increasing awareness of military women leadership

8/12/2019 Increasing Awareness of Military Women Leadership

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INCREASING AWARENESS OF MILITARY WOMEN LEADERSHIP

By

Dr. Scena B. Webb

March 12, 2014

copyright 2014 Scena B. Webb


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The following presentation identifies a social change designed to increase

awareness of military women leaders and their transferable leadership styles.

Understanding change dynamics requires competency with literature on change. The

following discussion begins with change theories in psychology and a review of the

evidence for change. Speculation on what needs to take place to implement a change

concerning women military leaders ends the discussion. Specifically, changing social

awareness through changing values is the chosen method. Key elements on changing

values form the essence of the proposed strategy implanting the needed change. The next

section in the paper begins with a review of applicable change theories.

Psychological change theory

Landmark research dating back into the 1970s serves as the foundational

explanation of social identity theory (Tajfel, 1979), that offers insight on how a person

identifies with a group, as an essential element of how they perceive themselves. Group

membership is an extension of identity and becomes social identity. In tandem, Hoggs

historical work on a social theory of leadership focuses on group processes (Hogg, 2001)

which also lay the foundation for this discussion. Both theories taken together serve as

the framework to understanding how society can change the perception of military

leadership to include women. The individual and group levels of change are the starting

points for change in society.

Group membership in the military allows a level of social identity. The shared

values of various groups in the military create leaders who instill these values. For the

U.S. Air Force, the core values are integrity first, service before self, and excellence in all


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we do (U.S. Air Force, n.d.). For the U.S. Army, the core values are loyalty, duty,

respect, selfless service, honor, integrity, and personal courage (U.S. Army, n.d.). For the

U.S. Coast Guard, the core values are honor, respect, and devotion to duty (U.S. Coast

Guard, n.d.). For the U.S. Marine Corp, the core values are honor, courage, commitment

and semper fidelis is the motto that binds the group (U.S. Marine Corps, n.d.). For the

U.S. Navy, the core values are honor, courage, and commitment (U.S. Navy, n.d.).

Reviewing the core values for the various groups of military personnel highlights

norms of honor, courage, commitment, and devotion to duty. These values are important

elements of group formation in military leadership. Women who retire from the military

represent a minimum of 20 years leading others from the values paradigm. Social

identity theory and social identity theory of leadership are best to understand societal

change toward women military leadership because the underpinnings of both theories rest

on groups being social constructs. The next section presents a review and analysis of

evidence for change.

Review and analysis of evidence for change

Changes in society often take place because of some act or event. For example,

legislation that allows women to serve in combat has sparked a social change in the

consciousness of military leadership (Dvorak, 2013; Fishel, 2013; Wasikowska, 2012).

The shift is real and measurable (Blanton, 2013), at the same time; the shift is a paradox

when compared to images of military leadership. One paradox stems from recent

military psychology literature that asserts specific traits and skill for effective military

leadership that are gender neutral (Hannah, Jennings, & Nobel, 2010; Laurence, 2011),

yet images portrayed in movies on military leadership depict men. The demonstration of


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confidence in women military leaders is evident by the passage of laws that allow women

in combat. The crux of this discussion is to argue that society has shown openness to

women as military leaders and the need for media to follow.

The power of imagery in change processes is not a new phenomenon. Psychology

scholars have a history demonstrating a strong connection between change and imagery

(Hirsch, Clark, & Mathews, 2006; Hirsch, Clark, & Mathews, 2007; Holmes, Mathews,

Dalgleish, & Mackintosh, 2006). Movies are a major influence of social norms. For

example, military movies depicting people in combat situations rarely show women in

leadership, such as Jarhead produced in 2005 about a former Marines pre-Desert Storm

experiences in Saudi Arabia and experiences fighting in Kuwait (Wick & Fisher, 2005).

In 2001, Black Hawk Down was released, which told the story of 123 elite U.S. soldiers

drop into Somalia to capture two top lieutenants of a renegade warlord and find

themselves in a desperate battle with a large force of heavily-armed Somalis

(Bruckheimer & Scott, 2001).

An extensive search for military movies that display women in combat leadership

roles as the heroin resulted in the movie, Courage Under Fire, released in 1996, based

loosely on an investigation to award a woman the Medal of Honor posthumously. The

film shows courage, bravery, and leadership during a nighttime attack on a Black Hawk

that was shot down (Davis, Singer, & Friendly, 1996). The historical account provides

details that the female officer was not in a combat situation, but Dr. Mary Edwards

Walker was awarded the Medal of Honor.

