piles Tackholm; Poison Bliss, Eb23: 105; Polyp Hartwell; Poultice Eb23: 105; Rubefacient Duke,1972; Scleroderma Eb23: 105; Sore Eb23: 105; Stimulant Duke,1972; Sting(Wasp) Duke,1972; Styptic Duke,1972, Eb23: 105, Woi.2; Thrush Eb23: 105; Tubercle Eb23: 105; Tumor Hartwell; Vermifuge Eb23: 105; Wart Hartwell

Parturition Burkill,1966; Wound Burkill,1966

Anthrax Eb24: 249; Atrophy Eb24: 249; Bronchitis Eb24: 249; Cachexia Eb24: 249; Cough Eb24: 249; Tuberculosis Eb24: 249; Wound Eb24: 249