Media in the newspaper has given attention to images of military women because

of the shift toward women in combat. As presented earlier, imagery is an important


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aspect of social awareness. Fox News (Blanton, 2013; Fishel, 2013) and The New York

Times (Wasikowska, 2012) bring a social awareness to women in combat. In contrast,

The Washington Post (Dvorak, 2013) shifts the focus to recognizing that women have

already been fighting and dying in the military. Yet movies portraying military stories

within the last ten years do not reflect women in action (Bruckheimer & Scott, 2001;

Wick & Fisher, 2005). Gender representation is not the focus of this presentation; the

focus is to show evidence that media portrayal of women military leaders influences

societal change.

Scholarly discussions on military leadership, as mentioned earlier, tend to focus

on necessary skills needed for military leaders. According to Hannah, Jennings, and

Nobel (2010), leadership is an inherently social process that combines social identity

and metacognition skills developing within military experience (p. 414). Skill sets

necessary for the tactical military leader includes knowledge structures about the military

environment, adaptability in quickly changing situations, and metacognitive skills, all of

which are gender neutral. By comparison, Bartone (2006) focuses on resilience that

military leaders show when dealing with environmental changes. The essence of

Bartones research is the belief that effective military leaders can transfer resilient

responses to stress to the troops.

A review and analysis of evidence supporting imagery as a vehicle for societal

change is the essence of the paper. Scholarly literature on women in combat is sparse

consequently there is more reliance on medias version supporting news reports of

societal changes that highlight women in combat roles. Highlighting a few essential

skills of effective military leaders conveys how those skills are inherent with being a


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military leader. There is no relation between gender and effective military leadership;

therefore, changing the mental mind scape of what a military leader looks like is

paramount. A discussion on what needs to take place to implement societal change

follows.

Speculation of what needs to take place to implement societal change

The culmination of thought about how to implement societal change begins with

ethical decisions with research, advocates using media coverage and movie depictions to

increase social awareness. A review of changes on collective thought appears next.

Change on individual and group levels is the central theme. An idea on a triadic

approach to change ends the discussion.

High levels of ethics are paramount among professional psychologists.

Competency in research and service is an obligation for psychology practitioners.

According to Vasquez (2012), much of psychological science and knowledge is relevant

to social justice. Change that acknowledges military contributions of women and their

capabilities in combat embraces the image that military leadership looks like both men

and women. Using media coverage to enhance the images of military women leaders

serves to work jointly with the realities of current legislation.

A second approach to implement change with regard to women as military leaders

comes in the form of changing value perceptions about women. Earlier in the discussion,

core values for each major branch of the military share a common theme of honor,

courage, commitment (U.S. Army, n.d.; U.S. Coast Guard, n.d.; U.S. Marine Corps, n.d.)

that are gender neutral, yet there are few films that depict women demonstrating these

values in combat. Values have strong connections to feelings and attitudes toward


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(Knight, Richert, & Brownfield, 2012). Changing attitudes toward military leadership

may be the key to changing corresponding values.

Greenberg (2012) reported on multi-level theories on the role of emotions in the

process of change. The meta-analytical work advances the argument of the possibility to

change emotion with emotions. For example, strong emotions on the dangers of war in

the military soften with the introduction that the possibility of danger is inherent in war

situations. The research on emotional connections and change has support. An online

opinion poll posed the following question, Can women survive on the frontlines of

war?, and the results reflect that 68% of respondents believe yes, while 32% do not

believe so (Debates, n.d.). Responses to the blog post have strong emotional appeals

around the topic. The proposed research study intends to continue in the path of using an

emotional appeal to change public perceptions about women as military leaders.

Changes in collective thought on psychology

Changes in social conditions change the nature of social relations. The

beginnings of social psychology are traceable to a French scholar named Auguste Comte

(1798-1857) who formalized the study of individuals with respect to social relations

(Sica, 2009). Some researchers point to the turbulent times of the 1960s as the change

agent responsible for causing a shift from psychoanalysis to humanistic psychology

(Cosgrove, 2007; Hergenhahn, 2009). Taken from the perspective of the humanistic

experience, women military leaders have begun partaking in a self-actualization process

as combat leaders. The study of social psychology has changed over the years in tandem

with changes in society.


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Perceptions on whether changes are good or bad have a place in discussions that

deals with societal interactions. As a budding social psychologist, the proposed research

study continues in the tradition of social psychology as a scientific discipline seeking to

understand the relationship between individuals and social interaction (Mills, 2009). The

following sections are persuasive arguments using a hierarchy for societal change that

begins at the individual level and ends at the societal level.

Change on an individual level

Conceiving change, according to Knight, Richert, and Brownfield (2012) is most

effective when using the clients perspective on change. The results of two studies gave

insight into the power of individual choice in accepting change. The compilation of

themes from the individual perspective of change showed that change takes place, in part,

through reflection, emotion, adaptation, thinking, situational factors, and courage.

Complimentary research on how mind-sets matter when self-regulating behaviors

(Burnette, et al., 2013) extends the relationship between an individuals perspective on

change. Behavior becomes important to the discussion on women as military leaders

because news media has produced reports on how women perform in combat situations

(Armour, 2013).

Women have been serving for years in the military assisting in combat situations.

Accounts of women in life-threatening scenarios do not normally receive news coverage

unless a tragic events happens (Armour, 2013). These women are mothers, daughters,

spouses, aunts, and competent military leaders. Women who share military experiences

will also leave the military and enter into civilian life. Goal setting may become an

important tool for reintegration and subsequently, self-regulation tools will be integral.


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Media coverage such as articles that highlight the roles women hold in combat situations

are effective tools to change individual mindsets on the capabilities of women in the

military.

Change on a group level

The need to belong to groups comes from an innate human need and an

evolutionary need for safety in numbers (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2011). Some scholars

believe there is a desire for social cognition (Faifua, 2011), while others report

membership in groups a selfish need to belong to people who can offer something

(Wilson, 2012). The complexity of group formation makes a definitive answer for why

almost impossible. However, what is known is that groups serve a purpose of

membership, belonging to something bigger than the one individual, a movement of

sorts. Membership in the military groups fits appropriately into the military slogans such

as, Its not a job, its an adventure for the Navy (Navy Cyber Space, 2010).

Curtis (2012) posits that self-representations form meaning of self- perceptions.

The focus of research here is on the individual, but the concepts are apropos to group

experiences and meanings. For example, scholars on military leadership position strong

characteristics as essential ingredients among strong military leaders (Morath, Leonard,

& Zaccaro, 2011). Engraining these leadership characteristics takes place through group

membership in the military. Conversely, meanings of self-consciousness are developing

in a gender-neutral construct. Group membership among military leaders can therefore

take on the leadership traits during their immersion in the group experience.

Moving the discussion further, direct experiences allow for greater introspection.

The natural outcome of more than 20 years of membership in the military produces a


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capable leader, in the context of the combat military woman. Borrowing from the

individual perspective again, Lamagna (2011) explored the concept of self-relatedness

and attachment theory on an individual level and from a clinical perspective. The

premise of the research describes a dyadic interpersonal process that helps self-

regulation. For example, when a person experiences a roller coaster ride for the first

time, the first emotion may be fright, and another emotion calms the self. The

interpersonal dynamics of the two emotions are self-regulation. In the context of change

at the group level, a similar inter-group dynamic appears when reviewing the comments

of a poll about women in combat situations (Debates, n.d.).

The paradoxical relationship between scholarly literature that provides insight

into characteristics, and skills needed to lead in combat situations and the mixed emotions

about if women can lead effectively in combat, demands further research. One plausible

approach to societal change is using a triadic system that includes introducing new values

about women in combat, increasing images of women in combat through movies and

news coverage, and introducing personal narratives from retired military women.

A triadic approach for change on a societal level

The first element in the approach for change focuses on values. Values, as

discussed in the introduction to this section, serve as indirect attitude changers.

According to Blankenship, Wegener, and Murray (2012), challenges to values rarely

happen. The argument presented in this work is that people build up resistance to change

by drawing on familiar attacks, such as attacking what someone likes or dislikes.

However, value systems are normally left unchallenged making them the best route to


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change. Taking an indirect route to change through persuasive messages toward values

may increase the rate of change.

Similar research on using values as a tool focuses on providing rational contexts

for change that align with current values (Bardi, Lee, Hofmann-Towfigh, & Soutar,

2009). In this context, the argument that as people move along the continuum of life,

natural shifts in values take place. During these shifts, if new insights or social causes

develop, a persons values may change as well. Shifts in collective thought take place

during presidential elections because of media attention given to particular topics. Using

the same logic, shifts in collective thought can take place if more attention focuses on

military women in combat positions.

The goal of using values as a tool for societal change is to move away personal

attacks. Linking societal change to the value system that honor, courage, and

commitment are admirable should produce change that accepts women military leaders

who embody the traits. One proposal to enhance value-latent change is through media.

Speculating what needs to take place to implement a change about women military

leaders is challenging when considering there are many variables that affect change. A

reflection of social change with women in combat appears in Table 1 below.

Table 1

Review of media coverage through news articles

Reflecting social change Type of publication Authors & Year of publication

Women in combat CNN online news article Armour (2013)

Voting on women in combat Fox online news article Blanton (2013)

Women already fighting Washington Post online Dvorak (2013)

Women in combat New York Times online Wasikowska (2012)

The Pentagons First Pair Time online news article Thompson (2012)

of Four-Star Women


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Should women serve? Debate online blog Navy Cyber Space (2010)

In contrast to the news articles that have imagery depicting women in combat,

Table 2 reflects recent movies portrayals of military leadership void of women.

Table 2

Review of media coverage through motion pictures

Reflecting military leaders Type of publication Authors & Year of

publication

Jarhead Motion picture Wick & Fisher (2005)

Black Hawk down Motion picture Brickheimer & Scott (2001)

Note. There have been no military movies produced in the United States that depict women in the military

as heroes, or in command of battalions, groups, or aggressively leading troops.

A comparison of Tables 1 and 2 show how imagery and media coverage can

reflect social change by conceptualizing what military leadership looks like. For

example, news media has taken the lead in educating society on the developments of

women in the military. The motion picture industry in America has yet to produce more

films that portrays military women in heroic action. This discussion speculating what

needs to take place to implement a change about women military leaders is not on gender

representation, but an argument for increased media imagery to help contextualize

military leadership in society.

The second element is the need for increased media coverage and movie

depictions of women military leaders. If the news and movie industry display accordant

images of military women in leadership, society will have a coherent message about what

military leadership. One way to increase news coverage and movie imagery is to produce

more movies that tell the stories of military women leaders. For example, a report of the


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Pentagons first pair of four-star female generals came from Times online news

periodical known for coverage of the Washington, DC area (Thompson, 2012). The story

of these women could complement the news article through a film production.

The last of the three elements of this triadic approach to societal change is a need

for coherency in psychology literature. The position here is that persuasive literature

toward unified thought may be helpful when working toward change on a societal level.

There is agreement that persuasion is an effective tool to incorporate change (Baumert &

Schmitt, 2012; DeSteno, et al., 2004; Dillard & Peck, 2000). A summary of literature on

change, which supports this section, appears in Table 3 to illustrate diversity among

scholars.

Table 3

Review of analyzed change literature in psychology

Topic Publication Authors & Year of publication

Emotions American Psychologist Greenberg (2012)

Emotions Journal of Personality & DeSteno, et al., (2004)

Social Psychology

Group dynamics International Journal of Faifua (2011)

Interdisciplinary Social Sciences

Human introspection Journal of Psychotherapy Knight, Richert, & Brownfield

(2012)

Integration

Imagery Behavior Therapy Hirsch, Clark, & Matthews

(2006)

Imagery Behavior Research & Therapy Hirsch, Clark, & Matthews(2007)

Imagery Behavior Therapy Holmes, et al. (2006)

Military leadership traits Military Psychology Bartone (2006)

Military leadership traits Military Psychology Hannah, Jennings, & Nobel

(2010)


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Military leadership traits Military Psychology Morath, Leonard, & Zaccaro

(2011)

Military leadership traits Military Psychology Lawrence (2011)

Mindsets Psychological Bulletin Burnette, et al. (2013)

New experiences & meaning Psychoanalytic Psychology Curtis (2012)

Self-regulation Journal of Psychotherapy Lamagna (2011)

Intervention

Values Journal of Personality & Blankenship, Wegener, &

Murray Social Psychology (2012)

Values Journal of Personality & Bardi, Lee, Hoffmann-Towfigh,

& Social Psychology Soutar (2012)

Note. The literature is gender neutral.

In conclusion, essence of the discussions focus on the societal change with respect

to the role military women plays in combat leadership positions. The goal to present an

argument for a population that has limited scholarly research remains the challenge.

Social awareness through news media has the lead reporting change as legislation opens

for women in combat. Film does not reflect military women in leadership roles. The

empirical evidence in scholarly psychology literature is gender neutral focusing on traits

and characteristics. News media coverage intertwines images of women in combat with

relevant events in American military culture.

Using a triadic approach for what needs to happen in the future to strengthen the

evidence on increased societal awareness incorporates values, media, and scholarly

literature. Tables provide descriptive information to support the arguments throughout

the discussion. As a doctoral learner in general psychology, the reliance on all areas of

psychology perspectives was intentional. American militaries are embracing the

contributions of women leaders and acknowledging the appropriateness of their skills in

combat. The scarcity of scholarly literature highlighting the accomplishments of women


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in combat necessitated a heavy reliance on news and media attention to this social

change. The interest in societal change for women leaders in the military is two-fold,

first because of 21 years experience serving as a military member, and second, to add to

literature about military women leadership past gender representation.


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